Meskangela: Difference between revisions

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For example: '''མེ'''ཀྱིམཾ སྱེ '''''me'''kyima sye'' “this is their house”; '''ནཾ'''ཁཾཏྟཾ སྤཾཏཾངེཧཿ '''''na'''khātta spataŋehā'' “we found your coat”.
For example: '''མེ'''ཀྱིམཾ སྱེ '''''me'''kyima sye'' “this is their house”; '''ནཾ'''ཁཾཏྟཾ སྤཾཏཾངེཧཿ '''''na'''khātta spataŋehā'' “we found your coat”.
====Nominal derivation====
The most common way to form new noun is derivation from verbs with special suffixes. Such forms are treated as nouns, but some may still possess verb-like qualities, such as conjugation. For example ལཏེམཾཏཾ​ ''lëtemata'' “sightful” is a verb with its infinitive being ལཏེསཾཏཾན ''lëtematan''.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Suffix
! Category
! colspan=3| Example
|-
! -t
| Deverbal action or process nouns
| ལཏཾཏ​ ''lëtat'' “sight”
| ལཏེམཾཏཾ​ ''lëtemata'' “sightful”
| ལཏཾསཏ​ ''lëtasët'' “appearance (poetic)”
|-
! -mā
| Resultative and manner nouns
| ལཏཾམཿ ''lëtamā'' “scene”
| colspan=2| ལཏེཏཾམཿ ''lëtetamā'' “observation”
|-
! -s
| Object nouns
| ལཏཾས​ ''lëtas'' “glass”
| ལཏཾམཾས​ ''lëtamas'' “sign”
| ལཏཾཏས​ ''lëtatës'' “character”
|-
|}
To create new [[w:Agent noun|agent nouns]] Meskangela has various agentive suffixes. The most common are: ''-is'' (''bërëjis'' “writer” from ''bërëjan'' “to write”), ''-cis'' (''lëtacis'' “witness” from  ''lëtan'' “to look”), ''-ikā'' (''punikā'' “carrier” from ''punan'' “to carry by hand”), ''-wa'' (''biliŋwa'' “forest dweller” from ''biliŋ'' “forest”), ''-pa'' (''këmōpa'' “worker (Western)” from ''këmowan'' “to work”). The instrumental suffixes ''-(a)zā'' and ''-r'' can also possess agentive meaning (''khazā'' “walker” from ''khadan'' “to walk”)
===Deixis===
'''Topographical deixis''' refers to a variety of [[w:Deixis#Spatial_deixis|spatial-environmental deixis]], in which typically distal reference to entities is made in terms of a set of topographically-anchored referential planes: most often, upward, downward,or on the same level. Topographical deixis is a pervasive feature in Meskangela dialects. The primary frame of reference of deixis in Meskangela is egocentric, in that the speaker is a deictic centre. It manifests in the form of demonstrative pronouns, motion verbs modifiers and certain nominals, most commonly locatives.
Demonstratives are the most common category of topographic deixis in Meskangela. The spatial orientation is defined in three dimensions: distance from the deictic centre (or depth), position upward or downwards from said centre (verticality) and position relative towards a certain geographical feature (horizontality). These demonstratives transparently derive from the motion verb modifiers, for instance, the upward-position modifier ''twa-'' comes from the verb ''twajan'' “go up, ascend”.
The table below shows the simplest demonstratives in two dimensions: depth and verticality. The third dimension is added as a suffix to the demonstratives, and are highly varied. The most common are topographic features: ''-mo'' “surface”, ''-(s)ki/-gi'' ‘’hill, slope’’, ''-le'' “river, valley”, ''-ju'' “bank, shore”; focus: ''-no/-nū'' “already mentioned”, ''-kha'' “any, newly introduced, one of several”; position above or below: ''-tu/-syu'' “on top, above, overhead”, ''-ma'' “below, under water”; side, relative to the speaker: ''-bi(j)'' “left”, ''-ra'' “right”, ''-(së)ŋa'' “front”, ''-phir'' “back, behind”. Southern Meskangela has two additional widely used deictic modifiers: ''-naŋ'' “inside”, ''phënaŋ'' “outside” that are present in other dialects as [[w:Deixis#Temporal_deixis|temporal deictics]]: ''saŋas'' “before”, ''phis'' “after”.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
! Proximal
! Mesioproximal
! Mesiodistal
! Distal
|-
! Up
| tut
| twadi
| twas
| tup
|-
! Down
| jaut
| jawi
| jause
| jopa
|-
! Same level
| ta(u)
| dëgi
| segi
| pagi
|-
|}
These demonstratives frequently serve role of [[w:Endophora|endophoric]] reference and act as topic markers.
===Evidentiality===
[[w:Evidentiality|Evidentiality]] in Classical Meskangela is an optional category that indicates evidence for a statement. This category is indicated with evidential particles, or copulas. The unmarked verb is assertive – representing a simple fact or general truth. The corresponding copula is ''ré'', the negative copula is ''mīn/mīd'', likely from ''*ma-rijan'' “being absent”.
A similar copula ''uré'' and its negative counterpart ''mórid'' are basic locative copulas that mark possession (''maroŋ uréŋ'' “I have a cat”) or location (''tau uréŋi'' “we are here”).
The postverbal particle ''lak'' is testimonial, it represents witnessed, first-hand experience. It also acts a locative copula with the meaning “there is”. Its negative form ''milak'' has only a locative meaning.
The paticle ''hö'' and its negative counterpart ''mód'' are egophoric copulas. It expresses a speaker’s acquaintance with something. On some occasions, it represents an intention of the speaker ''nalha-ta dihö'' “have some tea, which I made”. The locative copula ''wö'' marks possession (“I have”) or location (“I am at”) of the speaker and has no negative counterpart. In Classical Meskangela it expresses the speaker’s opinion towards a certain statement: ''ta lyaŋa wö'' “it is nice, in my opinion”.
''lú'' “so, it seems” is a very common postverbal particle that expresses inferred or assumed information or probability of an event. It is mainly used with irrealis verbs for emphasis, for example: ''dispha lú'' “it is likely going to snow”. This particle often indicates that an event will happen in the future: ''gëspha lú'' “it will snow (eventually)”.


===Verbs===
===Verbs===
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