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: | : {{distinguish|text= the [[Lahob languages]]}} | ||
[[Lakovic languages/Lexicon|Lexicon of Proto-Lakovic roots]]<br/> | |||
[[Lakovic languages/Swadesh list|Swadesh lists for the Lakovic languages]]<br/> | |||
[[Lakovic languages/Sketchbook]] | [[Lakovic languages/Sketchbook]] | ||
{{Infobox language family | {{Infobox language family | ||
| setting = [[Verse: | | setting = [[Verse:Hmøøh|Hmøøh]] | ||
| region = | | region = Bjeheond, Talma, Etalocin, Txapoalli | ||
| name = Lakovic | | name = Lakovic | ||
| familycolor = lakovic | | familycolor = lakovic | ||
| family = One of | | family = One of Hmøøh's primary language families | ||
| protoname = Proto-Lakovic | | protoname = Proto-Lakovic | ||
| child1 = [[ | | child1 = [[Naengic languages|Naengic]] | ||
| child2 = | | child2 = Häskä | ||
| child3 = | | child3 = Tseer | ||
| child4 = | | child4 = Tumhanic | ||
| child5 = Txapoallian | | child5 = Txapoallian Lakovic | ||
| child6 = Pfiunic | |||
}} | }} | ||
The '''Lakovic languages''' (/ləˈkoʊvɪk/ ''lə-KOH-vik''; [[ | The '''Lakovic languages''' (/ləˈkoʊvɪk/ ''lə-KOH-vik''; [[Naeng]]: ''fi imbrits Lăcof'' <small>Bjeheondian:</small> [vɪ (ʔ)ɪmˈbrits ləˈkaov]) are a major [[Verse:Hmøøh|Hmøøhian]] language family, originally native to [[Verse:Hmøøh/Bjeheond|Bjeheond]]. The most populous members of the family are the Nakwax dialect continuum spoken in Txapoalli, the [[Æ]] language of northwest Taivíor, and the (usually mutually intelligible) vernaculars derived from Classical Tseer. The family is inspired by Semitic, Mon-Khmer and Austronesian languages. | ||
The family is named after *lakof, the PLak reconstructed word for 'human'. *lakof is the etymon of [[Naeng]] ''Wen Lăchua'' '(poetic) [[Verse:Hmøøh/Wen Dămea|Wen Dămea]]', [[Tseer]] ''lakow'' 'free', and several other ethnonyms of Lakovic-speaking peoples such as [[Dak'ox]]. | |||
{{Windermere sidebar}} | |||
==Todo== | ==Todo== | ||
Language with dissimilated reduplicated plurals/verbs | Language with dissimilated reduplicated plurals/verbs | ||
some confusion between derivational affixes and trigger/applicatives in Ashanic | some confusion between derivational affixes and trigger/applicatives in Ashanic | ||
| Line 32: | Line 32: | ||
an ergative Lakovic language | an ergative Lakovic language | ||
a Lakovic language with a | a Txapoallian Lakovic language with a possessed classifier system | ||
A Dinka-like language | |||
==Urheimat== | |||
The Proto-Lakovic urheimat is thought to have been [[Verse:Hmøøh/Bjeheond|Bjeheond]], based on the distribution of the family and reconstructed Proto-Lakovic vocabulary for Bjeheondian fauna and flora and Mediterranean-climate rainy winters and dry summers. | |||
===Proto-Lakovic culture=== | |||
==Phylogeny== | ==Phylogeny== | ||
Most scholars agree on the following major branches: | |||
*[[ | *[[Naeng languages|Naengic]] (aka Ashanic) | ||
**[[ | **[[Naeng/Classical|Classical Naeng]] | ||
***[[ | ***[[Naeng|Modern Naeng]] | ||
***[[Sătmașian]] | ***[[Sătmașian]] | ||
***[[Trây]] | ***[[Trây]] | ||
***[[Pradiul]] | ***[[Pradiul]] | ||
* | *Tseeric | ||
**Classical Tseer | |||
**Classical | ***Modern [[Tseer]] | ||
***Modern [[ | |||
*[[Häskä]] | *[[Häskä]] | ||
* [[Shalaian]] | |||
*[[Pfiunian]] dialect continuum (Pseudo-Swiss German) | |||
*Txapoallian Lakovic | *Txapoallian Lakovic | ||
* | **[[Tsăloșian]] dialect continuum (near Sowaazhpi) | ||
**[[!Zoom]] | **Lakwax/Dakwax/Nakwax (Ejective-y head-final language; influenced [[Naquian]]) | ||
* Lakovic isolates: | |||
** [[!Zoom]] | |||
** [[Æ]] | |||
== | ==Phonology== | ||
The reconstructed phonology of PLak | |||
===Consonants=== | ===Consonants=== | ||
{| class=" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan=2 | | ! colspan=2 | | ||
! | Labial | ! | Labial | ||
! | Dental | ! | Dental/Alveolar | ||
! | | ! | Lateral | ||
! | Palatal | ! | Palatal | ||
! | Velar | ! | Velar | ||
! | Laryngeal | ! | Laryngeal | ||
|-align=center | |-align=center | ||
! colspan="2" | Nasal | ! colspan="2" | Nasal | ||
| '''m''' /m/ | | '''*m''' /m/ | ||
| '''n''' /n/ | | '''*n''' /n{{den}}/ | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| '''ŋ''' /ŋ/ | | '''*ŋ''' /ŋ/ | ||
| | |||
|-align=center | |||
! rowspan="3" | Plosive | |||
! <small>voiceless</small> | |||
| '''*p''' /p/ | |||
| '''*t''' /t{{den}}/ | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| '''*k''' /k/ | |||
| '''*ʔ''' /ʔ/ | |||
|-align=center | |-align=center | ||
! <small>voiced</small> | ! <small>voiced</small> | ||
| '''b''' /b/ | | '''*b''' /b/ | ||
| '''d''' /d/ | | '''*d''' /d{{den}}/ | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| '''g''' /ɡ/ | | '''*g''' /ɡ/ | ||
| | | | ||
|-align=center | |-align=center | ||
! <small> | ! <small>implosive</small> | ||
| ''' | | '''*ƀ''' /ɓ/ | ||
| ''' | | '''*đ''' /ɗ/ | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
|-align=center | |-align=center | ||
! colspan="2" | Affricate | ! colspan="2" | Affricate | ||
| | | | ||
| '''c''' / | | '''*c''' /t͡{{den}}s{{den}}/ | ||
| '''ć''' / | | '''*ć''' /t͡ɬ/ | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
|-align=center | |-align=center | ||
! colspan="2" | Fricative | ! colspan="2" | Fricative | ||
| | | '''*f''' /ɸ/ | ||
| '''s''' /s/ | | '''*s''' /s{{den}}/ | ||
| '''ś''' / | | '''*ś''' /ɬ/ | ||
| '''š''' /ʃ/ | | '''*š''' /ʃ/ | ||
| '''*x''' /χ/ | |||
| ''' | | '''*h''' /ɦ/ | ||
|-align=center | |-align=center | ||
|- | |- | ||
|-align=center | |-align=center | ||
! colspan="2" | Resonant | ! colspan="2" | Resonant | ||
| '''w''' /w/ | | '''*w''' /w/ | ||
| ''' | | '''*r''' /r/ | ||
| ''' | | '''*l''' /l{{den}}/ | ||
| '''y''' /j/ | | '''*y''' /j/ | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
|} | |} | ||
The voiceless stops '''p t k ts tś''' were weakly aspirated like Japanese voiceless stops. | |||
'''m n l r''' could be syllabic in unstressed affixes. | |||
===Vowels=== | ===Vowels=== | ||
''i u e o | ''i u e o ă a'' | ||
''ă'' is thought to have been short /a/ or /ɐ/ while ''a'' was long /aː/. ''a'' could not occur unstressed and regularly reduced to ''ă''. | |||
===Phonotactics=== | ===Phonotactics=== | ||
Proto-Lakovic | Proto-Lakovic was dominated by CV or CVC syllables. Some prefixes and infixes resulted in CC- initials. | ||
==Proto-Lakovic morphology== | ==Proto-Lakovic morphology== | ||
===Root structure=== | ===Root structure=== | ||
Roots consisted of | Roots consisted of a sequence of consonants plus an inherent vowel. There was schwebeablaut: the vowel could change position within the root. The roots could be of the form | ||
#biconsonantal roots alternating between CVC and CCV. Example: sep ~ spe 'to walk' | |||
#triconsonantal roots alternating between CCVC, CVCC, and CVCVC. Example: ptsun ~ putsn ~ putsun 'to live' | |||
#4-consonant roots like cpalg ~ cplag 'to cry out' (Wdm. ''tspong'' 'to demand' and ''tsloc'' 'to cry out') | |||
Statistically, biconsonantal roots in Lakovic are somewhat more common than in Semitic; triconsonantal roots are derived from biconsonantals via root extensions. One example is *Hedn "being" and *Hdek "to inhabit", both derived from the root *Hed "to exist". | |||
Various prefixes, infixes and suffixes were added to derive words. Some infixes had 2 allomorphs, either as an infix or as a prefix: C<əC>CVC or C-CVC/C-CVCC. | |||
Three-consonant roots had 3 ablaut grades, traditionally called: | |||
*'''Verbal grade''': CCVC | |||
*'''Nominal grade''': CVCC | |||
*'''Long nominal grade''': CVCVC | |||
The CVCC grade had some reflexes with either the first C assimilating into V or the second C (explain some words like muad, yar or -b, -d finals) | |||
The long nominal grade first arose in Late Proto-Lakovic: the nominal grade CVCC turned to CVCVC when doing so epenthesized less "nice" consonant clusters. Then CVCVC became analyzed as a new ablaut grade. | |||
====Weak roots==== | |||
''Weak roots'' such as *yriš 'to think' and *săpQ 'to pull' have irregularities in their allomorphs, like weak roots in Semitic. The weak consonants are y, w, H, and Q. | |||
With week roots, either the verbal stem (e.g. ''yriš'' > ''riš'') or the nominal stem (''sap''' > ''sap'' 'to pull, to drag') or both are shortened, and either drops or assimilates the weak consonant. This leads to apparent irregularities like nominal yirš ~ verbal riš. | |||
===Nouns=== | ===Nouns=== | ||
Nouns were pluralized by reduplication | Nouns were pluralized by total reduplication: | ||
*''lăkof'' 'person' > ''lăkof-lăkof'' 'people' | |||
*''lban'' 'water > ''lban-lban'' 'a lot of water' | |||
Nouns had no morphological case; genitive noun phrases were formed by concatenation. | Nouns had no morphological case; genitive noun phrases were formed by concatenation. | ||
Naengic developed a new associative plural suffix ''-am'', from PLak ''păm'' 'that; those (distal demonstrative)' (the ''-am'' in Modern Windermere plural pronouns ''łănam'', ''ănam''). | |||
===Pronouns=== | ===Pronouns=== | ||
Most branches of Lakovic show evidence for the following PLak pronouns: | |||
*'' | |||
*'' | *''*riH'' = I | ||
*'' | *''*băŋ'' = we (dual inclusive) | ||
*'' | *''*śen'' = thou | ||
*'' | *''*śens'' = thou (hon) | ||
*'' | *''*ʔin'' = s/he | ||
*''*ʔins'' = s/he (hon) | |||
PLak had no plural pronouns; it made do with associative plurals or demonstratives instead. | |||
===Verbs and adjectives=== | ===Verbs and adjectives=== | ||
Verbs inflected for triggers, TAM, pluractionality, and | Proto-Lakovic was a verb-heavy language: verbs contained enough information that a sentence could consist of just a verb, and context made sense of the meaning. | ||
Verbs inflected for triggers, TAM, pluractionality, evidentiality, and gender agreement. Present-day Lakovic languages preserve these inflections to varying levels. | |||
====TAM==== | |||
The following verb affixes marked lexical aspect and voice/transitivity/denominality. | |||
*unmarked or li- = imperfective | |||
*-H = perfective | |||
*hem- = change of state for statives? | |||
*various reduplifixes for other TAMs: | |||
**F(M)ă- = iterative | |||
**FaL- = intensive | |||
**{{angbr|iL}}, qol-{{angbr|iL}}- almost X, X a little | |||
**săL- = inceptive | |||
**HenFă- = frequentative | |||
**tăFi- = graduative | |||
**ongFă- = X for oneself, X in advance | |||
* {{angbr|ăp}} | |||
* {{angbr|ăŋ}} | |||
* {{angbr|it}} | |||
* {{angbr|ăm/năm}} | |||
* {{angbr|ăg}} | |||
* {{angbr|kăm}} | |||
* {{angbr|lis}} | |||
* | ====Nominalization==== | ||
* | The most common ways to form deverbal nouns were: | ||
*Using the nominal grade CVCC of the root | |||
*The {{angbr|ăy}} infix | |||
*using instrument, place and agent affixes. | |||
===Derivational morphology=== | ===Derivational morphology=== | ||
*{{angbr| | ====Schwebeablaut==== | ||
** | Three-consonant roots had 3 ablaut grades, traditionally called: | ||
*{{angbr| | *'''Verbal grade''': CCVC | ||
**Ashanic {{angbr|àr}}, Wdm. {{angbr|ră}} | *'''Nominal grade''': CVCC | ||
*{{angbr| | *'''Long nominal grade''': CVCVC | ||
*'' | The distinction is best preserved in non-Talman Lakovic languages, and to an extent Naeng; the Talman ones went fast and loose with ablaut grades just like most branches of IE did. | ||
*'' | |||
* | ====Root extensions==== | ||
There is much evidence that the truly basic roots were CVC~CCV roots, and CVCC~CCVC roots were derived from CVC~CCV via suffixing a third root consonant. | |||
*'' | *ngit = to happen | ||
**Wdm. ''yă-'', | **ngitw~ngtiw = new | ||
====Affixes==== | |||
*{{angbr|-s}}: honorific, nominalization | |||
**Source of breathy voice ablaut in Wdm. | |||
*{{angbr|r}} prefix or infix: non-volitional or passive verbs | |||
**Ashanic *{{angbr|àr}}, Wdm. {{angbr|ră}}, {{angbr|ngăr/măr}} | |||
*{{angbr|ăy}} = deverbal noun | |||
*{{angbr|ong}} = place noun | |||
*{{angbr|X}} = agentive or instrument | |||
**Wdm root vowel breathiness | |||
*{{angbr|ăf}} = verb forming prefix or infix | |||
**Wdm initial voicing, sometimes also breathy root vowel | |||
*bif- = agentive | |||
**Wdm. ''pă-'' + voicing (not productive) | |||
**Tseer ''ba-'' | |||
*xă- = resultative (passive in Windermere) | |||
*t- = intensive, denominals | |||
**Wdm. ''th-'' or ''t-'' (not productive) | |||
*Qu- = intensive | |||
**Wdm. ''th-u-'' | |||
*yă- = adjectivizer; from ''yă'' 'with' | |||
**Wdm. ''yă-'', Tseer ''xi-'', Häskä ''yə-'' | |||
* ''f-'' = negative; the opposite or undoing of X | |||
**not productive in Wdm | |||
** Tseer ''ø-'' | |||
==Proto-Lakovic syntax== | ==Proto-Lakovic syntax== | ||
Proto-Lakovic had unmarked word order VSO. | |||
===Triggers=== | |||
*''spe-f fit Qopr-is ŋă rif'' (walk-PFV IND height-FEM DIR 1SG) = I walked up high (neutral) | |||
*''s<əŋ>pe-f fit rif ŋă Qopris'' (<DEST>walk-PFV IND 1SG DIR high) = I walked up high (emphasis on "up high") | |||
===Copular sentences=== | |||
Proto-Lakovic was zero-copula (different descendants use different etymologies for the copula). | |||
This caused some triggers to be reinterpreted as noun-deriving affixes in some daughter languages. Demonstration by contrived example, with the instrument trigger: | |||
:'''''p{{angbr|ăk}}tuś fit rif fit Qin ŋă măXokis.''''' | |||
:{{angbr|INST}}stab IND 1SG IND 3SG.M DIR stone-F | |||
:''I stabbed him with the stone.'' | |||
was reinterpreted as something like "The stone was my stabbing-instrument [for piercing] him". | |||
Copular sentences are zero-copula and do not use case markers except ''Hit'': ''biHdaŋ Hit lakoF.'' = 'The person is a soldier/warrior.' | |||
Some "adjectives" are actually prepositional phrases instead of verbs: | |||
''*Xu Qopr fit fedn Xtăr.'' (PRED high.NOM DIR creature black) 'The black one is up high.' | |||
== Sample text == | |||
=== The Round Table === | |||
<!--x = some laryngeal idk what | |||
Pre-Wdm homorganic nasals cause urú in Wdm while heteroganic nasals become homorganic nasals? | |||
Pre-Naengic word for word "reconstruction", not guaranteed to be grammatical in PLak | |||
<poem> | |||
Ngiiθ dur mogor se taχ χaaθ. "Măra łĭnam?" tăbits φin Pĭda Brăwid. | |||
ŋiHt Vntor måŋgår se dak kaHt. "meH ra śenam?" dambic pin bindaq PN. | |||
Mi-ăngnuung căχθaaθ năθa emrĭtsal sen doon: "Șrüχ te-stiiw: taχ mognas, θaφ te-müts θraaφ, liw stăliiw, θaφ te-müts mălsaaχ, taχ mălüüts, doon tălaχ." | |||
"mi ngXnuung katkHat nåtaX hemrecal sen Hdån: "šruk day ătsHiw: dak månknas, tap day amHuc tramp, liw atsalHiw, tak malHuc, n-dHon talak." (implying mp > bh > φ?) | |||
"Ǎna mee ra, srü hĭdeen croθ năθa?" tăbits φin Pĭda Brăwid. | |||
"Ha-na meH ra, sru xeHden gråt nåtaX?" dambic pin bindaq PN. (PLak -aq > -a while -a > *-ā > -o) | |||
"Op cănga, φin Pĭda: tsor pădiχ φnărtaang, te ămsaχ păχwădiχ năθa ya φin croθ φi!" eφθooc φin χaaθ. | |||
Åb gaŋaq, pin Binta: cår bindik panradHaŋ, day Famsak (Fanpsak?) pinkawandik nåtaX yaq pin gråt pi! emp-tHåk(?) pin kaHt. | |||
"Ăruy șa-χaaθ ses tsărüng te sen θăpal φănaw φănaw." esngim șa φin χaaθ φin Pĭda Brăwid. | |||
qaroy šaX-kaHt se se caruŋ sen tapal panaw panaw." empsxngim šaX pin kaHt pin bindaq PN. | |||
</poem> | |||
! | (todo: double check, account for Grassmann. This also omits gender affixes.) | ||
--> | |||
''**ŋift ntor mangār se dak kaft. "mef raq śen ʔam?" dambic pin bindaq PN. mi qangfnung katkfat nataX qemrecal sen Hdān: "šruk day qatsHiw: dak manknas, tap day amfuc ftom, liw qatsalfiw, tak malfuc, n-dHon talak." "fna mef raq, sru fenfden grāt nataX? dambic pin bindaq PN. "gaŋaX, pin bindaq: cār bindik panratfaŋ, day fanpsak binkawantik nataX ya pin grāt pi!" "qaruy šaX-kaft se caruŋ sen tapal panaw panaw." empsfŋim šaX pin kaft pin bindaq PN.'' | |||
=== Another one === | |||
! | |||