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Meskangela: Difference between revisions
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For example: '''མེ'''ཀྱིམཾ སྱེ '''''me'''kyima sye'' “this is their house”; '''ནཾ'''ཁཾཏྟཾ སྤཾཏཾངེཧཿ '''''na'''khātta spataŋehā'' “we found your coat”. | For example: '''མེ'''ཀྱིམཾ སྱེ '''''me'''kyima sye'' “this is their house”; '''ནཾ'''ཁཾཏྟཾ སྤཾཏཾངེཧཿ '''''na'''khātta spataŋehā'' “we found your coat”. | ||
====Nominal derivation==== | |||
The most common way to form new noun is derivation from verbs with special suffixes. Such forms are treated as nouns, but some may still possess verb-like qualities, such as conjugation. For example ལཏེམཾཏཾ ''lëtemata'' “sightful” is a verb with its infinitive being ལཏེསཾཏཾན ''lëtematan''. | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
! Suffix | |||
! Category | |||
! colspan=3| Example | |||
|- | |||
! -t | |||
| Deverbal action or process nouns | |||
| ལཏཾཏ ''lëtat'' “sight” | |||
| ལཏེམཾཏཾ ''lëtemata'' “sightful” | |||
| ལཏཾསཏ ''lëtasët'' “appearance (poetic)” | |||
|- | |||
! -mā | |||
| Resultative and manner nouns | |||
| ལཏཾམཿ ''lëtamā'' “scene” | |||
| colspan=2| ལཏེཏཾམཿ ''lëtetamā'' “observation” | |||
|- | |||
! -s | |||
| Object nouns | |||
| ལཏཾས ''lëtas'' “glass” | |||
| ལཏཾམཾས ''lëtamas'' “sign” | |||
| ལཏཾཏས ''lëtatës'' “character” | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
To create new [[w:Agent noun|agent nouns]] Meskangela has various agentive suffixes. The most common are: ''-is'' (''bërëjis'' “writer” from ''bërëjan'' “to write”), ''-cis'' (''lëtacis'' “witness” from ''lëtan'' “to look”), ''-ikā'' (''punikā'' “carrier” from ''punan'' “to carry by hand”), ''-wa'' (''biliŋwa'' “forest dweller” from ''biliŋ'' “forest”), ''-pa'' (''këmōpa'' “worker (Western)” from ''këmowan'' “to work”). The instrumental suffixes ''-(a)zā'' and ''-r'' can also possess agentive meaning (''khazā'' “walker” from ''khadan'' “to walk”) | |||
===Deixis=== | |||
'''Topographical deixis''' refers to a variety of [[w:Deixis#Spatial_deixis|spatial-environmental deixis]], in which typically distal reference to entities is made in terms of a set of topographically-anchored referential planes: most often, upward, downward,or on the same level. Topographical deixis is a pervasive feature in Meskangela dialects. The primary frame of reference of deixis in Meskangela is egocentric, in that the speaker is a deictic centre. It manifests in the form of demonstrative pronouns, motion verbs modifiers and certain nominals, most commonly locatives. | |||
Demonstratives are the most common category of topographic deixis in Meskangela. The spatial orientation is defined in three dimensions: distance from the deictic centre (or depth), position upward or downwards from said centre (verticality) and position relative towards a certain geographical feature (horizontality). These demonstratives transparently derive from the motion verb modifiers, for instance, the upward-position modifier ''twa-'' comes from the verb ''twajan'' “go up, ascend”. | |||
The table below shows the simplest demonstratives in two dimensions: depth and verticality. The third dimension is added as a suffix to the demonstratives, and are highly varied. The most common are topographic features: ''-mo'' “surface”, ''-(s)ki/-gi'' ‘’hill, slope’’, ''-le'' “river, valley”, ''-ju'' “bank, shore”; focus: ''-no/-nū'' “already mentioned”, ''-kha'' “any, newly introduced, one of several”; position above or below: ''-tu/-syu'' “on top, above, overhead”, ''-ma'' “below, under water”; side, relative to the speaker: ''-bi(j)'' “left”, ''-ra'' “right”, ''-(së)ŋa'' “front”, ''-phir'' “back, behind”. Southern Meskangela has two additional widely used deictic modifiers: ''-naŋ'' “inside”, ''phënaŋ'' “outside” that are present in other dialects as [[w:Deixis#Temporal_deixis|temporal deictics]]: ''saŋas'' “before”, ''phis'' “after”. | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
! | |||
! Proximal | |||
! Mesioproximal | |||
! Mesiodistal | |||
! Distal | |||
|- | |||
! Up | |||
| tut | |||
| twadi | |||
| twas | |||
| tup | |||
|- | |||
! Down | |||
| jaut | |||
| jawi | |||
| jause | |||
| jopa | |||
|- | |||
! Same level | |||
| ta(u) | |||
| dëgi | |||
| segi | |||
| pagi | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
These demonstratives frequently serve role of [[w:Endophora|endophoric]] reference and act as topic markers. | |||
===Evidentiality=== | |||
[[w:Evidentiality|Evidentiality]] in Classical Meskangela is an optional category that indicates evidence for a statement. This category is indicated with evidential particles, or copulas. The unmarked verb is assertive – representing a simple fact or general truth. The corresponding copula is ''ré'', the negative copula is ''mīn/mīd'', likely from ''*ma-rijan'' “being absent”. | |||
A similar copula ''uré'' and its negative counterpart ''mórid'' are basic locative copulas that mark possession (''maroŋ uréŋ'' “I have a cat”) or location (''tau uréŋi'' “we are here”). | |||
The postverbal particle ''lak'' is testimonial, it represents witnessed, first-hand experience. It also acts a locative copula with the meaning “there is”. Its negative form ''milak'' has only a locative meaning. | |||
The paticle ''hö'' and its negative counterpart ''mód'' are egophoric copulas. It expresses a speaker’s acquaintance with something. On some occasions, it represents an intention of the speaker ''nalha-ta dihö'' “have some tea, which I made”. The locative copula ''wö'' marks possession (“I have”) or location (“I am at”) of the speaker and has no negative counterpart. In Classical Meskangela it expresses the speaker’s opinion towards a certain statement: ''ta lyaŋa wö'' “it is nice, in my opinion”. | |||
''lú'' “so, it seems” is a very common postverbal particle that expresses inferred or assumed information or probability of an event. It is mainly used with irrealis verbs for emphasis, for example: ''dispha lú'' “it is likely going to snow”. This particle often indicates that an event will happen in the future: ''gëspha lú'' “it will snow (eventually)”. | |||
===Verbs=== | ===Verbs=== | ||