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Standard Lebanese (𐤇𐤃𐤔‎ 𐤃𐤁𐤓𐤉𐤌 ''dabarīm ḥados'') was based on the Central Lebanese dialect. However, the speakers of other dialects and different languages introduced some calques, borrowings and [[w:Phono-semantic_matching|phono-semantic matchings]] of international words. Currently, about 69% of the population speaks Lebanese as a native language, while most of the rest speak it fluently.
Standard Lebanese (𐤇𐤃𐤔‎ 𐤃𐤁𐤓𐤉𐤌 ''dabarīm ḥados'') was based on the Central Lebanese dialect. However, the speakers of other dialects and different languages introduced some calques, borrowings and [[w:Phono-semantic_matching|phono-semantic matchings]] of international words. Currently, about 69% of the population speaks Lebanese as a native language, while most of the rest speak it fluently.
===Maltese and Cypriot Lebanese===
There were several varieties of Phoenician, spoken in Malta and on the island of Cyprus, usually called 𐤃𐤁𐤓𐤉𐤌 𐤐𐤕̇𐤉𐤌 ''dabarīm pūttīm'' (or 𐤃𐤁𐤓𐤉𐤌 𐤀𐤋𐤔𐤉𐤌 ''dabarīm alasēm'' in Cyprus). Phoenician was brought there by traders and settlers in the medieval period following the Arabisation of Lebanon, so neither of these varieties are direct descendants of Punic, which had likely become extinct by that time. Maltese Phoenician died out in Malta, with its former native speakers switched to Maltese, while the Cypriot variety is still being spoken by a small number of speakers. Both are mutually intelligible with Lebanese and are very close to dialects spoken around Sidon. Several unique characteristics of Cypriot Phoenician are: the use of a negative particle 𐤀𐤉 ''ī'' instead of standard Lebanese ''bal'' (used with nouns, suffixing forms and participles) and ''al'' (with prefixing forms of verbs), which it shares with the Sidonian dialect; the presents of vowel "y" [y] instead of Lebanese "i" or "e" ([jy.ˈsal] for ''esˁal'' - "I am asking", [zyθ] for ''edzō'' "this (feminine)", [byn] for ''bin'' "son"), lack of [ʕ] (which also happens in Lebanese) and [ħ], which merges with [x], as well as many loanwords from Greek, for example ''podilat'' "bicycle" (''welō'' or more formal ''bitsiklet'' in Lebanese), ''ḥurōmoth'' "colour" instead of Lebanese ''lūnoth''.
==Phonology==
==Phonology==
Old Phoenician had a typical Semitic consonant inventory, with pharyngeals, a series of "emphatic" consonants (possibly ejective, but this is debated), and in early stages also a lateral fricative /ɬ/, and uvular /χ/ and /ʁ/ sounds. /χ/ and /ʁ/ merged into /ħ/ and /ʕ/ respectively while /ɬ/ merged into /ʃ/. Later in some dialects of Old Phoenician /ʃ/ became indistinguishable from /s/ and /p/, /t/ and /k/ became [[w:Aspirated consonant|aspirated]] [pʰ], [tʰ] and [kʰ], which was represented in Ancient Greek and later in Latin texts. These sounds later changed further into fricatives, this [[w:Begadkefat|process]] did not involve voiced stops, unlike in Aramaic and Biblical Hebrew.The vowel system underwent a [[w:Canaanite shift|Canaanite shift]] - the process, partly shared by Biblical Hebrew, but going further in Phoenician (for example: 𐤓𐤔 ''rūs'', "head", Tiberian Hebrew ''rōš'', ראש).
Old Phoenician had a typical Semitic consonant inventory, with pharyngeals, a series of "emphatic" consonants (possibly ejective, but this is debated), and in early stages also a lateral fricative /ɬ/, and uvular /χ/ and /ʁ/ sounds. /χ/ and /ʁ/ merged into /ħ/ and /ʕ/ respectively while /ɬ/ merged into /ʃ/. Later in some dialects of Old Phoenician /ʃ/ became indistinguishable from /s/ and /p/, /t/ and /k/ became [[w:Aspirated consonant|aspirated]] [pʰ], [tʰ] and [kʰ], which was represented in Ancient Greek and later in Latin texts. Recent scholarship argues that 𐤔 was originally [s], while 𐤎 was [t͡sʰ], which fits well with 𐤆‎ being [d͡z], and 𐤑‎ being [t͡s]. Thus, when the aspirated plosives later changed further into fricatives, 𐤎 also became [s], merging with 𐤔 everywhere. This [[w:Begadkefat|process]] did not involve voiced stops, unlike in Aramaic and Biblical Hebrew (𐤆‎ also remains an affricate). The vowel system underwent a [[w:Canaanite shift|Canaanite shift]] - the process, partly shared by Biblical Hebrew, but going further in Phoenician (for example: 𐤓𐤅𐤔 ''rūs'', "head", Tiberian Hebrew ''rōš'', ראש).


A special reading tradition, called the "religious reading" (𐤒𐤓𐤀𐤕 𐤒𐤃𐤅𐤔𐤕 ''qirī'oth qadūsoth''), has been preserved in liturgical use. In it the emphatic consonants are usually realized as pharyngealized, 𐤒 is a uvular [q], 𐤏 is always pronounced clearly (as [ʕ]), 𐤔 is [ʃ] and voiceless fricatives are often pronounced as aspirated stops in all positions (the latter is not compulsory, however). Nowadays this tradition is slowly dying out, especially among the Catholics, who now always use a regular pronunciation.
A special reading tradition, called the "religious reading" (𐤒𐤓𐤉𐤕 𐤒𐤃𐤅𐤔𐤕 ''qirīyoth qodūsoth''), has been preserved in liturgical use. In it the emphatic consonants are usually realized as pharyngealized, 𐤒 may sometimes be a uvular [q], though usually it's still [k], 𐤏 is always pronounced clearly (as [ʕ]), 𐤔 is [ʃ] (the latter is not compulsory, however). Nowadays this tradition is slowly dying out, especially among the Catholics, who now always use a regular pronunciation.


Modern Lebanese pronunciation developed from a mixture of the different dialects, generally tending towards the Central Lebanese and the dialect of Bêrūth. According to it, emphatic consonants have shifted to their ordinary (but unaspirated) counterparts, /b/ has an allophone [β] before other consonants, and [ɣ] and [ð] are not present. Most Lebanese native speakers still have a contrastive gemination of approximants and nasals, while the gemination of stops is lost almost everywhere, except for the religious pronunciation. Many speakers, whose first language is Aramaic, have [β] and [ɣ] in their speech, but only some people in rural areas have [ð].
Modern Lebanese pronunciation developed from a mixture of the different dialects, generally tending towards the Central Lebanese and the dialect of Bêrūth. According to it, emphatic consonants have shifted to their ordinary (but unaspirated) counterparts, /b/ has an allophone [β] before other consonants, and [ɣ] and [ð] are not present. Most Lebanese native speakers still have a contrastive gemination of approximants and nasals, while the gemination of stops is lost almost everywhere, except for the religious pronunciation. Many speakers, whose first language is Aramaic, have [β] and [ɣ] in their speech, but only some people in rural areas have [ð].
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! {{small|[[w:voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}
! {{small|[[w:voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}
| (β)<ref group=note>Allophone of /b/ before other consonants.</ref>
| (β)<ref group=note>Allophone of /b/ before other consonants.</ref>
| colspan="2" | (z)<ref group=note>Allophone of /d͡z/ usually in foreign words only. Some speakers tend to pronounce 𐤆 as [z] word-initially.</ref>
| colspan="2" | (z)<ref group=note>Allophone of /d͡z/ usually in foreign words only, also before some consonants. Some speakers tend to pronounce 𐤆 as [z] word-initially as well.</ref>
|
|
|
|
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! Pronunciation
! Pronunciation
|-
|-
| 𐤊 kōf || kʰ || x
| 𐤊 kōph || kʰ || x
| la'''kh'''ūn "it might be"
| la'''kh'''ūn "it might be"
| [la.ˈxuːn]
| [la.ˈxuːn]
|-
|-
| 𐤐 pī || pʰ || f
| 𐤐 pī || pʰ || f
| tsi'''f'''er "zero"
| tsi'''ph'''er "zero"
| [ˈt͡sɪ.fer]
| [ˈt͡sɪ.fer]
|-
|-
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|-
|-
|}
|}
Historically, 𐤎 was likely involved in this process too, being [t͡sʰ] and leniting to [s]. Later the remaining [t͡sʰ] also lenited to [s], thus merging with 𐤔 completely.
Lenition is not marked. If the consonant doesn't lenite in a typical position, a line (similar to a macron) is placed above it ( ̄ ). Sometimes a dot ( ̇ ) is placed instead, both are equally correct and the different use is due to artistic preferences.
Lenition is not marked. If the consonant doesn't lenite in a typical position, a line (similar to a macron) is placed above it ( ̄ ). Sometimes a dot ( ̇ ) is placed instead, both are equally correct and the different use is due to artistic preferences.


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| eː (ê)
| eː (ê)
|
|
| oː (ô)
| oː (ō)
|-
|-
! [[w:Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
! [[w:Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
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| ɛː (ē)
| ɛː (ē)
| ɔ (o)
| ɔ (o)
| ɔː (ō)
|
|-
|-
! [[w:Open vowel|Open]]
! [[w:Open vowel|Open]]
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|-
|-
|}
|}
*Historically /a/ could only be a short vowel, because it's long counterpart was lost. In the modern language [aː] appeared from the contraction of [aʕa] after the weakening of /ʕ/ (not indicated in writing), from compensatory lengthening after the loss of [ʔ] in some words (𐤕𐤔̄𐤀 ''tissā'' "you take"), new borrowings (𐤊𐤀𐤓𐤕 ''kārt'', plural ''karahūth'', "credit card") and in some words (''wāw'' - the name for the letter "𐤅", however the variant ''wô'' can often be found in the old texts).
*Historically /a/ could only be a short vowel, because it's long counterpart became pronounced [oː]. In the modern language [aː] appeared from the contraction of [aʕa] after the weakening of /ʕ/ (not indicated in writing), from compensatory lengthening after the loss of [ʔ] in some words (𐤕𐤔̄𐤀 ''tissā'' "you take"), new borrowings (𐤊𐤀𐤓𐤕 ''kārt'', plural ''karahūth'', "credit card") and in some words (''wāw'' - the canonical name for the letter "𐤅", however variants ''wô'' and ''wū'' can often be found in various texts).
There are 12 vowel phonemes in total. They often alternate with each other when the stress shifts or while declining words. In the North Lebanese dialect "ô" merges into "ū" and (along with the Tyrian dialect) "ê" merges into "ī" (thus words, like 𐤌𐤌 mêm "water", are pronounced [miːm]). In Sidonian, however, "ē" typically merges "ê", and "ō" - into "ô". Thus, in general, only 10 distinct phonemes are present in most dialects. Arabic speakers typically also merge short "e", "o" and "a" into a single phoneme that varies from [æ] to [ɒ] depending on its environment. Many North Lebanese speakers also often merge short "e" and "o" into "i" and "u", but it only occures in a colloquial speech, especially when speaking fast.
There are 10 vowel phonemes in total (11 if counting the marginal [aː]). They often alternate with each other when the stress shifts or while declining words. In some Central Lebanese varieties there is a distinct phoneme "ô" (usually pronounced [oː] while "ō" is [ɔː]), while it merged into "ū" in all other dialects, including the stardard Lebanese and in the Northern and Tyrian dialects "ê" merges into "ī" (thus words, like 𐤌𐤌 mêm "water", are pronounced [miːm]). In Sidonian, however, "ē" typically merges "ê" and both are mid [eː]. In modern Lebanese only stressed vowels can be distinctly long or short, while the duration of unstressed vowels is stays more or less the same. Arabic speakers typically also merge some short vowels, called 𐤕𐤍𐤅𐤏𐤅𐤕 𐤒𐤈̇𐤍𐤅𐤕 ''tunūʿūth qiṭannūth'' ("reduced vowels") into a single phoneme that varies from [æ] to [ɒ] depending on its environment. These reduced vowels are pronounced the same as other short vowels, but in Phoenician their pronunciation might have been different. Many North Lebanese speakers also often merge short "e" and "o" into "i" and "u", but it only occures in a colloquial speech, especially when speaking fast.


===Stress===
===Stress===
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==Grammar==
==Grammar==
Modern Lebanese is partly analytic, expressing such forms as dative, ablative, and accusative using prepositional particles rather than morphological cases (a few dialects still retain the old accusative case in some words, but generally the accusative form became the same as the nominative one). On the other hand, Lebanese is also a fusional synthetic language: inflection plays a role in the formation of verbs and nouns (displaying [[w:Nonconcatenative morphology|non-concatenative]] morphology) and pronominal suffixes. For example, 𐤀𐤁-𐤍𐤌 ''abū-nom'' "father-3stPerson.Plural.Possessive", "their father". Like other Semitic languages, Lebanese morphology (the way words are formed) is based on the consonantal root. The root generally consists of two or three consonants and has a basic meaning, for example, 𐤊𐤕𐤁 k-t-b has the meaning of "writing". This is then modified by the addition of vowels and other consonants to create different nuances of the basic meaning:
Modern Lebanese is partly analytic, expressing such forms as dative, ablative, and accusative using prepositional particles rather than morphological cases (a few dialects still retain the old accusative case in some words, but generally the accusative form became the same as the nominative one). On the other hand, Lebanese is also a fusional synthetic language: inflection plays a role in the formation of verbs and nouns (displaying [[w:Nonconcatenative morphology|non-concatenative]] morphology) and pronominal suffixes. For example, 𐤀𐤁-𐤍𐤌 ''abū-nom'' "father-3stPerson.Plural.Possessive", "their father". Like other Semitic languages, Lebanese morphology (the way words are formed) is based on the consonantal root. The root generally consists of two or three consonants and has a basic meaning, for example, 𐤊𐤕𐤁 k-t-b has the meaning of "writing". This is then modified by the addition of vowels and other consonants to create different nuances of the basic meaning:
* 𐤊𐤕𐤁𐤕 ''kithōbith'', handwriting, script;
* 𐤊𐤕𐤁𐤕 ''kithōbith'', handwriting, script; ''kithaboth'', book;
* 𐤊𐤕𐤁𐤉𐤌 ''kathōbīm'', inscriptions;
* 𐤊𐤕𐤁𐤉𐤌 ''kithōbīm'', inscriptions;
* 𐤊𐤅𐤕𐤁 ''kūthīb'', writer;
* 𐤊𐤅𐤕𐤁 ''kūthēb'', writer;
* 𐤊𐤕𐤁𐤕 ''kathavti'', I wrote;
* 𐤊𐤕𐤁𐤕 ''kathavti'', I wrote;
* 𐤀𐤊𐤕𐤁 ''ekhtab'', I shall write;
* 𐤀𐤊𐤕𐤁 ''ekhtab'', I shall write;
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Lebanese nouns and adjectives are inflected to show gender, number, case and [[w:Construct state|state]], though in a common speech cases (of which modern Lebanese preserves only two: nominative and genitive) are often dropped. Old Phoenician also had a third case for nouns in singular number - the accusative, but it has already been dropped in Phoenician.
Lebanese nouns and adjectives are inflected to show gender, number, case and [[w:Construct state|state]], though in a common speech cases (of which modern Lebanese preserves only two: nominative and genitive) are often dropped. Old Phoenician also had a third case for nouns in singular number - the accusative, but it has already been dropped in Phoenician.


There are two grammatical genders: masculine and feminine. The feminine gender is often marked by the ending 𐤕- '''-th''', while nouns ending in other letters are masculine, with an exception of a few "defective" nouns, like 𐤎𐤌𐤋𐤕 ''simloth'' "statue". There is a very strong tendency toward natural gender for nouns referring to people and animals. Such nouns generally come in pairs, one masculine and one feminine; for example, 𐤀𐤔 ''is'' means "man" (previously also meant "person", but now ''adom'' is a gender-neutral word) and 𐤀𐤔𐤕 ''ist'' means "woman", but when discussing mixed-sex groups, the plural of the masculine noun is used.
There are two grammatical genders: masculine and feminine. The feminine gender is often marked by the ending 𐤕- '''-th''', while nouns ending in other letters are masculine, with an exception of a few "defective" nouns, like 𐤎𐤌𐤋𐤕 ''simloth'' "statue". There is a very strong tendency toward natural gender for nouns referring to people and animals. Such nouns generally come in pairs, one masculine and one feminine; for example, 𐤀𐤔 ''is'' means "man" (previously also meant "person", but now ''adom'' is a gender-neutral word) and 𐤀𐤔𐤕 ''ist'' means "woman", but when discussing mixed-sex groups, the plural of the masculine noun is used. Some nouns are feminine, even though they don't end in ''-th'', for example: 𐤀𐤓𐤑 ''arts'' "land", 𐤀𐤉𐤌 ''im'' "mother", 𐤉𐤅𐤌 ''yūm'' "day".


Nouns can be either singular or plural, but an additional dual number exists for some nouns that usually come in pairs. The dual number gradually disappeared in Old Phoenician over time and is still present as relics in some dialects. In the Standard it is treated as a form of plural. Masculine nouns generally form their plural by adding the suffix 𐤉𐤌- ''-īm'' to the stem (𐤀𐤇𐤉𐤌 - 𐤀𐤇 ''aḥ - aḥīm'', "brother" - "brothers"). the two-syllable masculine nouns accented on the penultimate syllable also undergo a vowel change in the plural: (𐤇𐤃𐤓𐤉𐤌 - 𐤇𐤃𐤓 ''ḥíder - ḥadarīm'', "room" - "rooms", the stress also shifts to the last syllable). Feminine nouns ending in ''-oth'' simply change the ending to ''-ūth'' (with a few exceptions: 𐤔𐤍𐤅𐤕 - 𐤍̄𐤕 ''sat - sanūth'', "year" - "years"). Nouns ending in ''-t'' have  ''-hūth'' in their plural: 𐤃𐤋𐤄𐤅𐤕 - 𐤃𐤋𐤕 ''dalt'' - ''dalahūth'', "door" - "doors". For nouns that end in ''-īth/-ē'', the plural ending is ''-iyūth'': 𐤔𐤃𐤉𐤅𐤕 - 𐤔𐤃𐤉 ''sadī - sadiyūth'', "field" - "fields"). A few nouns show irregular plural: 𐤌𐤋𐤊𐤉𐤅𐤕 - 𐤌𐤋𐤊𐤕 ''milkoth - milkiyūth'', "queen" - "queens", 𐤀𐤋𐤌 ''ilīm'' "god, goddess" has two plurals, both irregular: 𐤀͘𐤋𐤍𐤉𐤌 ''allōnīm'', "gods" and 𐤀͘𐤋𐤍𐤅𐤕 ''allōnūth'', "goddesses".
Nouns can be either singular or plural, but an additional dual number exists for some nouns that usually come in pairs. The dual number gradually disappeared in Old Phoenician over time and is still present as relics in some dialects. In the Standard it is treated as a form of plural. Masculine nouns generally form their plural by adding the suffix 𐤉𐤌- ''-īm'' to the stem (𐤀𐤇𐤉𐤌 - 𐤀𐤇 ''aḥ - aḥīm'', "brother" - "brothers"). the two-syllable masculine nouns accented on the penultimate syllable also undergo a vowel change in the plural: (𐤇𐤃𐤓𐤉𐤌 - 𐤇𐤃𐤓 ''ḥíder - ḥadarīm'', "room" - "rooms", the stress also shifts to the last syllable). Feminine nouns ending in ''-oth'' simply change the ending to ''-ūth'' (with a few exceptions: 𐤔𐤍𐤅𐤕 - 𐤍̄𐤕 ''sat - sanūth'', "year" - "years"). Nouns ending in ''-t'' have  ''-hūth'' in their plural: 𐤃𐤋𐤄𐤅𐤕 - 𐤃𐤋𐤕 ''dalt'' - ''dalahūth'', "door" - "doors". For nouns that end in ''-īth/-ē'', the plural ending is ''-iyūth'': 𐤔𐤃𐤉𐤅𐤕 - 𐤔𐤃𐤉 ''sadī - sadiyūth'', "field" - "fields"). A few nouns show irregular plural: 𐤌𐤋𐤊𐤉𐤅𐤕 - 𐤌𐤋𐤊𐤕 ''milkoth - milkiyūth'', "queen" - "queens", 𐤀𐤋𐤌 ''ilīm'' "god, goddess" has two plurals, both irregular: 𐤀͘𐤋𐤍𐤉𐤌 ''allōnīm'', "gods" and 𐤀͘𐤋𐤍𐤅𐤕 ''allōnūth'', "goddesses".
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{{reflist|group=note}}
{{reflist|group=note}}
Lebanese nouns and adjectives can exist in one of two states. To a certain extent, these states correspond to the role of cases in the Indo-European languages:
Lebanese nouns and adjectives can exist in one of two states. To a certain extent, these states correspond to the role of cases in the Indo-European languages:
*The absolute state is the basic form of a noun. It expresses indefiniteness, comparable to the English indefinite article "a(n)" (for example, 𐤎𐤐𐤓 sifer, "a book"), and can be used in most syntactic roles. To nouns in this state (and also to attributive adjectives) a definite article can be added, which is traditionally considered to be an actual part of the definite noun. However, in modern use, the definite article is taken as a clitic, attaching to a noun. For example, the term for school is 𐤁𐤕𐤎𐤐𐤓‎ (''bês-sifer'', “house-of book”); “the school” is 𐤄𐤁̄𐤕𐤎𐤐𐤓 (heb-bês-sifer, “the-house-of-book”). The article triggers gemination (in this example /b/ is techically geminated, but the word is actually pronounced [hɛ.beːs.ˈsiː.fɛr]. Here the assimilation of the final "th" into /s/ occurs).
*The absolute state is the basic form of a noun. It expresses indefiniteness, comparable to the English indefinite article "a(n)" (for example, 𐤊𐤕𐤁𐤕 ''kithaboth'', "a book"), and can be used in most syntactic roles. To nouns in this state (and also to attributive adjectives) a definite article can be added, which is traditionally considered to be an actual part of the definite noun. However, in modern use, the definite article is taken as a clitic, attaching to a noun. For example, the term for school is 𐤁𐤕𐤊𐤕𐤁𐤕‎ (''bêthkithaboth'', “house-of book”); “the school” is 𐤄𐤁̄𐤕𐤊𐤕𐤁𐤕 (hebbêth-kitaboth, “the-house-of-book”). The article triggers gemination (in this example /b/ is techically geminated, but the word is actually pronounced [hɛ.ˈbːeːθ.kɪ.θa.ˌbɔθ]. Here the assimilation of the final "th" into /s/ occurs).
*The [[w:Construct state|construct state]] is a form of the noun used to make possessive constructions (for example, 𐤌𐤒𐤌 𐤔𐤉𐤁𐤕𐤉 ''muqōm sivti'', "the place of his residing", where ''muqōm'' is the construct state of the noun ''maqōm''. In dialects ''muqōm sivto'' can often be heard due to the absence of the genitive case in them). In the masculine singular the form of the construct is often the same as the absolute, but it may undergo vowel reduction (usually into /u/). Unlike a genitive case (often dropped entirely), which marks the possessor, the construct state is marked on the possessed. This is mainly due to Lebanese word order: possessed[const.] possessor[abs./gen.] are treated as a speech unit, with the first unit (possessed) employing the construct state to link it to the following word.
*The [[w:Construct state|construct state]] is a form of the noun used to make possessive constructions (for example, 𐤌𐤒𐤌 𐤔𐤉𐤁𐤕𐤉 ''muqōm sivti'', "the place of his residing", where ''muqōm'' is the construct state of the noun ''maqūm''. In dialects ''muqūm sivto'' can often be heard due to the absence of the genitive case in them). In the masculine singular the form of the construct is often the same as the absolute, but it may undergo vowel reduction (usually into /u/). Unlike a genitive case (often dropped entirely), which marks the possessor, the construct state is marked on the possessed. This is mainly due to Lebanese word order: possessed[const.] possessor[abs./gen.] are treated as a speech unit, with the first unit (possessed) employing the construct state to link it to the following word.


Adjectives agree with their nouns in number and gender. Predicative adjectives are in the absolute state regardless of the state of their noun. Below is an example of a typical adjectival declension:
Adjectives agree with their nouns in number and gender. Predicative adjectives are in the absolute state regardless of the state of their noun. Below is an example of a typical adjectival declension:
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===Word patterns===
===Word patterns===
Scholars have attempted to categorize the varied types of nouns in the Semitic languages by organizing them according to their root shapes (usually various vowel changes that modify the basic root word). Scholars often use the root '''q-ṭ-l''' as the base for illustrating the patterns. Verbs are categorized differently by using the root '''p-ˁ-l''', except for the most common pattern is '''qal''' (just like in Hebrew).  A certain semantic range of meaning is often associated with a particular pattern.
Scholars have attempted to categorize the varied types of nouns in the Semitic languages by organizing them according to their root shapes (usually various vowel changes that modify the basic root word). Scholars often use the root '''q-ṭ-l''' as the base for illustrating the patterns. Verbs are categorized differently by using the root '''p-ˁ-l''', except for the most common pattern is '''qal''' (just like in Hebrew).  A certain semantic range of meaning is often associated with a particular pattern.
*Single consonant ('''q'''): 𐤐𐤉 ''pī'' "mouth", 𐤔 ''sū'' "sheep";
*Single consonant ('''q'''): 𐤐𐤉 ''pī'' "mouth", 𐤔𐤅 ''sū'' "sheep";
*Biconsonantal: '''qal''': 𐤀𐤁 ''ab'' "father", 𐤃𐤌 ''dom'' "blood", '''qil''': 𐤁̄𐤕 ''bit'' "daughter", '''qul''': 𐤒𐤅𐤋 ''qūl'' "voice";
*Biconsonantal: '''qal''': 𐤀𐤁 ''ab'' "father", 𐤃𐤌 ''dom'' "blood", '''qil''': 𐤁̄𐤕 ''bit'' "daughter", '''qul''': 𐤒𐤅𐤋 ''qūl'' "voice";
*Triconsonantal (singular - '''qVtel''', plural '''qitVl''', where "V" is a vowel): '''qatl''': 𐤀𐤓𐤑 ''arts'' "earth", 𐤁𐤏𐤋 ''baˁal'' "master, lord", '''qitl''': 𐤌𐤋𐤊 ''milk'' "king";
*Triconsonantal (singular - '''qVtel''', plural '''qitVl''', where "V" is a vowel): '''qatl''': 𐤀𐤓𐤑 ''arts'' "earth", 𐤁𐤏𐤋 ''baˁal'' "master, lord", '''qitl''': 𐤌𐤋𐤊 ''milk'' "king";
*'''qatol''': 𐤀𐤃𐤌 ''adom'' "person", '''qital''' 𐤉𐤓𐤇 ''yiraḥ'' "moon", '''qatul''': 𐤒𐤈𐤍 ''qatun'' "small", '''qital''': 𐤆𐤓𐤀 ''dzira'' "seed";
*'''qatol''': 𐤀𐤃𐤌 ''adom'' "person", '''qital''' 𐤉𐤓𐤇 ''yiraḥ'' "moon", '''qatul''': 𐤒𐤈𐤍 ''qatun'' "small", '''qital''': 𐤆𐤓𐤏 ''dziraʿ'' "seed";
*'''Furtive "a"''' roots: ̄𐤌𐤅𐤇 ''mūaḥ'' "brain", ̄𐤋𐤅𐤇 ''lūaḥ'' "tablet";
*'''Furtive "a"''' roots: ̄𐤌𐤅𐤇 ''mūaḥ'' "brain", ̄𐤋𐤅𐤇 ''lūaḥ'' "tablet";
*'''Weak''' roots (roots, once containing "w" or "y"): 𐤁𐤕 ''bêth'' "house", 𐤔𐤉𐤓 ''sīr'' "song".
*'''Weak''' roots (roots, once containing "w" or "y"): 𐤁𐤉𐤕 ''bêth'' "house", 𐤔𐤉𐤓 ''sīr'' "song".


===Verbs===
===Verbs===
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The basic root type of the suffixing conjugation is '''qatol''' (other types are less common). Here is an example of a suffixing conjugation of the verb:
The basic root type of the suffixing conjugation is '''qatol''' (other types are less common). Here is an example of a suffixing conjugation of the verb:
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |Plural
! rowspan="3" |Form
! colspan="5" |Singular
! colspan="5" |Singular
! colspan="4" |Plural
! colspan="4" |Plural
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This form is usually used to mark the [[w:Perfective aspect|perfective aspect]] or the past tense but also for the [[w:Optative mood|optative]], though the pattern is a bit different (𐤇𐤉𐤃̇𐤔 ''ḥeddēs'' - "may he restore" from ''ḥiddēs'' - "he restored"). The verb agrees with its subject in person, number, and (for the second-person and third-person singular), gender. The corresponding pronouns are not necessarily used in conjunction. The pronominal suffixes can be attached directly to the stem in order to mark a direct object (for example: ''peˁalato'' - "she made it"). From the suffixing form the [[w:Pluperfect|pluperfect]] is derived: 𐤀𐤇𐤍𐤉𐤊 𐤇𐤔𐤁𐤕𐤉 𐤊𐤍 𐤐𐤏𐤋𐤀 ''anīkh ḥasavti kon paˁolo'' "I thought he had done it".
This form is usually used to mark the [[w:Perfective aspect|perfective aspect]] or the past tense but also for the [[w:Optative mood|optative]], though the pattern is a bit different (𐤇𐤉𐤃̇𐤔 ''ḥeddēs'' - "may he restore" from ''ḥiddēs'' - "he restored"). The verb agrees with its subject in person, number, and (for the second-person and third-person singular), gender. The corresponding pronouns are not necessarily used in conjunction. The pronominal suffixes can be attached directly to the stem in order to mark a direct object (for example: ''peˁalato'' - "she made it"). From the suffixing form the [[w:Pluperfect|pluperfect]] is derived: 𐤀𐤇𐤍𐤉𐤊 𐤇𐤔𐤁𐤕𐤉 𐤊𐤍 𐤐𐤏𐤋𐤀 ''anīkh ḥasavti kon paˁolo'' "I thought he had done it".


The prefixing form of the verb comprises three subforms (usually simply called '''A'''', '''B''' and '''C''', examples of which are ''yipʿol'' for '''A''' and '''B''' and ''yipʿola'' for the '''C''' form, which also has and extended form ''yipʿalan''). These three forms are used on different occasions. The prefixing form A expresses the imperfective aspect and usually marks the present tense. The prefixing form B is used only to mark the past tense and the perfective aspect (similarly to the suffixing form, but it is placed in a sentence-initial position instead). It also can express the subjunctive and optative, but is rarely used for that purpose, usually together with a proclitic particle ''l-'', 𐤋𐤔𐤌𐤀 ''lismaʿ'' "may he hear". The prefixing form C marks cohortative and optative. Its extended form has the same meaning as a simple form and is usually used only with verbs that don't have a distinction between B and C forms.
The prefixing form of the verb comprises three subforms (usually simply called '''A'''', '''B''' and '''C''', examples of which are ''yipʿol'' for '''A''' and '''B''' and ''yipʿola'' for the '''C''' form, which also has and extended form ''yipʿalan''). These three forms are used on different occasions. The prefixing form A expresses the imperfective aspect and usually marks the present tense. The prefixing form B is used only to mark the past tense and the perfective aspect (similarly to the suffixing form, but it is placed in a sentence-initial position instead and also with the ''w-'' prefix). It also can express the subjunctive and optative, but is rarely used for that purpose, usually together with a proclitic particle ''l-'', 𐤋𐤔𐤌𐤀 ''lismaʿ'' "may he hear". The prefixing form C marks cohortative and optative. Its extended form has the same meaning as a simple form and is usually used only with verbs that don't have a distinction between A and B forms.
 
Below is a table of prefixing A forms:
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |Form
! colspan="5" |Singular
! colspan="4" |Plural
! rowspan="3" |Meaning
|-
! rowspan="2" |1st Person
! colspan="2" |2nd Person
! colspan="2" |3rd Person
! rowspan="2" |1st Person
! colspan="2" |2nd Person
! rowspan="2" |3rd Person
|-
!M.
!F.
!M.
!F.
!M.
!F.
|-
|'''paˁol'''
|𐤀𐤔𐤏𐤋
esˁal
|𐤕𐤔𐤏𐤋
tisˁal
|𐤕𐤔𐤏𐤋𐤉
tisˁel
|𐤉𐤔𐤏𐤋
yisˁol
|𐤕𐤔𐤏𐤋
tisˁol
|𐤍𐤔𐤏𐤋𐤅
nisˁol
|𐤕𐤔𐤏𐤋𐤅𐤍
tisˁalūn
|𐤕𐤔𐤏𐤋𐤍𐤀
tisˁolna
|𐤉𐤔𐤏𐤋𐤅𐤍
yisˁolūn
|''asks''
|-
|'''yipˁēl'''
|𐤀𐤒𐤃𐤔
eqdis
|𐤕𐤒𐤃𐤔
tiqdis
|𐤕𐤒𐤃𐤔𐤉
tiqdisi
|𐤉𐤒𐤃𐤔
yiqdis
|𐤕𐤒𐤃𐤔
tiqdis
|𐤍𐤒𐤃𐤔
niqdis
|𐤕𐤒𐤃𐤔𐤅𐤍
tiqdisūn
|𐤕𐤒𐤃𐤔𐤍𐤀
tiqdēsna
|𐤉𐤒𐤃𐤔𐤅𐤍
yiqdisūn
|''dedicates''
|-
|'''yiptaˁal'''
|𐤀𐤇𐤕𐤎𐤐
eḥtasaf
|𐤕𐤇𐤕𐤎𐤐
tiḥtasaf
|𐤕𐤇𐤕𐤎𐤐𐤉
tiḥtasafi
|𐤉𐤇𐤕𐤎𐤐
yiḥtasaf
|𐤕𐤇𐤕𐤎𐤐
tiḥtasaf
|𐤍𐤇𐤕𐤎𐤐
niḥtasaf
|𐤕𐤇𐤕𐤎𐤐𐤅𐤍
tiḥtasafūn
|𐤕𐤇𐤕𐤎𐤐𐤍𐤀
tiḥtasafna
|𐤉𐤇𐤕𐤎𐤐𐤅𐤍
yiḥtasafūn
|''breaks''
|-
|}
 
All imperatives are only used in affirmative commands. Negative commands use the particle 𐤀𐤋 ''al'' followed by the corresponding optative form. The passive verbs of ''puʿal'', ''paʿul'' and ''yopʿal'' do not have imperatives and only the optative form can be used and the ''nepʿal'' form is not used anymore, but can still be found in older texts. There are three grades of imperatives: simply called '''Grade I''' (or simple form), '''Grade II''' (the "-a" form) and '''Grade III''' (or extended form), for instance: 𐤋𐤊 ''lēkh'' "go!" - 𐤋𐤊𐤀 ''lēkha'' "you'd better go" - 𐤋𐤊𐤍𐤀 ''lakhanna'' "please, go!", which are the tree forms of the verb 𐤄𐤋𐤊 ''halokh" "to go". These forms have the same meaning, but the Grade II is more polite and the Grade III is used for emphasis. In Lebanese, just like in English, the word 𐤁𐤀͘𐤓𐤔𐤕 ''ba'arrōsoth'' ("please") is used together with the imperative form, however a single Grade III form is more commonly used for that purpose.
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" | Form
! colspan="3" |Grade I
! colspan="3" |Grade II
! colspan="3" |Grade III
! rowspan="3" | Meaning
|-
! colspan="2" | Singular
! rowspan="2" | Plural
! colspan="2" | Singular
! rowspan="2" | Plural
! colspan="2" | Singular
! rowspan="2" | Plural
|-
! Masculine || Feminine || Masculine || Feminine || Masculine || Feminine
|-
|'''pa'ol'''
| align="center" | 𐤀𐤌𐤓 omor
| align="center" | 𐤀𐤌𐤓𐤉 omirī
| align="center" | 𐤀𐤌𐤓𐤅 omorū
| align="center" | 𐤀𐤌𐤓𐤀 ōmara
| align="center" | 𐤀𐤌𐤓𐤉 ōmirī
| align="center" | 𐤀𐤌𐤓𐤅 ōmorū
| align="center" | 𐤀𐤌𐤓͘𐤍𐤀 amaranna
| align="center" | 𐤀𐤌𐤓͘𐤍𐤉 amarannī
| align="center" | 𐤀𐤌𐤓͘𐤍𐤅 amarannū
| say!
|-
|'''nep'al'''
| align="center" | 𐤍͘𐤕𐤍 netton
| align="center" | 𐤍͘𐤕𐤍𐤉 nettonī
| align="center" | 𐤍͘𐤕𐤍𐤅 nettonū
| align="center" | 𐤍𐤉𐤕𐤍𐤀 neyithna
| align="center" | 𐤍𐤉𐤕𐤍𐤉 neyithnī
| align="center" | 𐤍𐤉𐤕𐤍𐤅 neyithnū
| align="center" | 𐤍͘𐤕𐤍͘𐤍𐤀 nettananna
| align="center" | 𐤍͘𐤕𐤍͘𐤍𐤉 nettanannī
| align="center" | 𐤍͘𐤕𐤍͘𐤍𐤅 nettanannū
| be given!
|-
|'''pe'il'''
| align="center" | 𐤐𐤏𐤉𐤋 peʿil
| align="center" | 𐤐𐤏𐤉𐤋𐤉 peʿilī
| align="center" | 𐤐𐤏𐤉𐤋𐤅 peʿilū
| align="center" | 𐤐𐤏𐤉𐤋𐤀 pēʿila
| align="center" | 𐤐𐤏𐤉𐤋𐤉 pēʿilī
| align="center" | 𐤐𐤏𐤉𐤋𐤅 pēʿilū
| align="center" | 𐤐𐤏𐤉𐤋͘𐤍𐤀 peʿilanna
| align="center" | 𐤐𐤏𐤉𐤋͘𐤍𐤉 peʿilannī
| align="center" | 𐤐𐤏𐤉𐤋͘𐤍𐤅 peʿilannū
| be effective!
|-
|'''pi'ēl'''
| align="center" | 𐤄𐤊͘𐤓 hikkēr
| align="center" | 𐤄𐤊͘𐤓𐤉 hikkerī
| align="center" | 𐤄𐤊͘𐤓𐤅 hikkerū
| align="center" | 𐤄𐤊͘𐤉𐤓𐤀 hīkkira
| align="center" | 𐤄𐤊͘𐤉𐤓𐤉 hīkkirī
| align="center" | 𐤄𐤊͘𐤉𐤓𐤅 hīkkirū
| align="center" | 𐤄𐤊͘𐤓͘𐤍𐤀 hikkēranna
| align="center" | 𐤄𐤊͘𐤓͘𐤍𐤉 hikkērannī
| align="center" | 𐤄𐤊͘𐤓͘𐤍𐤅 hikkērannū
| remember!
|-
|'''yip'īl'''
| align="center" | 𐤉͘𐤐𐤉𐤒 yippīq
| align="center" | 𐤉͘𐤐𐤉𐤒𐤉 yippīqī
| align="center" | 𐤉͘𐤐𐤉𐤒𐤅 yippīqū
| align="center" | 𐤉͘𐤐𐤉𐤒𐤀 yīppiqa
| align="center" | 𐤉͘𐤐𐤉𐤒𐤉 yīppiqī
| align="center" | 𐤉͘𐤐𐤉𐤒𐤅 yīppiqū
| align="center" | 𐤉͘𐤐𐤉𐤒͘𐤍𐤀 yippīqanna
| align="center" | 𐤉͘𐤐𐤉𐤒͘𐤍𐤉 yippīqannī
| align="center" | 𐤉͘𐤐𐤉𐤒͘𐤍𐤅 yippīqannū
| find!
|-
|'''yithpe'ēl'''
| align="center" | 𐤉𐤕͘𐤊𐤃 yithekkēd
| align="center" | 𐤉𐤕͘𐤊𐤃𐤉 yithekkēdī
| align="center" | 𐤉𐤕͘𐤊𐤃𐤅 yithekkēdū
| align="center" | 𐤉𐤕͘𐤊𐤉𐤃𐤀 yittekkida
| align="center" | 𐤉𐤕͘𐤊𐤉𐤃𐤉 yittekkidī
| align="center" | 𐤉𐤕͘𐤊𐤉𐤃𐤅 yittekkidū
| align="center" | 𐤉𐤕͘𐤊𐤃͘𐤍𐤀 yithekkēdanna
| align="center" | 𐤉𐤕͘𐤊𐤃͘𐤍𐤉 yithekkēdannī
| align="center" | 𐤉𐤕͘𐤊𐤃͘𐤍𐤅 yithekkēdannū
| resolve itself!
|-
|}


===Numerals===
===Numerals===
Line 779: Line 961:


==Writing system==
==Writing system==
==Sample text==
===Nidirath habBaʿal (the Lord's prayer)===
<center>
{| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" align="center"
! Lebanese (romanized)
! English
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|<poem>
Abūn sibbissamêm,
yithqeddēs simka.
To bō’o mimlakhathka,
yiʿsē ratsūnka,
kibissamêm kōn ba’ārts.
Ith liḥem yumīnū tēn lonū hayūm,
wasaloḥ lonū ʿal ḥittên,
Komū sissūlḥīm komū is naḥnū liḥūṭīm lonū.
Wa‘al nasōnū liyidê pittūnoth,
wu’aph lilitsenū min harraʿi.
Kī likha hammimlakhathka wuhattiqūphoth wuha’addirt
Līʿūlmê ʿūlōmīm.
Ōmēn.
</poem>
| <poem>
Our Father in heaven,
hallowed be your name.
Your kingdom come,
your will be done,
on earth, as it is in heaven.
Give us this day our daily bread,
and forgive us our debts,
as we also have forgiven our debtors.
And lead us not into temptation,
but deliver us from evil.
For the kingdom and the power and the glory are yours
For ever and ever.
Amen.</poem>
|-
|}
</center>
===had'Deklaratsiya ʿūlomī dzikhiyuth-ʿamīm (the Universal Declaration of Human Rights)===
*''Kil adamīm nūladū ḥurīn wusuwīn bikkorūmathom wibiddzikhiyūthom. Ḥūnenū kilom it tibīnoth wi it ittawigdīn wilippeʿīlū habbirruḥ aḥuwoth.''
*'''Translation''': All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
===Nidirath liMarīyom (Ave Maria)===
<center>
{| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" align="center"
! Lebanese (romanized)
! English
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|<poem>
Ḥawū, Marīyom, ḥised mil’ath,
Marīyom, ḥised mil’ath,
Marīyom, ḥised mil’ath,
Solūm, solūm liBaʿal.
Baʿal ethakhī.
Birīkhoth atti bi’isathūth, wu barīkh,
Barīkh pirī boṭnothkī,
Riḥemkī, Yesūʿ.
Ḥawū, Marīyom!
Ḥawū, Marīyom, Am Illīm,
Tsalū ʿaltênū ḥūṭi’īm,
Tsalū, tsalū ʿaltênū,
Tsalū, tsalū ʿaltênū ḥūṭi’īm,
Keʿan wu-biʿith mūthnū,
Biʿith mūthnū,
Biʿith mūthnū.
Ḥawū, Marīyom.
</poem>
| <poem>
Live, Mary, full of grace,
Mary, full of grace,
Mary, full of grace,
Hail, Hail, the Lord.
The Lord is with thee.
Blessed art thou among women, and blessed,
Blessed is the fruit of thy womb,
Thy womb, Jesus.
Live, Mary!
Live, Mary, Mother of God,
Pray for us sinners,
Pray, pray for us;
Pray, pray for us sinners,
Now and at the hour of our death,
The hour of our death,
The hour of our death.
Live, Mary.</poem>
|-
|}
</center>


[[Category:Semitic languages]]
[[Category:Semitic languages]]
[[Category:Artlangs]]
[[Category:Artlangs]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Stem-Hebrew]]
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