Modern Phrygian: Difference between revisions

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'''Modern Phrygian''' (Native: ''βρουζ̌ικιά'' /vɾuʒiˈɟa/) is modern variety of the [[w:Phrygian_language|Phrygian language]].
'''Modern Phrygian''' (Native: ''βρουζ̌ικιά'' /vɾuʒiˈɟa/) is a modern variety of the [[w:Phrygian_language|Phrygian language]].
{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|name = Modern Phrygian
|name = Modern Phrygian
|nativename = τα βρουζ̌ικιά ξ̌ώσσα
|nativename = ξ̌ώσσα τα βρουζ̌ικιά <br /> kšósa ta vružigyá <br />
|pronunciation = ta vɾuʒiˈɟ̊a ˈkʃosa
كْشوسَادا ڤْرُوژِگْيَا
|pronunciation = ˈkʃosa‿d̥a vɾuʒiˈɟ̊a
|creator = [[User:Shariifka|Shariifka]]
|creator = [[User:Shariifka|Shariifka]]
|region = Europe
|region = Europe
Line 26: Line 27:
==Introduction==
==Introduction==
===Etymology===
===Etymology===
Modern Phrygian βρουζ̌ικιά ''vružigyá'' < Ancient Phrygian βρυγικά ''brugikā́'' (cognate with Ancient Greek φρυγική ''pʰrygikḗ'').
<!--
<!--
The endonym ''xanhán'' is derived from the place name ''Xanha'', from Latin ''Hispānia''.  
The endonym ''xanhán'' is derived from the place name ''Xanha'', from Latin ''Hispānia''.  
Line 44: Line 46:
Intonation
Intonation
-->
-->
===Features===
*PIE aspirated stops became plain voiced stops.
*PIE voiced stops were devoiced in some conditions and preserved as voiced in others.
*PIE voiceless stops were mostly preserved, but were aspirated in some conditions.
*Like Greek, voiced and aspirated stops were later fricatized.
*Initial ''w-'' preserved (as ''v-'') except before ''o''.
**New ''w'' also became ''v'', or ''f'' after voiceless consonants (e.g. '''βαίνα''' ''véna'' "hyena" < '''ουαίνα''' ''wéna'' < '''ύαινα''' ''(h)úaina''; '''τφω''' ''tfo'' "two" < '''τουω''' ''two'' < '''τύω''' ''túō'').
*''nt'' > ''nn''
*Early ''Vns'' > ''Vis''
*Early palatalization of velars before front vowels to alveolar fricatives.
*All labiovelars became plain velars.
*Second palatalization of velars before front vowels to postalveolars.
*Third palatalization of velars adjacent to front vowels to palatals.
*In obstruent clusters (except for ''s'' + consonant), the second consonant becomes a fricative.
**Earlier /ʝ/ and /ç/ (from fricatization of original /i, e/ before other vowels) behaves as an obstruent in this situation, causing a preceding fricative to become a stop. They also become postalveolar after dental stops.
***Note that this is often reversed by analogy.
**The former also applies to /f/ and /v/ from fricatization of original /u/ before a vowel.
*Assimilation of ''s'' to following voiceless consonant in consonant clusters (except word-initially, where metathesis occurs instead).
**/ç/ (from fricatization of original /i, e/ after /s/ before other vowels) behaves as an obstruent in this situation, becoming a stop /c/. /sc/ then assimilates to /c/ intervocalically, while metathesizing to /kʃ/ initially.
***Note that this is often reversed by analogy.
**/f/ (from fricatization of original /u/ in the above positions) similarly becomes a stop /p/, which merges with /s/ intervocalically and metathesizes to /ps/ initially.
**Loss of /s/ in /s/ + voiced consonant clusters
*In obstruent + nasal clusters:
**Intervocalically: obstruent becomes nasal
**Initially: nasal becomes fricative (/n/ > /ʃ, ʒ/; /m/ > /f, v/) and obstruent becomes stop (if not one already).
*In obstruent + /l/ clusters, /l/ becomes /ʃ, ʒ/ and obstruent becomes stop (if not one already).
*Intervocalic partial voicing of non-geminated voiceless stops.
*Voicing of voiceless stops after nasals
*Loss of phonemic gemination, but traces preserved.
**Lack of intervocalic voicing of original geminated stops.
**Final ''-n'' > nasalization, but ''-nn'' > ''-n''


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
Line 57: Line 91:
-->
-->
===Orthography===
===Orthography===
'''Note:''' In this section, all pronunciations are according to the standard dialect unless otherwise specified.
====Greek orthography====
====Greek orthography====
=====Alphabet=====
=====Alphabet=====
Line 71: Line 106:
| '''Γ γ''' || γάμμα || [ˈɣama]
| '''Γ γ''' || γάμμα || [ˈɣama]
|-
|-
| '''Δ δ''' || δέλτα || [ˈðelda]
| '''Δ δ''' || δέλτα || [ˈðeld̥a]
|-
|-
| '''Ε ε''' || ε || [e]
| '''Ε ε''' || έμανο || [ˈemano]
|-
|-
| '''Ζ ζ''' || ζέτα || [ˈzed̥a]
| '''Ζ ζ''' || ζέτα || [ˈzed̥a]
Line 102: Line 137:
| '''Ξ̌ ξ̌''' || ξ̌ι || [kʃi]
| '''Ξ̌ ξ̌''' || ξ̌ι || [kʃi]
|-
|-
| '''Ο ο''' || ο || [o]
| '''Ο ο''' || όμανο || [ˈomano]
|-
|-
| '''Π π''' || πι || [pi]
| '''Π π''' || πι || [pi]
|-
|-
| '''Ρ ρ''' || ρο || [ro]
| '''Ρ ρ''' || ρο || [ro]
|-
| '''Σ σ ς''' || σίγμα || [ˈsiŋma]
|}
|}
|
|
Line 113: Line 150:
! Letter !! Name !! IPA
! Letter !! Name !! IPA
|-
|-
| '''Σ σ ς''' || σίμα || [ˈsima]
| '''Σ̌ σ̌ ς̌''' || σ̌ίγμα || [ˈʃiŋma]
|-
| '''Σ̌ σ̌ ς̌''' || σ̌ίμα || [ˈʃima]
|-
|-
| '''Τ τ''' || ταύ || [taf]
| '''Τ τ''' || ταυ || [taf]
|-
|-
| '''Υ υ''' || ου || [u]
| '''Υ υ''' || ούψιλο || [ˈupsilο]
|-
|-
| '''Φ φ''' || φι || [fi]
| '''Φ φ''' || φι || [fi]
Line 127: Line 162:
| '''Ψ ψ''' || ψι || [psi]
| '''Ψ ψ''' || ψι || [psi]
|-
|-
| '''Ψ̌ ψ̌''' || ψ̌ι || [ʔʃi]
| '''Ψ̌ ψ̌''' || ψ̌ι || [pʃi]
|-
|-
| '''Ω ω''' || ωμέκα || [oˈmeɡ̊a]
| '''Ω ω''' || ωμέκα || [oˈmeɡ̊a]
|}
|}
|}
The letters with carons ⟨σ̌, ζ̌, ξ̌, ψ̌⟩ can alternatively be written as multigraphs.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan="2"|With caron !! colspan=3| As multigraph
|-
!before front vowel !! before back vowel !! word-finally or before consonant
|-
| σ̌ || σχ || σχι || σχ
|-
| ζ̌ || ζγ || ζγι || ζγ
|-
| ξ̌ || ξχ || ξχι || ξχ
|-
| ψ̌ || ψχ || ψχι || ψχ
|-
|}
|}
<!--
<!--
Line 149: Line 200:
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [v]
| [v]
|
| '''β'''εχ ['''v'''ex] "six"
|
|
|-
|-
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| before front vowels ([e] or [i]).
| before front vowels ([e] or [i]).
| [ʝ]
| [ʝ]
|
| '''γ'''εν ['''ʝ'''en] "yen"
|
|
|-
|-
| before velar consonants ([ɡ] or [x])
| before velar consonants ([ɡ] or [x]) or nasal consonants ([m] or [n])
| [ŋ]
| [ŋ]
|
| μά'''γ'''κο [ˈma'''ŋ'''go] "mango"; α'''γ'''νός [a'''ŋ'''ˈnos] "pure, chaste"
| This occurs when the following consonant is ⟨ξ⟩, ⟨ξ̌⟩, or non-palatalized ⟨κ⟩ or ⟨χ⟩.
| This occurs when the following consonant is ⟨ξ⟩, ⟨ξ̌⟩, non-palatalized ⟨κ⟩ or ⟨χ⟩, ⟨μ⟩, or ⟨ν⟩.
|-
|-
| before palatal consonants ([ɟ] or [ç])
| before palatal consonants ([ɟ] or [ç])
| [ɲ]
| [ɲ]
|
| α'''γ'''κινάρα [a'''ɲ'''ɟiˈnara] "artichoke"
| This occurs when the following consonant is palatalized ⟨κ⟩ or ⟨χ⟩.
| This occurs when the following consonant is palatalized ⟨κ⟩ or ⟨χ⟩.
|-
|-
| everywhere else
| everywhere else
| [ɣ]
| [ɣ]
|
| '''γ'''αλκός ['''ɣ'''alˈɡ̊os] "copper"
|  
|  
|-
|-
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| before front vowel
| before front vowel
| [ɲ]
| [ɲ]
|
| ά'''γγ'''ελος [ˈa'''ɲ'''elos] "angel"
|
|
|-
|-
| elsewhere
| elsewhere
| [ŋ]
| [ŋ]
|
| ά'''γγ'''ουρο [ˈa'''ŋ'''uro] "cucumber"
|
|
|-
|-
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| before vowels
| before vowels
| [ʝ]
| [ʝ]
|
| μα'''γι'''ά [maˈ'''ʝ'''a] "yeast"
|
|
|-
|-
Line 193: Line 244:
| before vowels
| before vowels
| [ɲ]
| [ɲ]
|
| πάρκκι'''γγι'''ους [ˈparci'''ɲ'''us] "parking (gen.)"
|
|
|-
|-
Line 199: Line 250:
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [ð]
| [ð]
| '''δ'''ούρα [ˈ'''ð'''ura] "door"
|
|
|-
|-
<!--
| ει
| ει
| after a consonant and before a vowel
| after a consonant and before a vowel
Line 206: Line 259:
|  
|  
|
|
|-
|-->
| ζ
| ζ
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [z]
| [z]
|
| '''ζ'''εμελός ['''z'''emeˈlos] "man"
|
|
|-
|-
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| everywhere
| everywhere
| [ʒ]
| [ʒ]
|
| βρου'''ζ̌'''ικιά [vru'''ʒ'''iˈɟ̊a] "Phrygian"
|
|
|-
|-
<!--
| η
| η
| after a consonant and before a vowel
| after a consonant and before a vowel
Line 224: Line 278:
|  
|  
|
|
|-
|-->
| θ
| θ
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [θ]
| [θ]
| π'''θ'''ουγά [p'''θ'''uˈɣa] "fold"
|
|
|
|-
|-
| ι
| rowspan="3"| ι
| as a semivowel
| preceded by ⟨μ⟩ and followed by a vowel
| [ɲ]
| μ'''ι'''α [m'''ɲ'''a] "one (f.)"
| <!--⟨ι⟩ remains a vowel in these positions if it has a diaresis and/or an accent (i.e. ⟨ϊ, ί, ΐ⟩).-->
|-
|preceded by an unvoiced consonant other than ⟨κ⟩ or ⟨χ⟩ and followed by a vowel
| [ç]
| τ'''ι'''άρα [ˈt'''ç'''ara] "tiara"
| [tç] and [sç] may instead be pronounced [tʃ] and [ʃ] respectively.
|-
|preceded by a voiced consonant other than ⟨γ⟩, ⟨λ⟩, ⟨μ⟩, or ⟨ν⟩ and followed by a vowel
| [ʝ]
| [ʝ]
|
| τρ'''ι'''α [tr'''ʝ'''a] "three (n.)"
| This occurs when ⟨ι⟩ is preceded by a consonant other than ⟨γ⟩, ⟨κ⟩, ⟨χ⟩, ⟨λ⟩, or ⟨ν⟩ and followed by a vowel.
| [dʝ] and [zʝ] may instead be pronounced [dʒ] and [ʒ] respectively.
|-
|-
| rowspan="6"| κ
| rowspan="7"| κ
| after vowel or liquid and before front vowel ([e] or [i]).
| after vowel or liquid and before front vowel ([e] or [i]).
| [ɟ̊]
| [ɟ̊]
|
| κα'''κ'''οί [kaˈ'''ɟ̊'''i] "bad, harmful (pl.)"
|
|  
|-
|-
| after vowel or liquid otherwise
| after vowel or liquid otherwise
| [ɡ̊]
| [ɡ̊]
|
| κα'''κ'''ός [kaˈ'''ɡ̊'''os] "bad, harmful"
|  
|  
|-
|-
| after nasal before front vowel
| after nasal before front vowel
| [ɟ]
| [ɟ]
|
| αγ'''κ'''ινάρα [aɲ'''ɟ'''iˈnara] "artichoke"
|  
|  
|-
|-
| after nasal otherwise
| after nasal otherwise
| [ɡ]
| [ɡ]
|
| μάγ'''κ'''ο [ˈmaŋ'''ɡ'''o] "mango"
|  
|  
|-
|-
| before voiced obstruent
| [ɡ]
| ά'''κ'''δος [ˈa'''ɡ'''ðos] "sorrow"
|
|-
|-
| everywhere else before front vowel
| otherwise before front vowel
| [c]
| [c]
|
| '''κ'''ιττάπ ['''c'''iˈtab̥] "book"
|  
|  
|-
|-
| otherwise
| everywhere else
| [k]
| [k]
|
| '''κ'''ακός ['''k'''aˈɡ̊os] "bad, harmful"
|  
|  
|-
|-
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| before front vowel
| before front vowel
| [c]
| [c]
|
| δί'''κκ'''οι [ˈði'''c'''i] "discs"
|  
|  
|-
|-
| otherwise
| otherwise
| [k]
| [k]
|
| Μά'''κκ'''α [ˈma'''k'''a] "Makkah"
|  
|  
|-
|-
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| after vowel or liquid and before a vowel
| after vowel or liquid and before a vowel
| [ɟ̊]
| [ɟ̊]
|
| βρουζ̌ι'''κι'''ά [vruʒiˈ'''ɟ̊'''a] "Phrygian"
|
|
|-
|-
| after nasal before a vowel
| after nasal before a vowel
| [ɟ]
| [ɟ]
|
| άγ'''κι'''ο [ˈaɲ'''ɟ'''o] "cup"
|  
|  
|-
|-
| otherwise before a vowel
| otherwise before a vowel
| [c]
| [c]
|
| '''κι'''ουριακό ['''c'''urʝaˈɡ̊o] "mosque"
|  
|  
|-
|-
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| before a vowel
| before a vowel
| [c]
| [c]
|
| ί'''κκι'''ο [ˈi'''c'''o] "horse"
|  
|  
|-
| κζ
| everywhere
| [ɡz]
|
|
|-
| κζ̌
| everywhere
| [ɡʒ]
|
|
|-
|-
| λ(λ)
| λ(λ)
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [l]
| [l]
|
| ά'''λ'''φα [ˈa'''l'''fa] "alpha"
|
|
|-
|-
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| before a vowel
| before a vowel
| [ʎ]
| [ʎ]
|
| ζέ'''λλι'''α [ˈzeʎa] "thousand"
|
|
|-
|-
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| everywhere
| everywhere
| [m]
| [m]
|
| ζε'''μ'''ελός [ze'''m'''eˈlos] "man"
|
|
|-
|-
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| non-final
| non-final
| [n]
| [n]
|
| ό'''ν'''ομαν [ˈo'''n'''omã] "name"
|
|
|-
|-
| final
| final
| [-̃, ɰ̃]
| [-̃, ɰ̃]
|
| όνομ'''αν''' [ˈonom'''ã'''] "name"
| Nasalizes the preceding vowel.
| Nasalizes the preceding vowel.
|-
|-
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| everywhere
| everywhere
| [n]
| [n]
|
| μά'''νν'''α [ˈma'''n'''a] "manna"
|
|
|-
|-
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| before a vowel
| before a vowel
| [ɲ]
| [ɲ]
|
| χαλαππέ'''νι'''ο [xalaˈpe'''ɲ'''o] "jalapeño"
|
|
|-
|-
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| everywhere
| everywhere
| [ks]
| [ks]
|
| '''ξ'''ούλο [ˈ'''ks'''ulo] "tree"
|
|
|-
|-
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| everywhere
| everywhere
| [kʃ]
| [kʃ]
|
| '''ξ̌'''έκκια [ˈ'''kʃ'''eca] "congregational mosque"
|
|
|-
|-
<!--
| οι
| οι
| after a consonant and before a vowel
| after a consonant and before a vowel
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|  
|  
|
|
|-
|-->
| ου
| ου
| after a consonant or word-initial and before a vowel
| word-initial before a vowel or between vowels
| [w]
| [w]
|  
| '''Ου'''ίντζορ [ˈ'''w'''indzor] "Windsor"
|
| <!--⟨ου⟩ remains a vowel in this circumstance if it has an accent (i.e. ⟨ού⟩).-->
|-
|-
| rowspan="3"| π
| rowspan="4"| π
| after vowel or liquid
| after vowel or liquid
| [b̥]
| [b̥]
|
| κιττά'''π''' [ciˈta'''b̥'''] "book"
|
|
|-
|-
| after nasal
| after nasal
| [b]
| [b]
| κάμ'''π'''α [ˈkam'''b'''a] "worm"
|
|
|
|-
| before voiced obstruent
| [b]
| '''π'''δέλλα [ˈ'''b'''ðela] "leech"
|
|
|-
|-
| otherwise
| otherwise
| [p]
| [p]
|
| '''π'''ρώτος [ˈ'''p'''rod̥os] "first"
|  
|  
|-
|-
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| everywhere
| everywhere
| [p]
| [p]
|
| κά'''ππ'''αρις [ˈka'''p'''aris] "caper"
|  
|  
|-
|-
| πζ
| ρ(ρ)
| everywhere
| [bz]
|
|
|-
| πζ̌
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [bʒ]
|
|
|-
| ρ(ρ)
| [r ~ ɾ]
| [r ~ ɾ]
|
| κάππα'''ρ'''ις [ˈkapa'''r'''is] "caper"
| In free variation.
| In free variation.
|-
|-
| σ(σ)
| σ(σ)
| everywhere
| [s]
| [s]
|
| το'''ς''' [to'''s'''] "the (m. nom. sg.)"
|
|-
| σ̌(σ̌)
| everywhere
| [ʃ]
| '''σ̌'''αχ ['''ʃ'''ax] "shah"
|  
|  
|-
|-
Line 427: Line 484:
| after vowel or liquid
| after vowel or liquid
| [d̥]
| [d̥]
|
| πρώ'''τ'''ος [ˈpro'''d̥'''os] "first"
|
|
|-
|-
| after nasal
| after nasal; before voiced obstruent
| [d]
| [d]
|
| άν'''τ'''ρας [ˈan'''d'''ras] "(adult) man"
|
|
|
|-
|-
| otherwise
| otherwise
| [t]
| [t]
|
| '''τ'''ος ['''t'''os] "the"
|  
|  
|-
|-
Line 444: Line 500:
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [t]
| [t]
|
| ά'''ττ'''α [ˈa'''t'''a] "father"
|  
|  
|-
|-
Line 450: Line 506:
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [ts]
| [ts]
|
| πί'''τσ'''α [ˈpi'''ts'''a] "pizza"
|  
|  
|-
|-
Line 456: Line 512:
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [tʃ]
| [tʃ]
|
| '''τσ̌'''έττερες [ˈ'''tʃ'''eteres] "four"
|  
|  
|-
|-
| τζ
| τζ
| everywhere
|  
| [dz]
| [dz]
|
| '''τζ'''άγγα [ˈ'''dz'''aŋɡa] "slipper"
|  
|  
|-
|-
| τζ̌
| τζ̌
| everywhere
|  
| [dʒ]
| [dʒ]
|
| άν'''τζ̌'''αρος [ˈan'''dʒ'''aros] "messenger"
|  
|  
|-
|-
| rowspan="4" | υ
| rowspan="3" | υ
| after a consonant and before a vowel
| after ⟨α⟩, ⟨ε⟩, or ⟨η⟩ and before a nasal consonant
| [ʝ]
| [m]
| ενε'''υ'''νάνα [ene'''m'''ˈnana] "ninety"
|  
|  
|
|-
| after ⟨α⟩ or ⟨ε⟩ and before a nasal consonant
| [m]
|
|
|-
|-
| after ⟨α⟩ or ⟨ε⟩ and word-final or before a voiceless consonant
| after ⟨α⟩, ⟨ε⟩, or ⟨η⟩ and word-final or before a voiceless consonant
| [f]
| [f]
|
| τα'''υ''' [ta'''f'''] "tau"
|
|
|-
|-
| after ⟨α⟩ or ⟨ε⟩ otherwise
| after ⟨α⟩, ⟨ε⟩, or ⟨η⟩ otherwise
| [v]
| [v]
|
| με'''ύ'''ος [ˈme'''v'''os] "mine"
|
|
|-
|-
| φ
| φ
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [t]
| [f]
|
| '''φ'''υσικά ['''f'''isiˈɡ̊a] "physics"
|  
|  
|-
|-
Line 501: Line 552:
| before front vowel
| before front vowel
| [ç]
| [ç]
|
| '''χ'''εμικιός ['''ç'''emiˈɟ̊os] "chemist"
|  
|  
|-
|-
| otherwise
| otherwise
| [x]
| [x]
|
| '''χ'''άλβα [ˈ'''x'''alva] "halwa"
|  
|  
|-
|-
Line 512: Line 563:
| before vowel
| before vowel
| [ç]
| [ç]
|
| '''χι'''ούμορ [ˈ'''ç'''umor] "humour"
|  
|  
|-
|-
Line 518: Line 569:
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [ps]
| [ps]
|
| '''ψ'''ουγά ['''ps'''uˈɣa] "mind"
|  
|  
|-
|-
Line 524: Line 575:
| everywhere
| everywhere
| [pʃ]
| [pʃ]
|
| '''ψ̌'''έμαν [ˈ'''pʃ'''emã] "soul"
|  
|  
|-
|-
|}
|}
<!--
'''Notes:'''
*Voiced and partially voiced stops/affricates are allophones of the same phoneme in the standard language, with the fully voiced forms occurring after nasals and the partially voiced forms occurring otherwise. However, they have been distinguished here because some dialects keep them as separate phonemes.-->


=====Vowels=====
=====Vowels=====
Line 539: Line 593:
| α
| α
| style="text-align:center;"|[a]
| style="text-align:center;"|[a]
|  
| '''α'''κρός ['''a'''ˈɡ̊ros] "field"
| Actually closer to [ä].
| Actually closer to [ä].
|-
|-
| ε
| ε
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2" |[e]
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2" |[e]
|  
| β'''έ'''κος [ˈv'''e'''ɡ̊os] "bread"
| rowspan="2" | Actually closer to [e̞].
| rowspan="2" | Actually closer to [e̞].
|-
|-
| αι
| αι
|
| β'''αί'''να [ˈv'''e'''na] "hyena"
|-
|-
| ι
| ι
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan="6"|[i]
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan="6"|[i]
|
| μ'''ι'''δός [m'''i'''ˈðos] "wage"
|
|
|-
|-
| η
| η
|
| μαθ'''η'''ματικά [maθ'''i'''mad̥iˈɡ̊a] "mathematics"
|  
| In older texts, instead represents [e] - e.g. ''τρης'' [tres] (modern ''τρες'') "three".
|-
|-
| υ
| υ
|
| φ'''υ'''σικά [f'''i'''siˈɡ̊a]
|  
| In older texts, instead represents [u] - e.g. ''κύγνος'' (modern ''κούγνος'') /ˈkuŋnos/ "swan".
|-
|-
| ει
| ει
| '''εί'''ρος [ˈ'''i'''ros] "child"
|
|
|
|-
|-
| οι
| οι
| είρ'''οι''' [ˈir'''i'''] "children"
|
|
|
|-
|-
| υι
| υι
|
| β'''υί'''αλος [ˈv'''i'''los] "leaf"
|  
|  
|-
|-
| ο
| ο
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2"|[o]
| style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2"|[o]
|
| '''ό'''ν'''ο'''μαν [ˈ'''o'''n'''o'''mã] "name"
| rowspan="2"| Actually closer to [o̞].
| rowspan="2"| Actually closer to [o̞].
|-
|-
| ω
| ω
|
| πρ'''ώ'''τος [ˈpr'''o'''d̥os] "first"
|-
|-
| ου
| ου
| style="text-align:center;"|[u]
| style="text-align:center;"|[u]
|  
| κ'''ού'''ρα [ˈk'''u'''ra] "girl"
| Often written ȣ in older texts.
|}
 
=====Diphthongs and hiatus=====
Falling diphthongs are formed by following a non-high vowel with a high vowel.
 
The following falling diphthongs are possible:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Diphthongs
|-
! offglide→ <br />nucleus↓
! ι /i/ !! η /i/ !! υ /i/ !! ου /u/
|-
! α /a/
| αϊ (άι) || αη || αϋ (άυ) || αου
|-
! ε /e/
| εϊ (έι) || εη || εϋ (έυ) || εου
|-
! ο /o/
| οϊ (όι) || οη || οϋ (όυ) || οου
|-
! ω /o/
| ωι || ωη || ωυ || ωου
|-
|}
Vowels in hiatus may be pronounced as rising diphthongs if that the first vowel is a high vowel.
 
When two adjacent vowels that normally form a digraph are in hiatus or form a diphthong, this is indicated with a diaresis on the second vowel, which is invariably ⟨ι⟩ or ⟨υ⟩.
 
A diaresis is not used if the first vowel has an accent, since that precludes the possibility of it being a digraph.
 
A diaresis can also be used on unaccented ⟨ι⟩ before other vowels in order to indicate hiatus when it would otherwise be pronounced as a consonant. This can also be done with initial ⟨ου⟩ (which is written ⟨ο̈υ⟩), but the latter is rare.
 
=====Stress=====
Primary stress is always indicated in multisyllabic words via an acute accent. Monosyllabic words do not indicate stress.
 
When a syllable with a false diphthong (i.e. αι, ει, οι, υι, αυ, ευ, ηυ) is stressed, the accent is always written on the second vowel letter.
 
When a syllable with a true diphthong is stressed, the accent is written on the nucleus of the diphthong (i.e. the first vowel letter).
<!--
====Latin orthography====
=====Alphabet=====
<!--
{|style="text-align:center"
|
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Letter !! Name !! IPA
|-
| '''Α α''' || άλφα || [ˈalfa]
|-
| '''Β β''' || βέτα || [ˈved̥a]
|-
| '''Γ γ''' || γάμμα || [ˈɣama]
|-
| '''Δ δ''' || δέλτα || [ˈðeld̥a]
|-
| '''Ε ε''' || έμανου || [ˈemanu]
|-
| '''Ζ ζ''' || ζέτα || [ˈzed̥a]
|-
| '''Ζ̌ ζ̌''' || ζ̌έτα || [ˈʒed̥a]
|-
| '''Η η''' || έτα || [ˈed̥a]
|-
| '''Θ θ''' || θέτα || [ˈθed̥a]
|-
| '''Ι ι''' || γιώτα || [ˈʝod̥a]
|}
|
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Letter !! Name !! IPA
|-
| '''Κ κ''' || κάππα || [ˈkapa]
|-
| '''Λ λ''' || λάμπδα || [ˈlambða]
|-
| '''Μ μ''' || μου || [mu]
|-
| '''Ν ν''' || νου || [nu]
|-
| '''Ξ ξ''' || ξι || [ksi]
|-
| '''Ξ̌ ξ̌''' || ξ̌ι || [kʃi]
|-
| '''Ο ο''' || όμανου || [ˈomanu]
|-
| '''Π π''' || πι || [pi]
|-
| '''Ρ ρ''' || ρο || [ro]
|-
| '''Σ σ ς''' || σίγμα || [ˈsiŋma]
|}
|
|
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Letter !! Name !! IPA
|-
| '''Σ̌ σ̌ ς̌''' || σ̌ίγμα || [ˈʃiŋma]
|-
| '''Τ τ''' || ταυ || [taf]
|-
| '''Υ υ''' || ούψιλο || [ˈupsilο]
|-
| '''Φ φ''' || φι || [fi]
|-
| '''Χ χ''' || χι || [çi]
|-
| '''Ψ ψ''' || ψι || [psi]
|-
| '''Ψ̌ ψ̌''' || ψ̌ι || [pʃi]
|-
| '''Ω ω''' || ωμέκα || [oˈmeɡ̊a]
|}
|}
The letters with carons ⟨σ̌, ζ̌, ξ̌, ψ̌⟩ can alternatively be written as multigraphs.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan="2"|With caron !! colspan=3| As multigraph
|-
!before front vowel !! before back vowel !! word-finally or before consonant
|-
| σ̌ || σχ || σχι || σχ
|-
| ζ̌ || ζγ || ζγι || ζγ
|-
| ξ̌ || ξχ || ξχι || ξχ
|-
| ψ̌ || ψχ || ψχι || ψχ
|-
|}
|}
<!--
--!>
=====Consonants=====
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Vowel letters in diphthongs
|+ '''Consonants'''
! '''Letter'''
! '''Context'''
! [[Help:IPA|IPA]]
! '''Examples'''
! '''Remarks'''
|-
| rowspan="2" | '''b'''
| after vowel or liquid
| [b̥]
| kitá'''b''' [ciˈta'''b̥'''] "book"
|
|-
| after nasal; before voiced obstruent
| [b]
| kám'''b'''a [ˈkam'''b'''a] "worm"; e'''b'''ďamás [e'''b'''ðaˈmas] "week"
|
|-
| c
| everywhere
| [ts]
| pí'''c'''a [ˈpi'''ts'''a] "pizza"
|
|-
| č
| everywhere
| [tʃ]
| '''č'''éteres [ˈ'''tʃ'''eteres] "four"
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | d
| after vowel or liquid
| [d̥]
| pró'''d'''os [ˈpro'''d̥'''os] "first"
|
|-
| after nasal; before voiced obstruent
| [d]
| án'''d'''ras [ˈan'''d'''ras] "(adult) man"
|
|-
|-
! colspan="2" |Letter
| ď
![[Help:IPA|IPA]] !! Examples !! Remarks
| everywhere
| [ð]
| '''ď'''úra [ˈ'''ð'''ura] "door"
|
|-
|-
! colspan="5" | In rising diphthongs
<!--
| v
| everywhere
| [v]
| '''β'''εχ ['''v'''ex] "six"
|
|-
|-
| '''i'''
| rowspan="4"| γ
| {{angbr|i}} before a vowel
| before front vowels ([e] or [i]).
| style="text-align:center;"|[j]
| [ʝ]
| '''γ'''εν ['''ʝ'''en] "yen"
|
|
|-
| before velar consonants ([ɡ] or [x]) or nasal consonants ([m] or [n])
| [ŋ]
| μά'''γ'''κο [ˈma'''ŋ'''go] "mango"; α'''γ'''νός [a'''ŋ'''ˈnos] "pure, chaste"
| This occurs when the following consonant is ⟨ξ⟩, ⟨ξ̌⟩, non-palatalized ⟨κ⟩ or ⟨χ⟩, ⟨μ⟩, or ⟨ν⟩.
|-
| before palatal consonants ([ɟ] or [ç])
| [ɲ]
| α'''γ'''κινάρα [a'''ɲ'''ɟiˈnara] "artichoke"
| This occurs when the following consonant is palatalized ⟨κ⟩ or ⟨χ⟩.
|-
| everywhere else
| [ɣ]
| '''γ'''αλκός ['''ɣ'''alˈɡ̊os] "copper"
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | γγ
| before front vowel
| [ɲ]
| ά'''γγ'''ελος [ˈa'''ɲ'''elos] "angel"
|
|
|-
|-
|'''u'''
| elsewhere
| {{angbr|u}} before a vowel (but silent in {{angbr|qu}} and {{angbr|gu}} before an {{angbr|e}} or {{angbr|i}})
| [ŋ]
| style="text-align:center;"|[w]
| ά'''γγ'''ουρο [ˈa'''ŋ'''uro] "cucumber"
|
|
|-
| γι
| before vowels
| [ʝ]
| μα'''γι'''ά [maˈ'''ʝ'''a] "yeast"
|
|
|-
|-
|'''ü'''
| γγι
| {{angbr|ü}} before a vowel (only used in {{angbr|qü}} and {{angbr|gü}} before an {{angbr|e}} or {{angbr|i}})
| before vowels
| style="text-align:center;"|[w]
| [ɲ]
| πάρκκι'''γγι'''ους [ˈparci'''ɲ'''us] "parking (gen.)"
|
|
|-
<!--
| ει
| after a consonant and before a vowel
| [ʝ]
|
|
|
|-
|-
! colspan="5" | In falling diphthongs
| ζ
| everywhere
| [z]
| '''ζ'''εμελός ['''z'''emeˈlos] "man"
|
|-
|-
| '''i'''
| ζ̌
| {{angbr|i}} after a vowel
| everywhere
| style="text-align:center;"|[j]
| [ʒ]
| βρου'''ζ̌'''ικιά [vru'''ʒ'''iˈɟ̊a] "Phrygian"
|
|
|-
<!--
| η
| after a consonant and before a vowel
| [ʝ]
|
|
|
|-
|-
| '''y'''
| θ
| {{angbr|y}} after a vowel
| everywhere
| style="text-align:center;"|[j]
| [θ]
| π'''θ'''ουγά [p'''θ'''uˈɣa] "fold"
|
|
| Almost always word-final. ''-iy'' is pronounced [i].
|-
|-
|'''u'''
| rowspan="3"| ι
| {{angbr|u}} after a vowel
| preceded by ⟨μ⟩ and followed by a vowel
| style="text-align:center;"|[w]
| [ɲ]
| μ'''ι'''α [m'''ɲ'''a] "one (f.)"
| <!--⟨ι⟩ remains a vowel in these positions if it has a diaresis and/or an accent (i.e. ⟨ϊ, ί, ΐ⟩).
|-
|preceded by an unvoiced consonant other than ⟨κ⟩ or ⟨χ⟩ and followed by a vowel
| [ç]
| ιμάτ'''ι'''ο [iˈmat'''ç'''o] "cloak"
| [tç] and [sç] may instead be pronounced [tʃ] and [ʃ] respectively.
|-
|preceded by a voiced consonant other than ⟨γ⟩, ⟨λ⟩, ⟨μ⟩, or ⟨ν⟩ and followed by a vowel
| [ʝ]
| τρ'''ι'''α [tr'''ʝ'''a] "three (n.)"
| [dʝ] and [zʝ] may instead be pronounced [dʒ] and [ʒ] respectively.
|-
| rowspan="7"| κ
| after vowel or liquid and before front vowel ([e] or [i]).
| [ɟ̊]
| κα'''κ'''οί [kaˈ'''ɟ̊'''i] "bad, harmful (pl.)"
|
|-
| after vowel or liquid otherwise
| [ɡ̊]
| κα'''κ'''ός [kaˈ'''ɡ̊'''os] "bad, harmful"
|
|-
| after nasal before front vowel
| [ɟ]
| αγ'''κ'''ινάρα [aɲ'''ɟ'''iˈnara] "artichoke"
|
|-
| after nasal otherwise
| [ɡ]
| μάγ'''κ'''ο [ˈmaŋ'''ɡ'''o] "mango"
|
|-
| before voiced obstruent
| [ɡ]
| ί'''κ'''δις [ˈi'''ɡ'''ðis] "mortar"
|
|-
| otherwise before front vowel
| [c]
| '''κ'''ιττάπ ['''c'''iˈtab̥] "book"
|
|-
| everywhere else
| [k]
| '''κ'''ακός ['''k'''aˈɡ̊os] "bad, harmful"
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | κκ
| before front vowel
| [c]
| δί'''κκ'''οι [ˈði'''c'''i] "discs"
|
|-
| otherwise
| [k]
| Μά'''κκ'''α [ˈma'''k'''a] "Makkah"
|
|-
| rowspan="3"| κι
| after vowel or liquid and before a vowel
| [ɟ̊]
| βρουζ̌ι'''κι'''ά [vruʒiˈ'''ɟ̊'''a] "Phrygian"
|
|
|-
| after nasal before a vowel
| [ɟ]
| άγ'''κι'''ο [ˈaɲ'''ɟ'''o] "cup"
|
|-
| otherwise before a vowel
| [c]
| '''κι'''ουριακό ['''c'''urʝaˈɡ̊o] "mosque"
|
|-
| κκι
| before a vowel
| [c]
| ί'''κκι'''ο [ˈi'''c'''o] "horse"
|
|-
| λ(λ)
| everywhere
| [l]
| ά'''λ'''φα [ˈa'''l'''fa] "alpha"
|
|
|-
|-
|'''w'''
| λ(λ)ι
| {{angbr|w}} after a vowel
| before a vowel
| style="text-align:center;"|[w]
| [ʎ]
| ζέ'''λλι'''α [ˈzeʎa] "thousand"
|
|-
| μ(μ)
| everywhere
| [m]
| ζε'''μ'''ελός [ze'''m'''eˈlos] "man"
|
|-
| rowspan="2"| ν
| non-final
| [n]
| ό'''ν'''ομαν [ˈo'''n'''omã] "name"
|
|-
| final
| [-̃, ɰ̃]
| όνομ'''αν''' [ˈonom'''ã'''] "name"
| Nasalizes the preceding vowel.
|-
| νν
| everywhere
| [n]
| μά'''νν'''α [ˈma'''n'''a] "manna"
|
|-
| ν(ν)ι
| before a vowel
| [ɲ]
| χαλαππέ'''νι'''ο [xalaˈpe'''ɲ'''o] "jalapeño"
|
|-
| ξ
| everywhere
| [ks]
| '''ξ'''ούλο [ˈ'''ks'''ulo] "tree"
|
|-
| ξ̌
| everywhere
| [kʃ]
| '''ξ̌'''έκκια [ˈ'''kʃ'''eca] "larger mosque where Friday prayer is established (جامع)"
|
|-
<!--
| οι
| after a consonant and before a vowel
| [ʝ]
|
|
|-
| ου
| word-initial before a vowel or between vowels
| [w]
| '''Ου'''ίντζορ [ˈ'''w'''indzor] "Windsor"
| <!--⟨ου⟩ remains a vowel in this circumstance if it has an accent (i.e. ⟨ού⟩).-
|-
| otherwise
| [p]
| '''π'''ρώτος [ˈ'''p'''rod̥os] "first"
|
|-
| ππ
| everywhere
| [p]
| κά'''ππ'''αρις [ˈka'''p'''aris] "caper"
|
|-
| ρ(ρ)
| everywhere
| [r ~ ɾ]
| κάππα'''ρ'''ις [ˈkapa'''r'''is] "caper"
| In free variation.
|-
| σ(σ)
| everywhere
| [s]
| το'''ς''' [to'''s'''] "the (m. nom. sg.)"
|
|-
| otherwise
| [t]
| '''τ'''ος ['''t'''os] "the"
|
|-
| ττ
| everywhere
| [t]
| ά'''ττ'''α [ˈa'''t'''a] "father"
|
|-
 
| τζ
|
| [dz]
| '''τζ'''αν'''τζ'''άρα ['''dz'''anˈ'''dz'''ara] "mosquito"
|
|-
| τζ̌
|
| [dʒ]
| άν'''τζ̌'''αρος [ˈan'''dʒ'''aros] "messenger"
|
|-
| rowspan="3" | υ
| after ⟨α⟩, ⟨ε⟩, or ⟨η⟩ and before a nasal consonant
| [m]
| ενε'''υ'''νάνα [ene'''m'''ˈnana] "ninety"
|
|-
| after ⟨α⟩, ⟨ε⟩, or ⟨η⟩ and word-final or before a voiceless consonant
| [f]
| τα'''υ''' [ta'''f'''] "tau"
|
|-
| after ⟨α⟩, ⟨ε⟩, or ⟨η⟩ otherwise
| [v]
| με'''ύ'''ος [ˈme'''v'''os] "mine"
|
|-
| φ
| everywhere
| [f]
| '''φ'''υσικά ['''f'''isiˈɡ̊a] "physics"
|
|-
| rowspan="2"| χ
| before front vowel
| [ç]
| '''χ'''εμικιός ['''ç'''emiˈɟ̊os] "chemist"
|
|-
| otherwise
| [x]
| '''χ'''άλβα [ˈ'''x'''alva] "halwa"
|
|-
| χι
| before vowel
| [ç]
| '''χι'''ούμορ [ˈ'''ç'''umor] "humour"
|
|-
| ψ
| everywhere
| [ps]
| '''ψ'''ουγά ['''ps'''uˈɣa] "mind"
|
|-
|ψ̌
| everywhere
| [pʃ]
| '''ψ̌'''έμαν [ˈ'''pʃ'''emã] "soul"
|
|---!>
|}
<!--
'''Notes:'''
*Voiced and partially voiced stops/affricates are allophones of the same phoneme in the standard language, with the fully voiced forms occurring after nasals and the partially voiced forms occurring otherwise. However, they have been distinguished here because some dialects keep them as separate phonemes.--!>
 
=====Vowels=====
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Monophthong Vowels
|-
! Letter
! [[Help:IPA|IPA]]
! Examples !! Remarks
|-
| a
| style="text-align:center;"|[a]
| '''a'''grós ['''a'''ˈɡ̊ros] "field"
| Actually closer to [ä].
|-
| e
| style="text-align:center;" | [e]
| v'''é'''gos [ˈv'''e'''ɡ̊os] "bread"; v'''é'''na [ˈv'''e'''na] "hyena"
| Actually closer to [e̞].
|-
| ι
| style="text-align:center;"|[i]
| m'''i'''ďós [m'''i'''ˈðos] "wage"; mať'''i'''mad'''i'''gá [maθ'''i'''mad̥'''i'''ˈɡ̊a] "mathematics"; f'''i'''s'''i'''gá [f'''i'''s'''i'''ˈɡ̊a]; '''í'''r'''i''' [ˈ'''i'''r'''i'''] "children"; m'''í'''as'''i'''s [ˈm'''i'''as'''i'''s] "myiasis"
|
|-
| ο
| style="text-align:center;"|[o]
| '''ó'''n'''o'''man [ˈ'''o'''n'''o'''mã] "name"; pr'''ó'''d'''o'''s [ˈpr'''o'''d̥'''o'''s] "first"
| Actually closer to [o̞].
|-
| u
| style="text-align:center;"|[u]
| k'''ú'''ra [ˈk'''u'''ra] "girl"
|
|
| Almost always word-final. ''-uw'' is pronounced [w].
|}
|}
'''Note:'''
=====Diphthongs and hiatus=====
Falling diphthongs are formed by following a non-high vowel with a high vowel.
 
The following falling diphthongs are possible: ''ai, au, ei, eu, oi, ou''.


''iu'' and ''ui'' are ambiguous, since they may either be used for rising diphthongs (/ju/ and /wi/ respectively) or falling diphthongs (/iw/ and /uj/ respectively). In most cases, they represent rising diphthongs unless followed by ''t''. ''iw'' and ''uy'' always represent falling diphthongs.
Vowels in hiatus may be pronounced as rising diphthongs if that the first vowel is a high vowel.


=====Stress=====
=====Stress=====
Stress in a word can be determined from the way it is written via the following rules:
Primary stress is always indicated in multisyllabic words via an acute accent.
*If there is any vowel with an acute accent, that vowel is stressed.
 
*If there is no vowel with an acute accent:
When a syllable with a diphthong is stressed, the accent is written on the nucleus of the diphthong (i.e. the first vowel letter).-->
**The penultimate vowel is stressed if the word ends in a vowel, vowel + ''-n'', or vowel + ''-s''.
**The ultimate vowel is stressed if the word ends in any consonant other than ''-n'' or ''-s''.
*Note that:
**Diphthongs are always treated as one syllable.
**''iV'' and ''uV'' (where ''V'' represents any vowel other than ''i'' or ''u'') are treated as diphthongs, and therefore count as one syllable.
***The exception to this is if the ''i'' or ''u'' has an accent. However, this is rare since words that would have ''íV'' and ''úV'' are usually written as ''iyV'' and ''uwV''.
**Final ''-y'' and ''-w'' are treated as consonants, and they shift the stress to the final syllable.
-->


===Consonants===
===Consonants===
<!--
====Stop and affricate consonants====
The following consonant sets exist:
{| class="wikitable"
! Set !! Unvoiced 1 !! Unvoiced 2 !! Voiced 1 !! Voiced 2
|-
! Bilabial stops
| π¹ || ππ || π² || π³
|-
! Dental stops
| τ¹ || ττ || τ² || τ³
|-
! Alveolar affricates
| τσ¹ || τσ² || τζ² || τζ³
|-
! Post-alveolar affricates
| τσ̌¹ || τσ̌² || τζ̌² || τζ̌³
|-
! Palatal stops
| κ(ι)¹ || κκ(ι) || κ(ι)² || κ(ι)³
|-
! Velar stops
| κ¹ || κκ || κ² || κ³
|-
|}
'''Conditions:'''
¹ Word-initial.
² Between vowels; after liquids before vowels.
³ After nasals.
These sets are pronounced as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
! Type 1 !! Standard dialect !! Alternate dialect
|-
! Voiceless 1
| unvoiced (e.g. [t]) || unvoiced (e.g. [t])
|-
! Voiceless 2
| unvoiced (e.g. [t]) || aspirated (e.g. [tʰ])
|-
! Voiced 1
| partially voiced (e.g. [d̥]) || unvoiced (e.g. [t])
|-
! Voiced 2
| fully voiced (e.g. [d]) || fully voiced (e.g. [d]) with weakening of preceding nasal
|-
|}
'''Notes:'''
*"Voiced 1" is not considered a separate phoneme. In the standard dialect, it is considered the same phoneme as "voiced 2". In the alternate dialect, it is considered the same phoneme as "voiceless 1".
*In the case of "voiced 2" (i.e. post-nasal), the preceding nasal is partly or completely dropped in the alternate dialect. In other words, standard [nd] is pronounced [ⁿd] or even [d]. In the standard dialect, the nasal is fully pronounced.
*When a postclitic beginning in a "voiceless 1" consonant is preceded by a nasal, the consonant becomes "voiced 2" (but this is not indicated in writing).
-->


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
Line 670: Line 1,273:
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->
===Morphophonology===
===Morphophonology===
===Phonological history===
==Morphology==
==Morphology==
===Nouns===
Nouns may be one of three genders: masculine, feminine, or neuter.
====Cases====
Nouns are declined for four cases:
*'''Nominative'''
*'''Genitive'''
*'''Oblique'''
*'''Vocative'''
The cases are used similarly as they are in Ancient Greek, with oblique covering the roles of accusative and dative. Most prepositions take an oblique object.
====Stress====
Nouns retain their stress on the same syllable throughout their declensions as far as possible.
There are a few irregular nouns that shift their stress.
====Citation form====
The citation form for most nouns is: ''nominative singular, genitive singular''.
====First declension (a-stems)====
First declension nouns are most often feminine. Neuter first declension nouns are rare.
The endings are as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ First declension endings
! rowspan="2"|Case !! colspan="3" | Singular !! colspan="3"| Plural
|-
! M !! F !! N !! M !! F !! N
|-
! Nominative
| -ας || colspan="2" | -α || colspan="2"| -αι || -α
|-
! Genitive
| colspan="3" | -ας || colspan="3" | -αν
|-
! Oblique
| colspan="2" | -αν || -α || colspan="2"|-αις || -α
|-
! Vocative
| colspan="3" | -α || colspan="2"|-αι || -α
|}
====Second declension (o-stems)====
Feminine declension nouns are rare.
The endings are as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Second declension endings
! rowspan="2"|Case !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2"| Plural
|-
! M/F !! N !! M/F !! N
|-
! Nominative
| -ος || -ο || -οι || -α
|-
! Genitive
| colspan="2" | -ους || colspan="2" | -ουν
|-
! Oblique
| -ουν || -ο || -οις || -α
|-
! Vocative
| -ε || -ο || -οι || -α
|-
|}
====Third declension====
There are three sub-classes of third declension nouns: consonant stems, i-stems, and mixed stems.
=====Consonant stems=====
Consonant stems often have unpredictable nominative singular forms. These may alternate with forms in ''-ας'' (masc./fem.) or ''-α'' (neut.).
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Consonant stem endings
! rowspan="2"|Case !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2"| Plural
|-
! M/F !! N !! M/F !! N
|-
! Nominative
| -ας/-/... || -α/-/... || -ες || -α
|-
! Genitive
| colspan="2" | -ους || colspan="2" | -ουν
|-
! Oblique
| -αν || -α/-/... || -ες || -α
|-
! Vocative
| -ας/-/... || -α/-/... || -ες || -α
|-
|}
=====i-stems=====
Similarly to consonant stems, i-stems may have irregular nominative singular forms, which may alternate with regular forms.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ i-stem endings
! rowspan="2"|Case !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2"| Plural
|-
! M/F !! N !! M/F !! N
|-
! Nominative
| -ις/-/... || -ι/-ος/-/... || -ες || -ια
|-
! Genitive
| colspan="2" | -ιους || colspan="2" | -ιουν
|-
! Oblique
| -ιν || -ι/-ος/-/... || -ες || -ια
|-
! Vocative
| -ις/-/... || -ι/-ος/-/... || -ες || -ια
|-
|}
=====Mixed stems=====
Mixed stems are declined similarly to i-stems, but ''-ι-'' is dropped before vowels. Again, mixed stems may have irregular nominative singular forms.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Mixed stem endings
! rowspan="2"|Case !! colspan="2" | Singular !! colspan="2"| Plural
|-
! M/F !! N !! M/F !! N
|-
! Nominative
| -ις/-/... || -ι/-/... || -ες || -α
|-
! Genitive
| colspan="2" | -ους || colspan="2" | -ουν
|-
! Oblique
| -ιν || -ι/-/... || -ες || -α
|-
! Vocative
| -ις/-/... || -ι/-/... || -ες || -α
|-
|}
===Pronouns===
====Personal pronouns====
Personal pronouns have strong and weak forms.
{|class="wikitable"
|+ First and second person pronouns
! rowspan="2"| !! colspan="2" | Nominative !! colspan="2"| Genitive !! colspan="2"| Oblique !! rowspan="2" | Possessive
|-
! Strong !! Weak !! Strong !! Weak !! Strong !! Weak
|-
! 1S
| εγιού || γιου || εμεύ || μευ ||εμέ || με || μευός, -ά, -ό
|-
! 2S
| ετού || του || ετεύ || τευ ||ετέ || τε || τευός, -ά, -ό
|-
! 1P
| ενές || νες || ενιούν || νω ||ενές || νω || νωμός, -ά, -ό
|-
! 2P
| εβές || βες || εβιούν || βω ||εβές || βω || βωμός, -ά, -ό
|-
|}
Third person pronouns are declined as regular first/second declension adjectives with the following citation forms:
*'''Strong:''' απθός, -ά, -ό
*'''Weak:''' θος, -α, -ο
*'''Reflexive:''' βαπθός, -ά, -ό
====Definite article/pronoun====
Declined as a 1st/2nd declension adjective: ''τος, τα, το''.
Follows the substantive it modifies. Can also be used as an independent pronoun.
====Indefinite pronoun====
Declined as the definite pronoun with initial ''τ-'' replaced with ''κ-''.
====Relative pronoun====
Declined as the definite pronoun with initial ''τ-'' replaced with ''γι-''.
====Demonstrative pronouns====
*'''Near demonstrative:''' σεμός, -ά, -ό
**First/second declension
*'''Middle demonstrative:''' σις, σα, σι, σους
**First/third declension (mixed stem)
*'''Far demonstrative:''' τόττος, -α, -ο
**First/second declension
These can be used with a following noun or on their own.
===Adjectives===
====First/second declension====
Declined as second declension in masculine and neuter, and first declension in feminine.
This is the most common class of adjectives.
The citation form is ''masculine nominative singular, feminine nominative singular, neuter nominative singular''.
'''Examples:'''
*πρώτος, -α, -ο "first"
====First/third declension====
Declined as third declension in masculine and neuter, and first declension in feminine.
The citation form is ''masculine nominative singular, feminine nominative singular, neuter nominative singular, masculine/neuter genitive singular''.
'''Examples:'''
*ένας (εις), μια, εν, ένους "one"
*αίδονας (αίδων), αίδοισα, αίδον, αίδονους "burning"
====First declension====
Declined as first declension in all genders.
The citation form is ''masculine nominative singular, feminine/neuter nominative singular, genitive singular''.
'''Examples:'''
*μέκας, μέκα, μέκας "big"
====Second declension====
Declined as second declension in all genders.
This class of adjectives is rare.
The citation form is ''masculine/feminine nominative singular, neuter nominative singular, genitive singular''.
====Third declension====
Declined as third declension in all genders.
The citation form is normally ''masculine/feminine nominative singular, neuter nominative singular, genitive singular''
The exceptions are the numerals ''τρες, τρια'' "three" and ''τσ̌έττερες, τσ̌έττερα'' "four", which do not have singular forms. Their citation forms are ''masculine/feminine nominative plural, neuter nominative plural''.
====Usage====
Adjectives can be used in the following ways:
#'''Attributive:''' In this case, the adjective generally follows its noun. Alternatively, it may precede the noun.
#'''Predicative:''' Used as a predicate.
#'''Substantive:''' Used on its own without a noun, generally with a definite article.
<!--Note: I made the definite article, as well as adjectives, follow the nouns they govern. I actually have some justification for this now, both by extension/analogy from Ancient Greek usage (e.g. βασιλεὺς ὁ κακός) and by the fact that I allowed the definite article to act as a pronoun (meaning that, at least originally, substantive adjectives would make more sense to precede it rather than follow it)-->
===Verbs===
====Notes on verb conjugation====
#Accent is recessive except in forms with fixed accent, which is indicated with an accent sign in the ending.
#In vowel initial verbs, the past prefix ε- changes form predictably based on the initial vowel as follows:
#*ε- + ε- > α-;
#*ε- is dropped before other front vowels (ι-, ει-, οι-, αι-, η-, υ-, υι-);
#*ε- > γι- before back vowels (α-, ο-, ω-, ου-).
#The future forms are also used as present subjunctive/jussive.
====Principle parts and stems====
===Adverbs===
===Particles===
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
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*''poco'' "a little" → ''menos'' "less"
*''poco'' "a little" → ''menos'' "less"
-->
-->
===Numerals===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Phrygian numerals
|-
! !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Adverbial !! Collective
|-
! 0
| ματένας (ματείς), ματεμιά, ματέν, ματένους || ματενάνος, -α, -ο || — || —
|-
! 1
|  ένας (εις), μια, εν, ένους || πρώτος, -α, -ο || άπαχ || μονάς, -άτους
|-
! 2
| τφω || τφέτερος, -α, -ο || τφις || τφάς, -άτους
|-
! 3
| τρες, τρια || τρίτος, -α, -ο || τρις || τριας, -άτους
|-
! 4
| τσ̌έττερες, τσ̌έττερα || τσ̌ετέρτος, -α, -ο || τσ̌ετράτζ̌ις || τσ̌ετράς, -άτους
|-
! 5
| πίντζ̌ε || πίντος, -α, -ο || πίγκιάτζ̌ις || πιντάς, -άτους
|-
! 6
| βεχ || βέκθος, -α, -ο || βεξάτζ̌ις || βεκθάς, -άτους
|-
! 7
| επθάν || έπθαμος, -α, -ο || εμμάτζ̌ις || επθαμάς, -άτους
|-
! 8
| οκθών || όκθουος, -α, -ο || οκθώτζ̌ις || οκθουάς, -άτους
|-
! 9
| ενιάν || ένιανος, -α, -ο || ενευνάτζ̌ις || ενιανάς, -άτους
|-
! 10
| τέκαν || τέκανος, -α, -ο || τεκανάτζ̌ις || τεκανάς, -άτους
|-
! 11
| ένεκαν || ενέκανος, -α, -ο || ενεκανάτζ̌ις || ενεκανάς, -άτους
|-
! 12
| τφώτεκαν || τφωτέκανος, -α, -ο || τφωτεκανάτζ̌ις || τφωτεκανάς, -άτους
|-
! 13
| τρίτεκαν || τριτέκανος, -α, -ο || τριτεκανάτζ̌ις || τριτεκανάς, -άτους
|-
! 14
| τσ̌ετέρτεκαν || τσ̌ετερτέκανος, -α, -ο || τσ̌ετερτεκανάτζ̌ις || τσ̌ετερτεκανάς, -άτους
|-
! 15
| πίντεκαν || πιντέκανος, -α, -ο || πιντεκανάτζ̌ις || πιντεκανάς, -άτους
|-
! 16
| βέκθεκαν || βεκθέκανος, -α, -ο || βεκθεκανάτζ̌ις || βεκθεκανάς, -άτους
|-
! 17
| επθάνεκαν || επθανέκανος, -α, -ο || επθανεκανάτζ̌ις || επθανεκανάς, -άτους
|-
! 18
| οκθώνεκαν|| οκθωνέκανος, -α, -ο || οκθωνεκανάτζ̌ις || οκθωνεκανάς, -άτους
|-
! 19
| ενιάνεκαν|| ενιανέκανος, -α, -ο || ενιανεκανάτζ̌ις || ενιανεκανάς, -άτους
|-
! 20
| βίκιανι || βικιοττός, -ά, -ό || βικιανιάτζ̌ις || βικιανιάς, -άτους
|-
! 30
| τριάνα || τριαττός, -ά, -ό || τριανάτζ̌ις || τριανάς, -άτους
|-
! 40
| τσ̌ετράνα || τσ̌ετραττός, -ά, -ό || τσ̌ετρανάτζ̌ις || τσ̌ετρανάς, -άτους
|-
! 50
| πιγκιάνα || πιγκιαττός, -ά, -ό || πιγκιανάτζ̌ις || πιγκιανάς, -άτους
|-
! 60
| βεξάνα || βεξαττός, -ά, -ό || βεξανάτζ̌ις || βεξανάς, -άτους
|-
! 70
| εμμάνα || εμματτός, -ά, -ό || εμμανάτζ̌ις || εμμανάς, -άτους
|-
! 80
| οκθώνα || οκθωττός, -ά, -ό || οκθωνάτζ̌ις || οκθωνάς, -άτους
|-
! 90
| ενευνάνα || ενευναττός, -ά, -ό || ενευνανάτζ̌ις || ενευνανάς, -άτους
|-
! 100
| εκανόυν || εκανοττός, -ά, -ό  || εκανάτζ̌ις || εκανάς, -άτους
|-
! 200
| τφακιάνιοι || τφακιανιοττός, -ά, -ό || τφακιανιάτζ̌ις || τφακιανάς, -άτους
|-
! 300
| τριακιάνιοι || τριακιανιοττός, -ά, -ό || τριακιανιάτζ̌ις || τριακιανάς, -άτους
|-
! 400
| τσ̌ετρακιάνιοι || τσ̌ετρακιανιοττός, -ά, -ό || τσ̌ετρακιανιάτζ̌ις || τσ̌ετρακιανάς, -άτους
|-
! 500
| πιγκιακιάνιοι || πιγκιακιανιοττός, -ά, -ό || πιγκιακιανιάτζ̌ις || πιγκιακιανάς, -άτους
|-
! 600
| βεξακιάνιοι || βεξακιανιοττός, -ά, -ό || βεξακιανιάτζ̌ις || βεξακιανάς, -άτους
|-
! 700
| εμμακιάνιοι || εμμακιανιοττός, -ά, -ό || εμμακιανιάτζ̌ις || εμμακιανάς, -άτους
|-
! 800
| οκθωκιάνιοι || οκθωκιανιοττός, -ά, -ό || οκθωκιανιάτζ̌ις || οκθωκιανάς, -άτους
|-
! 900
| ενευνακιάνιοι || ενευνακιανιοττός, -ά, -ό || ενευνακιανιάτζ̌ις || ενευνακιανάς, -άτους
|-
! 1000
| ζέλλια || ζελλιοττός, -ά, -ό || ζελλιάτζ̌ις || ζελλιάς, -άτους
|-
! 2000
| τφωζέλλιαι || τφωζελλιοττός, -ά, -ό || τφωζελλιάτζ̌ις || τφωζελλιάς, -άτους
|-
|}
==Syntax==
==Syntax==
===Constituent order===
===Constituent order===
Line 921: Line 1,889:
===Dependent clauses===
===Dependent clauses===
<!-- etc. etc. -->
<!-- etc. etc. -->
==Vocabulary==
===Time - ''Ώρα τα''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Seasons - ''Γρόνοι τοι''
! English !! Phrygian
|-
| spring || βιαρ, βιάρους
|-
| summer || ζ̌ερός, -ιούς
|-
| fall || οπώρα, -ας
|-
| winter || ζ̌ειμούν, -ους
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Gregorian months - ''Μενές τοι κρεκοριανόι''
! English !! Phrygian
|-
| January || Γιανβάριος, -ιους
|-
| February || Φερβάριος, -ιους
|-
| March || Μάρτσ̌ος, -ιους
|-
| April || Απρίλιος, -ιους
|-
| May || Μάγιος, -ους
|-
| June || Γιούνιος, -ους
|-
| July || Γιούλιος, -ους
|-
| August || Άπγουττος, -ους
|-
| September || Σεπθέμπριος, -ιους
|-
| October || Οκθώβριος, -ιους
|-
| November || Νουέμπριος, -ιους
|-
| December || Δετζ̌έμπριος, -ιους
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Days of the week - ''Άμανα τα πδομάτους τας''
! English !! Phrygian
|-
| Sunday || Κοιρακά
|-
| Monday || Τφέτερα
|-
| Tuesday || Τρίτα
|-
| Wednesday || Τσ̌ετέρτα
|-
| Thursday || Πίντα
|-
| Friday || Τζ̌ούμγα
|-
| Saturday || Σάβατο
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Parts of the day - ''Μέλοι τοι άμανους τους''
! English !! Phrygian
|-
| day || άμαρ, άμανους ''(n.)''
|-
| dawn || απγά, -ς ''(f.)''
|-
| morning || βώς, βώβους ''(f.)''
|-
| noon || μεσαμπριό, -ούς ''(n.)''
|-
| afternoon || τείλα, -ς ''(f.)''
|-
| evening || βεππέρα, -ς ''(f.)''
|-
| dusk || τούτις, τούτιους ''(f.)''
|-
| night || νουκθάς (νουχ), νουκθούς ''(f.)''
|-
| midnight || μεσανουξ̌ά, -ς ''(f.)''
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Units of time - ''Μονάτους ται ώρας τας''
! English !! Phrygian
|-
| second || τφέτερο, -ους ''(n.)''
|-
| minute || λεπθό, -ούς ''(n.)''
|-
| hour || ώρα, -ς ''(f.)''
|-
| day || άμαρ, άμανους ''(n.)''
|-
| week || πδομάς, -άτους ''(f.)''
|-
| month || μένας (μεις), μενούς ''(m.)''
|-
| season || γρόνος, -ους ''(m.)''
|-
| year || βέτος, βείτους ''(n.)''
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Time adverbs - ''Επίβρεμανα τα ωραίκια''
! English !! Phrygian
|-
| now || νουν
|-
| then || άρα; τότζ̌ε
|-
| recently, a short time ago || άρτι
|-
| earlier || προς
|-
| soon, shortly ||
|-
| later || ψές
|-
| always || αει; πάντοτζ̌ε
|-
| often || πυιλάτζ̌ις
|-
| sometimes || κότζ̌ε
|-
| rarely || παύροτζ̌ε
|-
| never || μέκοτζ̌ε
|-
| ever || κώκοτζ̌ε
|-
| still, yet || έτι; κω
|-
| already ||
|-
| today || σάμαρουν
|-
| tonight || σινούκθουν
|-
| yesterday || κδες
|-
| last night ||
|-
| tomorrow || αύριουν
|-
| before yesterday ||
|-
| two nights ago ||
|-
| after tomorrow ||
|-
| this week ||
|-
| last week ||
|-
| next week ||
|-
| this year || σέτες
|-
| last year || πέρουτι
|-
| next year ||
|}


==Example texts==
==Example texts==
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[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Graeco-Phrygian]]
[[Category:Graeco-Phrygian_languages]]
Shariifka
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