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==Typology and Grammatical Overview== | ==Typology and Grammatical Overview== | ||
Like Minhast and Nahónda, Nankôre is an SOV language. However, unlike its relatives, Nankôre is not a polysynthetic language but is relatively sparse in terms of affixes for determining syntactic relations. Nouns do not receive case or number marking, nor are they marked for gender. Word order within the verb complex is rather strict, but core, patient, and obliques may occur in various orders. The verb complex consists minimally of a main verb, which possesses suffixes for marking evidentiality, and the | Like Minhast and Nahónda, Nankôre is an SOV language. However, unlike its relatives, Nankôre is not a polysynthetic language but is relatively sparse in terms of affixes for determining syntactic relations. Nouns do not receive case or number marking, nor are they marked for gender. Word order within the verb complex is rather strict, but core, patient, and obliques may occur in various orders. The verb complex consists minimally of a main verb, which possesses suffixes for marking evidentiality, and the auxiliary, which contain a rich set of affixes to mark the core arguments for various syntactic features: number, tense, voice, agency, etc. | ||
Nankôre displays a mixed morphosyntactic alignment. Particularly noticeable is the Hierarchical alignment in its transitive verbs, which employ [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct–inverse_alignment Direct-Inverse marking] to indicate core argument roles. The nominal hierarchy is complex; at least ten noun classes based on animacy can be identified, and within those classes sub-hierarchies are observed based on semantic features, although discourse processes (e.g. the introduction of new arguments that are roughly equal in animacy with previously established arguments, or a previous argument that serves as the topic over extended discourse) may affect how direct-inverse marking is expressed. Thus hierarchical relations are primarily dependent on the semantics of the core argument and the verb class, although other factors are at play; native speakers intuit the hierarchy based on a complex interaction between the both the noun and verb classes, discourse patterns, and context. | Nankôre displays a mixed morphosyntactic alignment. Particularly noticeable is the Hierarchical alignment in its transitive verbs, which employ [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct–inverse_alignment Direct-Inverse marking] to indicate core argument roles. The nominal hierarchy is complex; at least ten noun classes based on animacy can be identified, and within those classes sub-hierarchies are observed based on semantic features, although discourse processes (e.g. the introduction of new arguments that are roughly equal in animacy with previously established arguments, or a previous argument that serves as the topic over extended discourse) may affect how direct-inverse marking is expressed. Thus hierarchical relations are primarily dependent on the semantics of the core argument and the verb class, although other factors are at play; native speakers intuit the hierarchy based on a complex interaction between the both the noun and verb classes, discourse patterns, and context. | ||
The language also displays an Active-Stative alignment of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active–stative_alignment Split-S subtype] in its intransitive verbs. As in its relative Nahónda, Nankôre intransitive verbs are split into two categories, one that requires an Agent as the sole core argument, and another that takes only Patients. Two different | The language also displays an Active-Stative alignment of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active–stative_alignment Split-S subtype] in its intransitive verbs. As in its relative Nahónda, Nankôre intransitive verbs are split into two categories, one that requires an Agent as the sole core argument, and another that takes only Patients. Two different auxiliary paradigms are used for intransitive verb roots, the [[Nankôre#Intransitive-Active_Paradigm|''itá'']] paradigm for agentive verbs, and the [[Nankôre#Intransitive-Stative_Paradigm|''iná'']] paradigm for stative verbs. | ||
==Phonology== | ==Phonology== | ||
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If the noun is a core argument, then the [[Nankôre# | If the noun is a core argument, then the [[Nankôre#The_Auxiliary|auxiliary ]] obligatorily marks for number. Number is indicated on the auxiliary by the affix ''-n-''. For plural Agents, it is infixed, and for plural Patients, it is suffixed. Additionally, if the auxiliary is marked with the Inverse prefix, the prefix redundantly encodes number by vowel length, eg ''ta-'' for the singular, and ''tā='' for the plural. Some examples are given below: | ||
Example of a HA singular Agent acting on a LA singular Patient: | Example of a HA singular Agent acting on a LA singular Patient: | ||
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The Temporal Deitic particles usually occur at the head of a sentence, e.g. ''Antak Anut Amerika san-kamuk hitá' '', "A year ago, Anut flew to America". In multiclausal sentences, the clause in which they appear have scope over the all other clauses following it. At least one, ''yorai'', cannot appear after the initial clause. Some particles also have a clitic form which can attach to the main verb, as in ''Anut Amerika san-kamuk-entak hitá'''. | The Temporal Deitic particles usually occur at the head of a sentence, e.g. ''Antak Anut Amerika san-kamuk hitá' '', "A year ago, Anut flew to America". In multiclausal sentences, the clause in which they appear have scope over the all other clauses following it. At least one, ''yorai'', cannot appear after the initial clause. Some particles also have a clitic form which can attach to the main verb, as in ''Anut Amerika san-kamuk-entak hitá'''. | ||
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, and in the process replace the | , and in the process replace the auxiliary's tense affixes of the Direct Voice, as in ''Anut America ta=san-kamuk=inkát itá' '' "Several years ago Anut flew to America" (note that the Temporal Deictic clitic ''=inkát'' has replaced the past tense affix ''tā-'' in ''tā'itá' ''). The absence of these particles contrasts with the Direct Voice Distal Past form ''suphitá' '', in ''Anut America san-kamuk suphitá' '', "Anut went to America a while back". Also note that the other verb voices do not lose their tense markers, as in ''Otok erashi ta-karok=inkat ta'itá''' (boy crab INV-eat=several.years.ago INV.PST-COP) "The crab ate the boy." | ||
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Neither a pseudo-incorporated noun or adjunct may appear between the Interrogative and the | Neither a pseudo-incorporated noun or adjunct may appear between the Interrogative and the auxiliary. The next sentence is well-formed, with the pseudo-incorporated noun appearing before the interrogative ''penóh'' (why), whereas the next sentence is unfelicitous, since PINs are barred from appearing between the WH-word and the auxiliary: | ||
{{Gloss | {{Gloss | ||
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If used as a core argument, the singular forms and the plural short forms may appear just before the clause-final | If used as a core argument, the singular forms and the plural short forms may appear just before the clause-final auxiliary ''itá'',e.g. ''Nitori kā 'itá!'' (You are a fool); or the clitic form of the pronoun attaches to the main verb, e.g. ''Nitoriká 'itá!''. They may also be used to emphasize a noun, in which case the pronoun precedes the noun linked with the connective ''si='', as in ''tā si=naho'' (She/Her, the mother). | ||
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===Verbs=== | ===Verbs=== | ||
The verb phrase in Nankôre require at a minimum an initial verb, plus the | The verb phrase in Nankôre require at a minimum an initial verb, plus the auxiliary. An initial verb may be the main verb itself, or an auxiliary. A sort of division of labor exists between these components components; a certain set of clitics or affixes may attach to one of the components, and another to another. | ||
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#Evidentials | #Evidentials | ||
Finally, the | Finally, the auxiliary hosts the following set of morphemes, which are not clitics but actual affixes: | ||
#Inverse | #Inverse | ||
#Tense | #Tense | ||
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====The Verb Phrase Structure ==== | ====The Verb Phrase Structure ==== | ||
The following example demonstrates a complex verb predicate, with the Inverse marker ''ta='' cliticizing to the coverb ''yam'' (accompany) in the Imperfect aspect, followed by the main verb ''yayak'' (go up a mountain) with the Hearsay Evidential suffix ''-kor'', and finally the | The following example demonstrates a complex verb predicate, with the Inverse marker ''ta='' cliticizing to the coverb ''yam'' (accompany) in the Imperfect aspect, followed by the main verb ''yayak'' (go up a mountain) with the Hearsay Evidential suffix ''-kor'', and finally the auxiliary marked with the redundent Inverse clitic ''ta'=''. | ||
{{Gloss | {{Gloss | ||
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The verbal elements follow a relatively strict order. The required elements for a VP to be well-formed are the Main Verb and the | The verbal elements follow a relatively strict order. The required elements for a VP to be well-formed are the Main Verb and the Auxiliary. Adjuncts are unbound morphemes, and exhibit rather free order; however, they are barred from appearing between the Inverse Marker and any following verb, be it the Coverb or the Main Verb. If a Coverb appears between the Inverse Marker and Main Verb, an adjunct may appear between the Coverb and Main Verb. However, if the Inverse Marker is not followed by a Coverb, then an adjunct may not appear between the Inverse Marker and the Main Verb. Moreover, if Pseudo-Noun Incorporation (PNI) takes place, an adjunct may not intervene between the Main Verb and the Pseudo-incorporated noun (PIN). | ||
====Coverbs==== | ====Coverbs==== | ||
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====Aspect==== | ====Aspect==== | ||
The verb, in contrast to the | The verb, in contrast to the auxiliary, encodes aspect with clitics that attach to the end of the word. If a coverb appears, the aspect marker will cliticize to the coverb, otherwise it will cliticize to the main verb. Nankôre possesses several aspect markers, as illustrated in the following table: | ||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ||
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|} | |} | ||
====The | ====The Auxiliary ==== | ||
In terms of morphological complexity, the | In terms of morphological complexity, the auxiliary hosts more affixes and clitics than the main verb; in addition to redundantly marking the Inverse voice, it also encodes tense, number, irrealis, inchoativity, and causation through a complex series of affixation. | ||
The | The auxiliary serves two purposes: | ||
* To links noun phrases to their predicates: | * To links noun phrases to their predicates: | ||
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}} | }} | ||
The Inverse marker ''ta'-'' indicates a lower animate NP is the Agent acting on a higher animate NP whose role is that of Patient. The marker occurs in two locations: as a clitic to the first verb of the VP, and as a bound prefix to the | The Inverse marker ''ta'-'' indicates a lower animate NP is the Agent acting on a higher animate NP whose role is that of Patient. The marker occurs in two locations: as a clitic to the first verb of the VP, and as a bound prefix to the auxiliary ''itá''': | ||
{{Gloss | {{Gloss | ||
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}} | }} | ||
Number is marked on both core arguments: for transitive clauses, singular HA arguments are null-marked, and LA arguments are marked with the suffix ''-ʔ''. For plurality, plural HA arguments are marked with a prefixed or infixed ''-n-'', while the LA argument is marked with the suffix ''-n'' for plurality. Additionally, the vowel of the Inverse marker lengthens when the LA argument is plural; for example, the singular LA argument of the present tense | Number is marked on both core arguments: for transitive clauses, singular HA arguments are null-marked, and LA arguments are marked with the suffix ''-ʔ''. For plurality, plural HA arguments are marked with a prefixed or infixed ''-n-'', while the LA argument is marked with the suffix ''-n'' for plurality. Additionally, the vowel of the Inverse marker lengthens when the LA argument is plural; for example, the singular LA argument of the present tense auxiliary is ''ta'ita<nowiki>'</nowiki>'', whereas the plural form of the verb is ''t<u>ā</u>'inta'''. The Hodiernal tense is an exception: the vowel of the Inverse marker neither undergoes vowel lengthening, nor does it receive compensatory stress; the form *''tāhô'intá<nowiki>'</nowiki>'' is ungrammatical, the form ''tahô'intá<nowiki>'</nowiki>'' instead. This is presumably because the vowel of the tense marker, ''-ô-'', suppresses lengthening of a preceding vowel according to Nankôre phonological rules, thus moving the stress rightward. | ||
The Inchoative consists of a the prefix ''yis-'', which frequently occurs as a circumfix, ''y''- + ''-s-'', for certain conjugations. The affix causes the Inverse affix ''ta(h)-'' to palatize; the ''-s-'' segment of the circumfixal form may occur before or after a pluralizing ''-n-'' affix, or the tense-bearing prefix of a given conjugation. Knowing which form of the Inchoative, and where the ''-s-'' segment occurs is unpredictable and requires memorization. When used in transitive sentences, it serves to mark the Inceptive aspect. The ''-s-'' component has been shown to be cognate with the Minhast inchoative affix ''-saxt-''. | The Inchoative consists of a the prefix ''yis-'', which frequently occurs as a circumfix, ''y''- + ''-s-'', for certain conjugations. The affix causes the Inverse affix ''ta(h)-'' to palatize; the ''-s-'' segment of the circumfixal form may occur before or after a pluralizing ''-n-'' affix, or the tense-bearing prefix of a given conjugation. Knowing which form of the Inchoative, and where the ''-s-'' segment occurs is unpredictable and requires memorization. When used in transitive sentences, it serves to mark the Inceptive aspect. The ''-s-'' component has been shown to be cognate with the Minhast inchoative affix ''-saxt-''. | ||
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The Causative is marked with the affixes ''sip-'' or ''-sp-'', which is cognate with the Causatives in Minhast ''-šp-'' and Nahónda ''-ps-''. As Causatives typically increase the valency in a clause's argument structure, the Causee is typically the Patient argument, and the target of the Causee is a ''si-'' marked argument phrase that follows the matrix clause; a slight pause usually occurs before the ''si-'' connective. The construction suggest the Causee's target is an anti-topic, although it may be fronted at the beginning of its governing clause by the ''si-'' connective for topicalization. | The Causative is marked with the affixes ''sip-'' or ''-sp-'', which is cognate with the Causatives in Minhast ''-šp-'' and Nahónda ''-ps-''. As Causatives typically increase the valency in a clause's argument structure, the Causee is typically the Patient argument, and the target of the Causee is a ''si-'' marked argument phrase that follows the matrix clause; a slight pause usually occurs before the ''si-'' connective. The construction suggest the Causee's target is an anti-topic, although it may be fronted at the beginning of its governing clause by the ''si-'' connective for topicalization. | ||
The Irrealis ''-hi'' is suffixed to the | The Irrealis ''-hi'' is suffixed to the auxiliary. It is obligatory for all Future tenses. It also surfaces in imperatives, yes-no questions which are marked with the ''=yo'' marker cliticizing to the first or second word of a sentence, as in ''Cire=yo tā'itá'-hi?'' "Did he die?", and in WH-questions when the event actually happening has not yet been established as having occurred; for example, ''Enket cire tā'itá'?'', "Where did he die?" implies that the person's death is a fact, and it is only the location that is being inquired, versus ''Enket cire tā'itá'-hi?'' implies that not only is the location unknown, but the person's actual death happening still remains to be established. An interesting structure, called the "double interrogative", is a combination of a WH-word followed by a word bearing the ''=yo'' clitic, which also turns the question into yes-no question: ''Enket cire=yo tā'itá'-hi?'', "Did he die, and if so, where?" The ''-hi'' suffix is believed to be cognate with the Minhast Irrealis clitic ''=š''. | ||
=====Transitive Paradigm ===== | =====Transitive Paradigm ===== | ||
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=====Intransitive-Active Paradigm ===== | =====Intransitive-Active Paradigm ===== | ||
The paradigm for the | The paradigm for the auxiliary with intransitive verbs is not as elaborate as its transitive counterpart, nevertheless it still displays a great deal of complexity. The intransitive paradigm is used for stative verbs, NP arguments that are semantic Patients, and also for NP arguments whose thematic roles are clearly that of Agents. | ||
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There is no overt marking on either the main verb or the | There is no overt marking on either the main verb or the auxiliary indicating that the NP is an Agent or Patient. Instead, there are intransitive verbs that take only Agents as their core argument, e.g. ''temen'' "to walk downstream" [Agent] vs ''oacir'' "to be carried downriver" [Patient]. The semantic properties of the main verb, rather than morphology, indicate the proper meaning. | ||
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===== Intransitive-Stative Paradigm===== | ===== Intransitive-Stative Paradigm===== | ||
The intransitive paradigm of the | The intransitive paradigm of the auxiliary is listed in the table below: | ||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible" | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible" | ||
! rowspan="1" style="width:64.01pt; " | Tense | ! rowspan="1" style="width:64.01pt; " | Tense | ||
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====Word Order==== | ====Word Order==== | ||
Nankôre's canonical word order SOV, more specifically, SOV<sub>1</sub>V<sub>2</sub>, where V<sub>2</sub> represents the | Nankôre's canonical word order SOV, more specifically, SOV<sub>1</sub>V<sub>2</sub>, where V<sub>2</sub> represents the auxiliary ''itá''. Although the core argument NPs do not take any overt case marking, the animacy hierarchy and direct-inverse system of marking usually provide enough information to identify the Agent from the Patient. Thus, OSV<sub>1</sub>V<sub>2</sub>, SVO<sub>1</sub> V<sub>2</sub>, and other orders are found, both in speech and text. When pronouns appear as core arguments, they usually appear before the main verb, but they may cliticize to the end of the main verb: | ||
{{Gloss | {{Gloss | ||
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}} | }} | ||
Nevertheless, for all word order variants, the only restriction is the | Nevertheless, for all word order variants, the only restriction is the auxiliary is restricted to clause-final position. | ||
Fronting a constituent is used for emphasis, as in the following sample, where the O argument has been fronted before the S argument. Fronted constituents are typically followed by an audible pause, as in the following example: | Fronting a constituent is used for emphasis, as in the following sample, where the O argument has been fronted before the S argument. Fronted constituents are typically followed by an audible pause, as in the following example: | ||
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}} | }} | ||
Constituents can also be backgrounded. An O argument can be moved from its usual preverbal position to an intervening position between the main verb and | Constituents can also be backgrounded. An O argument can be moved from its usual preverbal position to an intervening position between the main verb and auxiliary. This form of backgrounding, available only to O arguments, is known as [[Nankôre#Quasi-Noun_Incorporation|Quasi-Noun Incorporation]] (QNI). It serves discourse functions similar to full noun incorporation found in its Minhast and Nahónda relatives, backgrounding the incorporated NP, decreasing valency, and providing additional specificity to the semantics of the main verb. The following example of compares and contrasts the default SOV<sub>1</sub>V<sub>2</sub> word order, with that of a SV<sub>1</sub>OV<sub>2</sub>: | ||
*Default SOV<sub>1</sub>V<sub>2</sub> Order | *Default SOV<sub>1</sub>V<sub>2</sub> Order | ||
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====The Verb Phrase==== | ====The Verb Phrase==== | ||
The verb phrase is made up of the [[Nankôre#The_Verb_Complex|verb complex]], and its predicate. The verb complex must end with the appropriate form of the auxiliary ''itá''. ''Itá'' was originally a | The verb phrase is made up of the [[Nankôre#The_Verb_Complex|verb complex]], and its predicate. The verb complex must end with the appropriate form of the auxiliary ''itá''. ''Itá'' was originally a auxiliary but later on accreted voice, tense, and the secondary ''ta-'' Inverse marker. The main verb precedes the auxiliary and may be separated from it by a de-focused noun or by one or more adjuncts. De-focused nouns appear immediately after the main verb, and adjuncts cannot be inserted between the two (see "Quasi-Incorporation" below). Coverbs appear before the main verb. The primary ''ta-'' Inverse marker cliticizes to the first verb of the verb complex, which may be either a coverb, or the main verb. | ||
=====Quasi-Noun Incorporation===== | =====Quasi-Noun Incorporation===== | ||