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==Sound changes== | |||
# merger of overlong into long vowels | # merger of overlong into long vowels | ||
#: ''*pūkō'' ( < *pūkô) | #: ''*pūkō'' ( < *pūkô) | ||
Line 23: | Line 24: | ||
# f > hw / _V | # f > hw / _V | ||
#: ''*hwehu'' ( < *fehu) | #: ''*hwehu'' ( < *fehu) | ||
# mb > w̃ / V_V | |||
#: ''law̃ah'' ( < *lambaz ) | |||
# þ > s [unconditionally] | # þ > s [unconditionally] | ||
#: ''sat'' ( < *þat), ''wursā'' < ''*wurþā'' ( < *wurdą) | #: ''sat'' ( < *þat), ''wursā'' < ''*wurþā'' ( < *wurdą) | ||
Line 43: | Line 46: | ||
# b > v / V_V | # b > v / V_V | ||
#: ''*averanā'' < ''*aberanā'' ( < *gaberaną), ''ēvā'' < ''*ēbā'' ( < *gebō ) | #: ''*averanā'' < ''*aberanā'' ( < *gaberaną), ''ēvā'' < ''*ēbā'' ( < *gebō ) | ||
# b > w / V_jV | |||
#: ''*haujā'' < ''*habjā'' ( < *habjō) | |||
# d > z / V_V | # d > z / V_V | ||
#: ''māzēr'' < ''*māðēr'' ( < *mōdēr) | #: ''māzēr'' < ''*māðēr'' ( < *mōdēr) | ||
Line 53: | Line 58: | ||
#: ''ējum'' ( < *aigum, {{sc|pres act 1pl}} of *aiganą), ''rīzanā'' ( < *reidaną~rīdaną), ''kiuranā'' ( < *keusaną) | #: ''ējum'' ( < *aigum, {{sc|pres act 1pl}} of *aiganą), ''rīzanā'' ( < *reidaną~rīdaną), ''kiuranā'' ( < *keusaną) | ||
#: ''ērīs'' 'he/she/it frightens' ( < *gaisīþi) cf. ''avajs'' 'he/she/it has' ( < *habaiþi) | #: ''ērīs'' 'he/she/it frightens' ( < *gaisīþi) cf. ''avajs'' 'he/she/it has' ( < *habaiþi) | ||
# /wr/ -> [rʷː] | |||
==Current status== | |||
====1.==== | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | |||
| colspan="8"| a-stems | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="3"| '''hwarhah''' ''m'' piglet | |||
| colspan="2"| '''blātā''' ''n'' sacrifice | |||
|- | |||
! || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural | |||
|- | |||
! Vocative | |||
| hwarh | |||
| hwarhāh | |||
| colspan=2 rowspan=3| blātā | |||
|- | |||
! Nominative | |||
| hwarhah | |||
| hwarhāh | |||
|- | |||
! Accusative | |||
| hwarhā | |||
| hwarhann | |||
|- | |||
! Genitive | |||
| hwarhah | |||
| hwarhō | |||
| blātah | |||
| blātō | |||
|- | |||
! Dative | |||
| hwarhaj | |||
| hwarhamah | |||
| blātaj | |||
| blātamah | |||
|- | |||
! Instrumental | |||
| hwarhā | |||
| hwarhamah | |||
| blātā | |||
| blātamah | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
===ō=== | |||
These will probably merge to some extent with the a-stems of ''n'' gender. | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | |||
| colspan="3"| "ō-stems" | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="3"| '''ēvā''' ''f'' gift | |||
|- | |||
! || Singular || Plural | |||
|- | |||
! Vocative | |||
| rowspan="2"|ēvā | |||
| rowspan="3"|ēvāh | |||
|- | |||
! Nominative | |||
|- | |||
! Accusative | |||
| ēvō | |||
|- | |||
! Genitive | |||
| ēvāh | |||
| ēvō | |||
|- | |||
! Dative | |||
| ēvāj | |||
| rowspan="2"|ēvāmah | |||
|- | |||
! Instrumental | |||
| ēvā | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
====2.==== | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | |||
| colspan="5"| "i-stems" | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="3"| '''astih''' ''m'' guest | |||
| colspan="2"| '''mare''' ''n'' sea | |||
|- | |||
! || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural | |||
|- | |||
! Vocative | |||
| astih | |||
| astīh | |||
| mare | |||
| marī | |||
|- | |||
! Nominative | |||
| astih | |||
| astīh | |||
| mare | |||
| marī | |||
|- | |||
! Accusative | |||
| astī | |||
| astinn | |||
| mare | |||
| marī | |||
|- | |||
! Genitive | |||
| astīh | |||
| astjjō | |||
| marīh | |||
| marjō | |||
|- | |||
! Dative | |||
| astī | |||
| astimah | |||
| mare | |||
| marimah | |||
|- | |||
! Instrumental | |||
| astī | |||
| astimah | |||
| mare | |||
| marimah | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
====3.==== | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | |||
| colspan="8"| u-stems | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="3"| '''attuh''' ''m'' hat | |||
| colspan="2"| '''hweho''' ''n'' cattle | |||
|- | |||
! || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural | |||
|- | |||
! Vocative | |||
| atto | |||
| attīh | |||
| hweho | |||
| hwehū | |||
|- | |||
! Nominative | |||
| attuh | |||
| attīh | |||
| hweho | |||
| hwehū | |||
|- | |||
! Accusative | |||
| attū | |||
| attunn | |||
| hweho | |||
| hwehū | |||
|- | |||
! Genitive | |||
| attauh | |||
| attjō | |||
| hwehauh | |||
| hwehjō | |||
|- | |||
! Dative | |||
| attī | |||
| attumah | |||
| hwehī | |||
| hwehumah | |||
|- | |||
! Instrumental | |||
| attī | |||
| attumah | |||
| hwehī | |||
| hwehumah | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
====4.==== | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | |||
| colspan="8"| an-stems | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="3"| '''umā''' ''m'' soldier | |||
| colspan="2"| '''aujā''' ''n'' eye | |||
|- | |||
! || Singular || Plural || Singular || Plural | |||
|- | |||
! Vocative | |||
|umā | |||
|umnīh | |||
|aujā | |||
|aujānā | |||
|- | |||
! Nominative | |||
|umā | |||
|umnīh | |||
|aujā | |||
|aujānā | |||
|- | |||
! Accusative | |||
|umnū | |||
|umnunn | |||
|aujā | |||
|aujānā | |||
|- | |||
! Genitive | |||
|umnīh | |||
|umnō | |||
|auhnih | |||
|aujanō | |||
|- | |||
! Dative | |||
|umnī | |||
|ummah | |||
|auhnī | |||
|aujamah | |||
|- | |||
! Instrumental | |||
|umnī | |||
|ummah | |||
|auhnī | |||
|aujamah | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
====5.==== | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | |||
| colspan="8"| on-stems | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="3"| '''hwiwalsā''' ''f'' butterfly | |||
|- | |||
! || Singular || Plural | |||
|- | |||
! Vocative | |||
|hwiwalsō | |||
|hwiwalsānih | |||
|- | |||
! Nominative | |||
|hwiwalsā | |||
|hwiwalsānih | |||
|- | |||
! Accusative | |||
|hwiwalsānū | |||
|hwiwalsānunn | |||
|- | |||
! Genitive | |||
|hwiwalsānih | |||
|hwiwalsānō | |||
|- | |||
! Dative | |||
|hwiwalsāne | |||
|hwiwalsāmah | |||
|- | |||
! Instrumental | |||
|hwiwalsāne | |||
|hwiwalsāmah | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
====6.==== | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | |||
| colspan="8"| īn-stems | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="3"| '''hrārī''' ''f'' wisdom | |||
|- | |||
! || Singular || Plural | |||
|- | |||
! Vocative | |||
|hrārī | |||
|hrārīnih | |||
|- | |||
! Nominative | |||
|hrārī | |||
|hrārīnih | |||
|- | |||
! Accusative | |||
|hrārīnū | |||
|hrārīnunn | |||
|- | |||
! Genitive | |||
|hrārīnih | |||
|hrārīnō | |||
|- | |||
! Dative | |||
|hrārīne | |||
|hrārīnāmah | |||
|- | |||
! Instrumental | |||
|hrārīne | |||
|hrārināmah | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
====7.==== | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | |||
| colspan="8"| r-stems | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="3"| '''māzēr''' ''f'' mother | |||
|- | |||
! || Singular || Plural | |||
|- | |||
! Vocative | |||
|māzer | |||
|māzrih | |||
|- | |||
! Nominative | |||
|māzēr | |||
|māzrih | |||
|- | |||
! Accusative | |||
|māzerū | |||
|māzrunn | |||
|- | |||
! Genitive | |||
|māzur | |||
|māzrō | |||
|- | |||
! Dative | |||
|māzre | |||
|māzrumah | |||
|- | |||
! Instrumental | |||
|māzre | |||
|māzrumah | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
Alternative declension: | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | |||
| colspan="8"| r-stems | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="3"| '''māzēr''' ''f'' mother | |||
|- | |||
! || Singular || Plural | |||
|- | |||
! Vocative | |||
|māzerī | |||
|māzrīnih | |||
|- | |||
! Nominative | |||
|māzērī | |||
|māzrīnih | |||
|- | |||
! Accusative | |||
|māzrīnū | |||
|māzrīnunn | |||
|- | |||
! Genitive | |||
|māzrīnih | |||
|māzrīnō | |||
|- | |||
! Dative | |||
|māzrīni | |||
|māzrināmah | |||
|- | |||
! Instrumental | |||
|māzrīne | |||
|māzrīnāmah | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
====8. z-stems==== | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" | |||
| colspan="8"| z-stems | |||
|- | |||
| colspan="3"| '''lamhah''' ''n'' lamb | |||
|- | |||
! || Singular || Plural | |||
|- | |||
! Vocative | |||
|lamhah | |||
|lamhirā | |||
|- | |||
! Nominative | |||
|lamhah | |||
|lamhirā | |||
|- | |||
! Accusative | |||
|lamhah | |||
|lamhirā | |||
|- | |||
! Genitive | |||
|lamhirih | |||
|lamhirō | |||
|- | |||
! Dative | |||
|lamhirī | |||
|lamhirumah | |||
|- | |||
! Instrumental | |||
|lamhirī | |||
|lamhirumah | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
====ix==== | |||
<!-- | |||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
! Ending(s) | ! Ending(s) | ||
Line 149: | Line 545: | ||
| ē | | ē | ||
|} | |} | ||
--> | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:500px;" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:500px;" | ||
<Caption>Early Skājamāl personal pronouns</caption> | <Caption>Early Skājamāl personal pronouns</caption> | ||
Line 167: | Line 563: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Accusative | ! Accusative | ||
| *mek<br />*mik<sup>1</sup> || *unn || *uss || *sek<br />*sik<sup>1</sup> || *innu || * | | *mek<br />*mik<sup>1</sup> || *unn || *uss || *sek<br />*sik<sup>1</sup> || *innu || *ihwih | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Genitive | ! Genitive | ||
| *mīnah || *unnerah || *usserah || *sīnah || * | | *mīnah || *unnerah || *usserah || *sīnah || *innūrah || *ihwerah | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Dative/instrumental | ! Dative/instrumental | ||
| *mih || *unnih || *ussih || *sih || *innwih || * | | *mih || *unnih || *ussih || *sih || *innwih || *ihwih | ||
|} | |} | ||
<small><sup>1</sup> – Unstressed variant</small> | <small><sup>1</sup> – Unstressed variant</small> | ||
====The Lord's Prayer==== | |||
<poem> | |||
hwāzēr usserah, sū īre in himinamah | |||
sījje sīna namā ēlagāh, | |||
wirkijē sīna wiljā, | |||
ekwemē sīna rīkijā, | |||
hwa an ersē hwe an himinamah | |||
ēf daebrauzā ussera himmē daē ussih | |||
hworholēt usserāh skuldin ussih | |||
hwe auk wīh hworlētam san skuldan ussih | |||
nuh bring uss in kūtauh ak eablēzī uss | |||
a uvilammē. | |||
</poem> | |||
====Waka, Wāran==== | |||
<poem> | |||
#Waka Wāran! | |||
#Ērambāt | |||
#Māte hwijannū | |||
#Hwinn sturkī | |||
#Sterrī ak staut! | |||
#Serh annjalausanū derkanū | |||
#Serh gatā stēnō | |||
#Tā annjā! | |||
#Tā daurū! | |||
</poem> | |||
''"Awake Wodan! Pyre-tender! Meet the foe! Find strength! Stand fast and strike! Through endless dark, through gaps of stones. To the end! To death!"'' | |||
===Example sentences=== | ===Example sentences=== | ||
Line 184: | Line 608: | ||
#: sa wulfaz þō fehū ?gaisīþi. ( PIE *'''gheis-''', cf. Goth. ''usgaisjan'') | #: sa wulfaz þō fehū ?gaisīþi. ( PIE *'''gheis-''', cf. Goth. ''usgaisjan'') | ||
#:: 'The wolf terrorizes the cattle.' | #:: 'The wolf terrorizes the cattle.' | ||
==Askājaskā naunā== | |||
===sājanaunā=== | |||
The adjectives of Skájamál are quite peculiar from a sibling perspective - there is no “strong” or “weak” inflection - instead, adjectives are declined for definiteness by a complex process whose origins lie in the ancient addition of a prefix, ''*ja(i)-'', which is usually reflected as ''a-'' before most consonants and disappears before most vowels. However, sound changes and analogical processes make the resultant system quite tricky to navigate. | |||
#preserved pre-consonantal a- | |||
:'''hwēkwaḥ''' vs. '''ahwēkwaḥ''' (weak) | |||
#iotation and loss | |||
:'''ulsīnaḥ''' vs. '''iulsīnaḥ''' (golden);this results from an original *g being preserved as -j- intervocalically and lost initially. | |||
#preserved lenition | |||
:'''bitraḥ''' vs. '''avitraḥ''' (bitter) | |||
#lenition and loss | |||
:'''batistaḥ''' vs. '''vatistaḥ''' (best) | |||
===sansanaunā=== | |||
==Askājaskā wursā== | |||
===ahwēkwā wursā=== | |||
habdō > awdō -> audō -> aujā 1sgpres, audō 1sgpast, aujau 1sgpressubj, audē 1sgpastsubj | |||
#Innovatio I | |||
:The past tense indicative {{sc|1pl}} marker has replaced the equivalent present indicative marker. So, basically a bunch of verbs look a bit like preterite-presents here. | |||
::e.g. '''aujum''' 'we have' ( from an innovated < *'''habjum''', instead of the expected reflex of PGmc. *'''habjamaz''' which would be **aujamah) | |||
#Innovatio II | |||
:Loss of final -i in the ind. pres. ("weak") | |||
:: '''avajs''' 'you have, he has' ( < *'''''habaiþ''''' < PGmc. *'''habaiþi''' AND < *'''''habais''''' < PGmc. *'''habaisi''') | |||
:: | |||
::{|class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
| -jō||-jā | |||
|- | |||
| -aisi||-ajs | |||
|- | |||
| -aiþi||-ajs | |||
|- | |||
| -jum||-jum | |||
|- | |||
| -aiþ||-ajs | |||
|- | |||
| -janþi||-jan | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
#Innovatio III | |||
: The subclasses of w-Class III merge with the stative -ja- spreading into the factitive in the present, while the factitive -a- forms spread to the past. The past participle is formed with *''-adaz'', present with *''-(i)jandz'' | |||
#Innovatio IV | |||
: The spread of -janā to the infinitive from the I and III class to the rest. | |||
::'''wrissājanā''', '''salbājanā''' | |||
====Class I==== | |||
=====s-class I===== | |||
A lot of things happen here: | |||
As for *brūkaną, it's moved into class 2b of the strong verbs but keeps weak participle: briūk-, brauk-, brukadaz -> briūk-, brauk, brukara | |||
then, *būanā joins the third weak class as būjanā (būās, būrāze, būra) | |||
====s-class II==== | |||
todo | |||
====s-class III==== | |||
to a large extent, merged with Class III, with verbs showing alternation between -a- and -i- in the past. | |||
====Class II==== | |||
{|class="wikitable" | |||
!colspan="13"|šemplīas paradịmās: wansājanā (kalaš II - 'mažinatiš') | |||
|- | |||
|colspan="6"| ||present participle: wansānn past participle: wansāraḥ ||colspan="6"| | |||
|- | |||
! ||colspan="6"|indicative||colspan="6"|subjunctive | |||
|- | |||
|colspan="1"| ||colspan="3"|singular||colspan="3"|plural||colspan="3"|singular||colspan="3"|plural | |||
|- | |||
| ||first||second||third||first||second||third||first||second||third||first||second||third | |||
|- | |||
|present||wansā||'''wansās'''||'''wansās'''||wansām||'''wansās'''||wansān||wansō||'''wansā'''||'''wansā'''||wansām||'''wansā'''||wansān | |||
|- | |||
|past||wansārō||'''wansārē'''||'''wansārē'''||wansārzum||wansārzud||wansārzun||'''wansārzī'''||'''wansārzī'''||'''wansārzī'''||wansārzīm||wansārzīd||wansārzīn | |||
|} | |||
====Class III==== | |||
{|class="wikitable" | |||
!colspan="13"|šemplīas paradịmās: aujanā (kalaš III - 'jèmetiš') | |||
|- | |||
|colspan="6"| ||present participle: aujann past participle: avarah ||colspan="6"| | |||
|- | |||
! ||colspan="6"|indicative||colspan="6"|subjunctive | |||
|- | |||
|colspan="1"| ||colspan="3"|singular||colspan="3"|plural||colspan="3"|singular||colspan="3"|plural | |||
|- | |||
| ||first||second||third||first||second||third||first||second||third||first||second||third | |||
|- | |||
|present||aujā||'''avajs'''||'''avajs'''||aujum||'''avajs'''||aujan||aujaū||'''aujai'''||'''aujai'''||aujaim||'''aujai'''||aujain | |||
|- | |||
|past||audō||'''audē'''||'''audē'''||audum||audud||audun||'''audērī'''||'''audērī'''||'''audērī'''||audērīm||audērīd||audērīn | |||
|} | |||
===astarkijā wursā=== | |||
====Class I==== | |||
-ī- -ē- -i- -i- | |||
====Class II==== | |||
a) iu - au - u - u | |||
b) iū - au - u - u < '''Innovatio!''' j- ex a) | |||
====Class III==== | |||
====Class IV==== | |||
====Class V==== | |||
====Class VI==== | |||
====Class VII==== | |||
==Sandhi== | |||
Pronomina often occur in second position (wackernagel), thus sometimes glued onto verb. E.g. | |||
wansā ik → wansājk | |||
wansās sū → wansāru | |||
wansās sa → wansāra | |||
===A man says to another man…=== | ===A man says to another man…=== |