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Valthungian (view source)

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[[Category: A_posteriori]]
[[Category: A_posteriori]]
[[Category: Indo-European_languages]]
[[Category: Indo-European_languages]]
[[Category: Germanic_languages]]
[[Category: Germanic languages]]
[[Category: East_Germanic_languages]]
[[Category: East Germanic languages]]
[[Category: Valthungian]]
[[Category: Valthungian]]


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|width=50|[ʃ]
|width=50|[ʃ]
||''[[Contionary:šuge|šuge]]''
||''[[Contionary:šuge|šuge]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘colour ’
|style="text-align:left;"|‘colour’
|-
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-tiijus.png]]
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-tiijus.png]]
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|width=50|[t~tʰ]
|width=50|[t~tʰ]
||''[[Contionary:tījus|tījus]]''
||''[[Contionary:tījus|tījus]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘Teu ’
|style="text-align:left;"|‘Teu’
|-
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-kjus.png]]
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-kjus.png]]
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|width=50|[ʧ]
|width=50|[ʧ]
||''[[Contionary:čus|čus]]''
||''[[Contionary:čus|čus]]''
|style="text-align:left;"|‘choice ’
|style="text-align:left;"|‘choice’
|-
|-
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-ungula.png]]
|width=75| [[File:Valthungian-ungula.png]]
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|}
|}


Though the seven long vowels of the Non-Alphabetic Variants have individual names, they are not considered part of the standard alphabet or alphabetical order. Instead, each long vowel is considered alphabetically equivalent to its doubled short counterpart. That is, 〈ā〉 is equivalent to 〈aa〉, 〈ē〉 to 〈ee〉, 〈ī〉 to 〈ii〉, and so on. (The long vowels 〈ǣ〉 and 〈ǭ〉 are included in the standard alphabetical order, and do not have short forms, though they are written with macrons in their romanised forms.)
Though the seven long vowels of the Non-Alphabetic Variants have individual names, they are not considered part of the standard alphabet or alphabetical order. Instead, each long vowel is considered alphabetically equivalent to its doubled short counterpart. That is, ⟨ā⟩ is equivalent to ⟨aa⟩, ⟨ē⟩ to ⟨ee⟩, ⟨ī⟩ to ⟨ii⟩, and so on. (The long vowels ⟨ǣ⟩ and ⟨ǭ⟩ are included in the standard alphabetical order, and do not have short forms, though they are written with macrons in their romanised forms.)


(NB: The Valthungian alphabet, while mainly latin- and cyrillic-based, contains several characters which are not readily representable using the standard Unicode characters. The forms presented throughout this wiki are a [[Valthungian#Romanisation|romanisation]] of the letters shown in the table above.)
(NB: The Valthungian alphabet, while mainly latin‑ and cyrillic-based, contains several characters which are not readily representable using the standard Unicode characters. The forms presented throughout this wiki are a [[Valthungian#Romanisation|romanisation]] of the letters shown in the table above.)


===Orthography===
===Orthography===
The orthography of Valthungian is quite regular to its phonology; indeed, there are very few exceptions:
The orthography of Valthungian is quite regular to its phonology; indeed, there are very few exceptions:


# The letter 〈n〉 before 〈g〉 or 〈k〉 is realised as a velar nasal [ŋ]. Specifically, 〈ng〉 is [ŋɡ] and 〈nk〉 is [ŋk]. (E.g. ''drinkna'' [driŋk.na] ‘to drink’.)
# The letter ⟨n⟩ before ⟨g⟩ or ⟨k⟩ is realised as a velar nasal [ŋ]. Specifically, ⟨ng⟩ is [ŋɡ] and ⟨nk⟩ is [ŋk]. (E.g. ''drinkna'' [driŋk.na] ‘to drink’.)
## In combinations where 〈ng〉 is followed by another nasal consonant, [ɡ] is elided in speech: 〈ngm〉 is [ŋm] and 〈ngn〉 is [ŋn]. (E.g. ''gangna'' [gaŋ.na] ‘to go’; not **[gaŋɡ.na].) In rapid speech this may also occur to the other nasal-stop combinations 〈mbn〉, 〈mbm〉, 〈ndm〉, and 〈ndn〉; sometimes the stop may also become glottal.
## In combinations where ⟨ng⟩ is followed by another nasal consonant, [ɡ] is elided in speech: ⟨ngm⟩ is [ŋm] and ⟨ngn⟩ is [ŋn]. (E.g. ''gangna'' [gaŋ.na] ‘to go’; not **[gaŋɡ.na].) In rapid speech this may also occur to the other nasal-stop combinations ⟨mbn⟩, ⟨mbm⟩, ⟨ndm⟩, and ⟨ndn⟩; sometimes the stop may also become glottal.
# In the combinations 〈hw〉 (i.e. 〈hu〉 followed by a vowel), 〈hl〉, and 〈hr〉,〈h〉 is realised as [x].
# In the combinations ⟨hw⟩ (i.e. ⟨hu⟩ followed by a vowel), ⟨hl⟩, and ⟨hr⟩,⟨h⟩ is realised as [x].
# The combination 〈rju〉 is realised as [rɛu̯] (rather than the expected [rju]). (E.g. ''frjusna'' [frɛu̯s.na] ‘to freeze’.)
# The combination ⟨rju⟩ is realised as [rɛu̯] (rather than the expected [rju]). (E.g. ''frjusna'' [frɛu̯s.na] ‘to freeze’.)
# The diphthong 〈eu〉 is realised as [ɛu̯] (rather than the expected [e̞u̯]). (E.g. ''sneugna'' [snɛu̯g.na] ‘to snow’.)
# The diphthong ⟨eu⟩ is realised as [ɛu̯] (rather than the expected [e̞u̯]). (E.g. ''sneugna'' [snɛu̯g.na] ‘to snow’.)
# The diphthong 〈œu〉 is realised as [œy̑] (rather than the expected [ø̞u̯]). (E.g. ''grœunis'' [ɡrœy̑.nis] ‘green’.)
# The diphthong ⟨œu⟩ is realised as [œy̑] (rather than the expected [ø̞u̯]). (E.g. ''grœunis'' [ɡrœy̑.nis] ‘green’.)
# For some speakers, word-final 〈þs〉 may be realised as [t̪s].
# For some speakers, word-final ⟨þs⟩ may be realised as [t̪s].
# For some speakers, medial 〈tl〉 (usually derived from earlier /ll/) may be realised as [dɮ].
# For some speakers, medial ⟨tl⟩ (usually derived from earlier /ll/) may be realised as [dɮ].
# Inexplicably, the letter ''wynia'', while quite regular in and of itself, has a rather irregular romanisation. It is sometimes romanised quite regularly as ⟨w⟩, though in combination with consonants before a vowel (/dw/, /tw/, /þw/, /hw/, /gw/, /kw/, or /sw/), it is romanised as 〈u〉 (i.e. 〈du〉, 〈tu〉, 〈þu〉, 〈hu〉, 〈gu〉,〈ku〉 and 〈su〉.)
# Inexplicably, the letter ''wynia'', while quite regular in and of itself, has a rather irregular romanisation. It is sometimes romanised quite regularly as ⟨w⟩, though in combination with consonants before a vowel (/dw/, /tw/, /þw/, /hw/, /gw/, /kw/, or /sw/), it is romanised as ⟨u⟩ (i.e. ⟨du⟩, ⟨tu⟩, ⟨þu⟩, ⟨hu⟩, ⟨gu⟩,⟨ku⟩ and ⟨su⟩.)
## This process cannot cross morpheme boundaries, so ''iþ'' + ''wītna'' → ''iþwītna'', not **''iþuītna''.
## This process cannot cross morpheme boundaries, so ''iþ'' + ''wītna'' → ''iþwītna'', not **''iþuītna''.


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# The stressed vowel is short.
# The stressed vowel is short.
## (All unstressed long vowels were reduced to short vowels in the [[Middle Valthungian]] period.)
## (All unstressed long vowels were reduced to short vowels in the [[Middle Valthungian]] period.)
# The stressed vowel is not 〈œ〉 or 〈y〉.
# The stressed vowel is not ⟨œ⟩ or ⟨y⟩.
## (The rounded front vowels can only occur as the result of i-umlaut, which could only arise from a stressed vowel.)
## (The rounded front vowels can only occur as the result of i‑umlaut, which could only arise from a stressed vowel.)


For example, ''in'''í'''la '' ‘excuse’, ''ak'''é'''čim'' 'even so'; but ''gar'''ǣ'''ts'' ‘correct’ or ''gavr'''œ'''čin'' ‘to handle’.
For example, ''in'''í'''la '' ‘excuse’, ''ak'''é'''čim'' 'even so'; but ''gar'''ǣ'''ts'' ‘correct’ or ''gavr'''œ'''čin'' ‘to handle’.
<!--====Ligatures & Liaisons====
When two vowels come together at word boundaries, the words may form a ligature, particularly if one of the words is a “grammar word,” such as an article, preposition, pronoun, short adjective, conjunction, &c. This is most common with the articles (''sā'' + ''a-'', ''sō'' + ''u-'', etc.) and particles (e.g ''nī'' + ''i-'').
* '''Articles'''
** Mandatory:
*** sā, huā, tuā + a-, ā- → s·ā-, hu·ā-, tu·ā-
**** ''sā aplas'' → ''s·āplas'', ‘the apple’
**** ''tuā aðna'' → ''tu’āðna'' ‘two seasons’
*** sō, þō, hō + u-, ō- → s·ō-, þ·ō-, h·ō-
**** ''sō uréča'' → ''s·ōréča'', ‘the persuit’
**** ''sō ōs'' → ''s·ōs'', ‘the ewe’
*** þǣ, tuǣ + e-, ǣ- → þ·ǣ-, tu·ǣ-
**** ''þǣ ǣjus'' → ''þ·ǣjus'' ‘the horses’
**** ''tuǣ elis'' → ''tu·ǣlis'' ‘two others’
*** nī, þrī, hī + i-, ī- → n·ī-, þr·ī-, h·ī-
**** ''nī ist'' → ''n·īst'', ‘isn’t’
**** ''hī īsran'' → ''h·īsran'' ‘this iron’
** Optional:
***sō, þō + V- → su·V-, þu·V-
**** ''sō akuže, su·akuže'' ‘the axe’
**** ''þō ī, þu·ī'' ‘those which’
-->


===Orthographic Variants===
===Orthographic Variants===
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|
|
|
|
|''' · n'''<ref>Before 〈g〉 or 〈k〉.</ref><br />[ŋ]
|''' · n'''<ref>Before ⟨g⟩ or ⟨k⟩.</ref><br />[ŋ]
|-
|-
!'''Fricative'''
!'''Fricative'''
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===Synchronic Changes and Reflexes of Diachronic Changes===
===Synchronic Changes and Reflexes of Diachronic Changes===
====Voicing Alternation====
====Voicing Alternation====
This rule is inherited from Proto-Germanic. The rule is not persistent, but the variation in forms still affects the inflections of nouns, verbs, and adjectives in Valthungian, and is readily assimilated into neologisms and borrowings.  (A similar v/f alternation rule exists in English, for example in singular ''knife'' and plural ''knives'', or the noun ''strife'' and the verb ''strive''.) The Gothic version of this rule caused alternation between 〈f〉, used only at the end of a word or before an unvoiced consonant, and 〈b〉 used elsewhere, e.g. ''giban'', ‘to give’, ''gaf'', ‘gave’.  Likewise the relationship between 〈þ〉 and〈d〉. There are three main realisations of this rule in Valthungian:  
This rule is inherited from Proto-Germanic. The rule is not persistent, but the variation in forms still affects the inflections of nouns, verbs, and adjectives in Valthungian, and is readily assimilated into neologisms and borrowings.  (A similar v/f alternation rule exists in English, for example in singular ''knife'' and plural ''knives'', or the noun ''strife'' and the verb ''strive''.) The Gothic version of this rule caused alternation between ⟨f⟩, used only at the end of a word or before an unvoiced consonant, and ⟨b⟩ used elsewhere, e.g. ''giban'', ‘to give’, ''gaf'', ‘gave’.  Likewise the relationship between ⟨þ⟩ and⟨d⟩. There are three main realisations of this rule in Valthungian:  


*v → f
*v → f
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The implications of this rule for Valthungian are:
The implications of this rule for Valthungian are:


*〈f〉 or 〈þ〉 occur before 〈s〉 in the nominative singular of masculine or some feminine strong nouns, e.g. ''þlǣfs'' ‘loaf of bread’, but genitive ''þlǣvis''.
*⟨f⟩ or ⟨þ⟩ occur before ⟨s⟩ in the nominative singular of masculine or some feminine strong nouns, e.g. ''þlǣfs'' ‘loaf of bread’, but genitive ''þlǣvis''.
*〈f〉 or 〈þ〉 occur when word-final in the accusative of masculine or some feminine strong nouns, and the nominative and accusative of neuter strong nouns, e.g. ''blōþ'' ‘blood’, but genitive ''blōðis''.
*⟨f⟩ or ⟨þ⟩ occur when word-final in the accusative of masculine or some feminine strong nouns, and the nominative and accusative of neuter strong nouns, e.g. ''blōþ'' ‘blood’, but genitive ''blōðis''.
*〈f〉 occurs when word-final or before 〈t〉 in the preterit singular and the second person imperative singular of strong verbs, e.g. ''gaf'', ''gaft'', ‘gave’, but infinitive ''givna''.
*⟨f⟩ occurs when word-final or before ⟨t⟩ in the preterit singular and the second person imperative singular of strong verbs, e.g. ''gaf'', ''gaft'', ‘gave’, but infinitive ''givna''.
*〈þ〉 also occurs when word-final in the preterit singular and imperative, but is assimilated to 〈s〉 before 〈t〉 in the second person preterit (see Coronal Consonant Assimilation below), e.g. ''biǧin'' ‘to bid’ has the first- and third-person preterit ''baþ'' but second-person ''bast''.
*⟨þ⟩ also occurs when word-final in the preterit singular and imperative, but is assimilated to ⟨s⟩ before ⟨t⟩ in the second person preterit (see Coronal Consonant Assimilation below), e.g. ''biǧin'' ‘to bid’ has the first‑ and third-person preterit ''baþ'' but second-person ''bast''.
*The implications for 〈s〉 and 〈ž〉 can be a little trickier, because this split was not uniform in Gothic, and intervocalic /s/ was not later voiced (as it was in many other Germanic languages, leveling out this particular conundrum), so many words retain 〈s〉 throughout the paradigm. These are noted in the lexicon.
*The implications for ⟨s⟩ and ⟨ž⟩ can be a little trickier, because this split was not uniform in Gothic, and intervocalic /s/ was not later voiced (as it was in many other Germanic languages, leveling out this particular conundrum), so many words retain ⟨s⟩ throughout the paradigm. These are noted in the lexicon.


Please note that because this rule is not persistent, there are several words which later developed an intervocalic 〈f〉 or 〈þ〉 from earlier 〈h〉 which is ''not'' affected by this rule.
Please note that because this rule is not persistent, there are several words which later developed an intervocalic ⟨f⟩ or ⟨þ⟩ from earlier ⟨h⟩ which is ''not'' affected by this rule.


====Palatalisation====
====Palatalisation====
Palatalisation is another historic rule that is no longer persistent in Valthungian, but has wide-ranging implications for inflections in Valthungian. There are actually several types of palatalisation that occur in Valthungian, but they can all be boiled down into the following rules:
Palatalisation is another historic rule that is no longer persistent in Valthungian, but has wide-ranging implications for inflections in Valthungian. There are actually several types of palatalisation that occur in Valthungian, but they can all be boiled down into the following rules:


*Masculine and feminine nouns whose roots end in 〈d〉 or 〈g〉 become palatalised before 〈s〉 in the nominative singular of a-, i-, and u-stems (but not feminine ō-stems).  E.g. Griutungi ''*dags'' ‘day’, ''*gards'' ‘yard’ become ''daǧ'', ''graǧ''. This type of palatalisation only occurs when there was a /dz/ or /gz/ present in the language at some point historically (from Griutungi/Gothic /ds/ or /gs/).
*Masculine and feminine nouns whose roots end in ⟨d⟩ or ⟨g⟩ become palatalised before ⟨s⟩ in the nominative singular of a‑, i‑, and u‑stems (but not feminine ō‑stems).  E.g. Griutungi ''*dags'' ‘day’, ''*gards'' ‘yard’ become ''daǧ'', ''graǧ''. This type of palatalisation only occurs when there was a /dz/ or /gz/ present in the language at some point historically (from Griutungi/Gothic /ds/ or /gs/).
*A much more common form of palatalisation, however, is that which occurs whenever the ending of a noun, verb, or adjective begins with 〈j〉, e.g. strong masculine ja-stem nouns or adjectives or class 1 weak verbs. In these cases, the following occurs:
*A much more common form of palatalisation, however, is that which occurs whenever the ending of a noun, verb, or adjective begins with ⟨j⟩, e.g. strong masculine ja‑stem nouns or adjectives or class 1 weak verbs. In these cases, the following occurs:
**d or g + j → ǧ
**d or g + j → ǧ
**t or k + j → č
**t or k + j → č
**s or h + j → š
**s or h + j → š
**z + j → ž (Actually, all instances of 〈z〉 eventually became 〈ž〉.)
**z + j → ž (Actually, all instances of ⟨z⟩ eventually became ⟨ž⟩.)


Palatalisation of the latter type usually goes hand in hand with Umlaut, below.
Palatalisation of the latter type usually goes hand in hand with Umlaut, below.


====[b]/[v] Alternation====
====[b]/[v] Alternation====
A less common alternation is that of 〈b〉 and 〈v〉.  This occurs in the same environment as the second type of palatalisation (above), but instead of a true palatalisation, instead there is a shift of 〈v〉 to 〈b〉; or, more accurately, some paradigms without an original 〈j〉 are able to shift from 〈b〉 to 〈v〉 when intervocalic, but those with 〈j〉 are blocked from spirantizing.  
A less common alternation is that of ⟨b⟩ and ⟨v⟩.  This occurs in the same environment as the second type of palatalisation (above), but instead of a true palatalisation, instead there is a shift of ⟨v⟩ to ⟨b⟩; or, more accurately, some paradigms without an original ⟨j⟩ are able to shift from ⟨b⟩ to ⟨v⟩ when intervocalic, but those with ⟨j⟩ are blocked from spirantizing.  


For example, the adjective ''drœ̄vis'' ‘muddy’ (from Griutungi ''*drōbīs'', cf. Gothic ''drōbeis'') has the dative singular form ''drœ̄bia'' (from ''*drōbja'').
For example, the adjective ''drœ̄vis'' ‘muddy’ (from Griutungi ''*drōbīs'', cf. Gothic ''drōbeis'') has the dative singular form ''drœ̄bia'' (from ''*drōbja'').
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*The accusative singular of strong nouns with palatalisation ''are not'' umlauted.  All other forms of nouns with palatalisation ''are'' umlauted.
*The accusative singular of strong nouns with palatalisation ''are not'' umlauted.  All other forms of nouns with palatalisation ''are'' umlauted.
*The past subjunctive of verbs is umlauted except for the 3rd person singular, which never is. In informal speech, this may be umlauted by analogy.
*The past subjunctive of verbs is umlauted except for the 3rd person singular, which never is. In informal speech, this may be umlauted by analogy.
*Verbs ending in ''–jan'' in Gothic have umlaut in the present and imperative. These verbs all end with ''–in'' in Valthungian.
*Verbs ending in ''‑jan'' in Gothic have umlaut in the present and imperative. These verbs all end with ''‑in'' in Valthungian.


Umlaut in Valthungian initiates the following changes in the stressed vowel of a word:
Umlaut in Valthungian initiates the following changes in the stressed vowel of a word:
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*a → e - ''*s'''a'''tjan'' ‘to set’ → ''s'''e'''čin''
*a → e - ''*s'''a'''tjan'' ‘to set’ → ''s'''e'''čin''
*ā → ǣ - ''*hl'''ah'''jan'' ‘to laugh’ → ''þl'''ǣ'''šin''
*ā → ǣ - ''*hl'''ah'''jan'' ‘to laugh’ → ''þl'''ǣ'''šin''
*ǭ (''Got''. 〈áu〉) → œ̄ - ''*h'''ǭ'''sjan'' ‘to hear’ → ''h'''œ̄'''šin''
*ǭ (''Got''. ⟨áu⟩) → œ̄ - ''*h'''ǭ'''sjan'' ‘to hear’ → ''h'''œ̄'''šin''
*o (''Got''. 〈aú〉) → œ - ''*þ'''o'''rsjan'' ‘to thirst’ → ''þr'''œ'''šin''
*o (''Got''. ⟨aú⟩) → œ - ''*þ'''o'''rsjan'' ‘to thirst’ → ''þr'''œ'''šin''
*ō → œu - ''*hw'''ō'''tjan'' ‘to threaten’ → ''hu'''œu'''čin''
*ō → œu - ''*hw'''ō'''tjan'' ‘to threaten’ → ''hu'''œu'''čin''
*u → y - ''*h'''u'''gjan'' ‘to think’ → ''h'''y'''ǧin''
*u → y - ''*h'''u'''gjan'' ‘to think’ → ''h'''y'''ǧin''
*ū → ȳ - ''*hr'''ū'''kjan'' ‘to crow’ → ''þr'''ȳ'''čin''
*ū → ȳ - ''*hr'''ū'''kjan'' ‘to crow’ → ''þr'''ȳ'''čin''


NB: The word “Umlaut” can refer to several different types of vowel change in Germanic languages – i/j-umlaut, u/w-umlaut, and a-umlaut most commonly – but only one type ever occurred in Valthungian: Umlaut here is used to refer specifically to i/j-umlaut, also known as i-umlaut, front umlaut, or i-mutation.
NB: The word “Umlaut” can refer to several different types of vowel change in Germanic languages – i/j‑umlaut, u/w‑umlaut, and a‑umlaut most commonly – but only one type ever occurred in Valthungian: Umlaut here is used to refer specifically to i/j‑umlaut, also known as i‑umlaut, front umlaut, or i‑mutation.


====Coronal Consonant Assimilation====
====Coronal Consonant Assimilation====
This rule has a formidable name, but it is actually common to all Germanic languages. This rule states that whenever a coronal consonant (namely, d, t, or þ) is directly followed by 〈t〉 or 〈st〉, the former consonant 〈s〉. This accounts for the English word ''best'', from earlier ''betst'', from *''batest''. This applies mainly to second person singular preterit of strong verbs, e.g. ''ǧutna'' ‘to pour’ and ''biǧin'' ‘to bid’ have a second person preterit of ''gǭst'' ‘you poured’ and ''bast'' ‘you bade’, rather than the otherwise expected **''gǭtt'' and **''baþt''.
This rule has a formidable name, but it is actually common to all Germanic languages. This rule states that whenever a coronal consonant (namely, d, t, or þ) is directly followed by ⟨t⟩ or ⟨st⟩, the former consonant ⟨s⟩. This accounts for the English word ''best'', from earlier ''betst'', from *''batest''. This applies mainly to second person singular preterit of strong verbs, e.g. ''ǧutna'' ‘to pour’ and ''biǧin'' ‘to bid’ have a second person preterit of ''gǭst'' ‘you poured’ and ''bast'' ‘you bade’, rather than the otherwise expected **''gǭtt'' and **''baþt''.


====Blocking of Metathetical Unpacking====
====Blocking of Metathetical Unpacking====
Another formidable name, but what this means is that at various times historically, sound changes caused unstressed /a/ to disappear before sonorants (/l/, /r/, /m/, or /n/), turning them into syllabics. This happened at least once before the Gothic era, giving rise to words like *''bagms'' and *''aþn'', and again before Valthungian, most notably collapsing the infinitive ending ''-an'' to ''-n''. Later on, syllabics were “unpacked;” that is, they regained the /a/ that had been lost, but it now appeared after the sonorant instead of before it. For example, Griutungi *''brōþar'' ‘brother’ (Gothic ''brōþar'') and later Old Valthungian ''brouðar'' became Middle Valthungian ''brôðʀ'' with syllabic /r̩/, and eventually Modern Valthungian ''brōðra''. However, there are a few instances where this unpacking didn’t happen because the restoration of 〈a〉after the sonorant would have rendered the word unpronounceable, in which case the word reverts back to its pre-syllabic state.
Another formidable name, but what this means is that at various times historically, sound changes caused unstressed /a/ to disappear before sonorants (/l/, /r/, /m/, or /n/), turning them into syllabics. This happened at least once before the Gothic era, giving rise to words like *''bagms'' and *''aþn'', and again before Valthungian, most notably collapsing the infinitive ending ''‑an'' to ''‑n''. Later on, syllabics were “unpacked;” that is, they regained the /a/ that had been lost, but it now appeared after the sonorant instead of before it. For example, Griutungi *''brōþar'' ‘brother’ (Gothic ''brōþar'') and later Old Valthungian ''brouðar'' became Middle Valthungian ''brôðʀ'' with syllabic /r̩/, and eventually Modern Valthungian ''brōðra''. However, there are a few instances where this unpacking didn’t happen because the restoration of ⟨a⟩after the sonorant would have rendered the word unpronounceable, in which case the word reverts back to its pre-syllabic state.


The practicality of this rule as it applies to modern Valthungian is that:
The practicality of this rule as it applies to modern Valthungian is that:


*Dative plural a-stem nouns whose roots end in 〈–m〉 have the ending of 〈–am〉 rather than 〈–ma〉, e.g. ''vroms'' ‘worm’ has the dative plural of ''vromam'' rather than **''vromma''.
*Dative plural a‑stem nouns whose roots end in ⟨‑m⟩ have the ending of ⟨‑am⟩ rather than ⟨‑ma⟩, e.g. ''vroms'' ‘worm’ has the dative plural of ''vromam'' rather than **''vromma''.
*Masculine strong a-stem nouns ending in 〈–n〉 have the the dative plural ending of 〈–am〉 (as above) and the accusative plural ending of 〈–ans〉 rather than 〈–nas〉, e.g. ''ǭns'' ‘oven’ has the dative plural of ''ǭnam'' and the accusative plural of ''ǭnans'' rather than **''ǭnma'' and **''ǭnnas''.
*Masculine strong a‑stem nouns ending in ⟨‑n⟩ have the the dative plural ending of ⟨‑am⟩ (as above) and the accusative plural ending of ⟨‑ans⟩ rather than ⟨‑nas⟩, e.g. ''ǭns'' ‘oven’ has the dative plural of ''ǭnam'' and the accusative plural of ''ǭnans'' rather than **''ǭnma'' and **''ǭnnas''.
*Strong a-stem adjectives ending in 〈–n〉 have a masculine accusative singular of 〈–an〉 rather than 〈–na〉, e.g. ''ǣns'' → ''ǣnan'', not ''**ǣnna''
*Strong a‑stem adjectives ending in ⟨‑n⟩ have a masculine accusative singular of ⟨‑an⟩ rather than ⟨‑na⟩, e.g. ''ǣns'' → ''ǣnan'', not ''**ǣnna''
*The third person plural indicative of strong verbs and weak class 3 verbs end in ''–anþ'' rather than **''–naþ''.
*The third person plural indicative of strong verbs and weak class 3 verbs end in ''‑anþ'' rather than **''‑naþ''.


====Assimilation of [r] and [s]====
====Assimilation of [r] and [s]====
Historically, this is a sound change that occurred in the transition from Proto-Germanic to Gothic and is no longer persistent, but it has specific reflexes that affect Valthungian paradigms.
Historically, this is a sound change that occurred in the transition from Proto-Germanic to Gothic and is no longer persistent, but it has specific reflexes that affect Valthungian paradigms.


The change initially applies to “light”-syllable nouns with stems ending in 〈-s〉 or 〈-r〉 in the masculine and feminine classes that take a final 〈-z〉 in the nominative singular.  E.g. PGmc. *''weraz'', *''drusiz'' → (Post-Germanic Short Unstressed Vowel Deletion) → *''werz'', *''drusz'' → (Final Obstruent Devoicing) → *''wers'', *''druss'' → (r/s-Assimilation) → Griutungi ''wer'', ''drus'' (cf. Gothic ''waír'' /wer/, ''drus'').
The change initially applies to “light”‑syllable nouns with stems ending in ⟨‑s⟩ or ⟨‑r⟩ in the masculine and feminine classes that take a final ⟨‑z⟩ in the nominative singular.  E.g. PGmc. *''weraz'', *''drusiz'' → (Post-Germanic Short Unstressed Vowel Deletion) → *''werz'', *''drusz'' → (Final Obstruent Devoicing) → *''wers'', *''druss'' → (r/s‑Assimilation) → Griutungi ''wer'', ''drus'' (cf. Gothic ''waír'' /wer/, ''drus'').


Later, beginning around the time of Early Middle Valthungian, this change was expanded analogously to other nouns and adjectives which had “heavy” syllables, and eventually the rule emerged that nouns and adjectives ending in 〈-r〉do not take an (additional) 〈-s〉 in the nominative singular, though they otherwise follow the paradigm of their particular stem. (E.g. ''*bērs'' → ''bēr'' ‘boar’, ''*stiur'' → ''sčur'' ‘steer’. One notable example of this phenomenon is the Germanic ''tersaz'' ‘''mentula''’ which became ''*ters'' in Griutungi, but was then reanalyzed as an exception to the original r-rule (instead of the s-rule that it actually is), and eventually it became ''ter'' in Valthungian. It remains, however, an unkind word.)
Later, beginning around the time of Early Middle Valthungian, this change was expanded analogously to other nouns and adjectives which had “heavy” syllables, and eventually the rule emerged that nouns and adjectives ending in ⟨‑r⟩do not take an (additional) ⟨‑s⟩ in the nominative singular, though they otherwise follow the paradigm of their particular stem. (E.g. ''*bērs'' → ''bēr'' ‘boar’, ''*stiur'' → ''sčur'' ‘steer’. One notable example of this phenomenon is the Germanic ''tersaz'' ‘''mentula''’ which became ''*ters'' in Griutungi, but was then reanalyzed as an exception to the original r‑rule (instead of the s‑rule that it actually is), and eventually it became ''ter'' in Valthungian. It remains, however, an unkind word.)


====Affix Anaptyxis====
====Affix Anaptyxis====
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*un+n: Griutungi ''*unnutans'' → ''un'''a'''nútans'' ‘unused; useless’
*un+n: Griutungi ''*unnutans'' → ''un'''a'''nútans'' ‘unused; useless’


However, the prefix ''us-'' becomes ''ut-'': Griutungi ''*ussandjan'' → ''utsenǧin'' ‘to send out’
However, the prefix ''us‑'' becomes ''ut‑'': Griutungi ''*ussandjan'' → ''utsenǧin'' ‘to send out’


==Pronouns==
==Pronouns==
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!expl.
!expl.
| im || - || - || (im) ||align="left"| ''it, there''
| im || - || - || (im) ||align="left"| ''it, there''
|-
!gen.
| guma || gumins || gumin || gumna ||align="left"| ''one, one’s, &c''
|-
|-
!univ.masc  
!univ.masc  
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====''[[Contionary: huaðruþ#Valthungian|huaðruþ]]'' & ''[[Contionary: hreužiþ#Valthungian|hreužiþ]]'' ‘each one’====
====''[[Contionary: huaðruþ#Valthungian|huaðruþ]]'' & ''[[Contionary: hreužiþ#Valthungian|hreužiþ]]'' ‘each one’====
Note that only singular forms exist for ''each'' (*ahem*) of these determiners, because what is being discussed is a single noun out of, respectively, two or more than two. The unusual ''-þ'' ending is the result of compounding with earlier ''-uh''.
Note that only singular forms exist for ''each'' (*ahem*) of these determiners, because what is being discussed is a single noun out of, respectively, two or more than two. The unusual ''‑þ'' ending is the result of compounding with earlier ''‑uh''.


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;"
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!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl   
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl   
| hreužis  
| hreužis  
| hreužis  
| hreužis
|-
|}
|}


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| mǣstas
| mǣstas
| mǣstas
| mǣstas
|-
|}
|}


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|-
|-
!  0  
!  0  
| nīþun || tǣjun (tǣn) || tuǣtiǧis|| ''-tiǧis''|| ''tēhund'' || ''þūsunde'' || ''-ljǭn''
| nīþun || tǣjun (tǣn) || tuǣtiǧis|| ''‑tiǧis''|| ''tēhund'' || ''þūsunde'' || ''‑ljǭn''
|-
|-
!  1  
!  1  
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The number ‘seven’ has the expected form of ''sivun'', but also a lenited form of ''sivna'', again, required in compounds but otherwise optional. ‘Eight’ is ''āta'', but may optionally be lenited to ''āt''. (This is a newer innovation, and is not considered to be correct in writing.) Finally ‘ten’ is ''tǣjun'' or lenited ''tǣn'', the latter being used exclusively in the “teen” numbers.
The number ‘seven’ has the expected form of ''sivun'', but also a lenited form of ''sivna'', again, required in compounds but otherwise optional. ‘Eight’ is ''āta'', but may optionally be lenited to ''āt''. (This is a newer innovation, and is not considered to be correct in writing.) Finally ‘ten’ is ''tǣjun'' or lenited ''tǣn'', the latter being used exclusively in the “teen” numbers.


For compounding numbers, Griutungi and Gothic separated each of the number’s components with the word ''jah'' (‘and’, now ''jā''), but Valthungian has dispensed with this and now uses ''i'' – possibly a shortened form of ''jā'' – only before the last component. For numbers ending with ''–tiǧis'', a further contraction has become standard, and the new suffix is shortened to ''–tiǧi'', e.g. ''þrīstiǧi fim'' ‘thirty-five’. ''Hund'' becomes ''hundi'' and ''hunda'' is also contracted to ''hund·i'', ''þūsunde'' to ''þūsund·i'', and ''þūsunǧis'' to ''þūsunǧi''. (Note the lack of apostrophic interpunct in ''-tiǧi'', ''hundi'', and ''þūsunǧi''.) No ''-i-'' is added before numbers beginning with a vowel, i.e. ''ǣn-'' and ''āta''.  
For compounding numbers, Griutungi and Gothic separated each of the number’s components with the word ''jah'' (‘and’, now ''jā''), but Valthungian has dispensed with this and now uses ''i'' – possibly a shortened form of ''jā'' – only before the last component. For numbers ending with ''‑tiǧis'', a further contraction has become standard, and the new suffix is shortened to ''‑tiǧi'', e.g. ''þrīstiǧi fim'' ‘thirty-five’. ''Hund'' becomes ''hundi'' and ''hunda'' is also contracted to ''hund·i'', ''þūsunde'' to ''þūsund·i'', and ''þūsunǧis'' to ''þūsunǧi''. (Note the lack of apostrophic interpunct in ''‑tiǧi'', ''hundi'', and ''þūsunǧi''.) No ''‑i‑'' is added before numbers beginning with a vowel, i.e. ''ǣn‑'' and ''āta''.  


Number terms higher than ‘thousand’ are ostensibly borrowed from Latin, though they contain their own Germanic innovations, e.g. ''þriljǭn'' ‘trillion’, ''fiðriljǭn'' ‘quadrillion’, ''fimfiljǭn'' ‘quintillion’, instead of the expected **''triljǭn'', **''kuaðriljǭn'', and **''kuintiljǭn''.
Number terms higher than ‘thousand’ are ostensibly borrowed from Latin, though they contain their own Germanic innovations, e.g. ''þriljǭn'' ‘trillion’, ''fiðriljǭn'' ‘quadrillion’, ''fimfiljǭn'' ‘quintillion’, instead of the expected **''triljǭn'', **''kuaðriljǭn'', and **''kuintiljǭn''.


Another note concerning the higher numbers: Valthungian follows the ''[[wiki:Long_and_short_scale|short scale]]'' for higher numbers (whereas many European languages currently use the long scale); that is, each new number term is one thousand times larger than the previous term (whereas in the long scale, each new term is one million times larger). This is further confused by the now-standard European “hybrid” model where intermediate terms in the long scale are applied to the “thousands” with the suffix ‘-ard’. The following table is applicable to most modern standards:
Another note concerning the higher numbers: Valthungian follows the ''[[wiki:Long_and_short_scale|short scale]]'' for higher numbers (whereas many European languages currently use the long scale); that is, each new number term is one thousand times larger than the previous term (whereas in the long scale, each new term is one million times larger). This is further confused by the now-standard European “hybrid” model where intermediate terms in the long scale are applied to the “thousands” with the suffix ‘‑ard’. The following table is applicable to most modern standards:


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
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The multiplicative numbers arise from a conflation of the word ''þīfs'' ‘time, occurrence’ with the genitive singular form of the ordinal number, resulting in a robust albeit historically incorrect derivation system. In Griutungi, the concept of multiple occurrences was expressed simply as a number and the accusative of the word ''þīhs'' ‘time, occurrence’: ''ǣn þīhs'' ‘once’, ''tua þīhsa'' ‘twice’, ''þrija þīhsa'' ‘three times’, and so on. Gradually these constructions fused together (Old Valthungian: ''aenþijhs'', ''tvaþijhsa'', ''þrijþijhsa''…) and perhaps based on the more common analogue of ‘twice’, around the time of Early Middle Valthungian they were reanalyzed as a genitive ending affixed to an ordinal (Middle Valthungian: ''ǣnþis'', ''tuaþis'', ''þriþis''…) The forms of the first three multiplicatives aren’t even particularly odd, in terms of language evolution, but that apparent ordinal + genitive construction was then applied analogously to the rest of the numbers, so where we might otherwise expect ''fim þīfs'' ‘five times’ to have become ''fimþis'', instead we find the ordinal form ''fimftis''.
The multiplicative numbers arise from a conflation of the word ''þīfs'' ‘time, occurrence’ with the genitive singular form of the ordinal number, resulting in a robust albeit historically incorrect derivation system. In Griutungi, the concept of multiple occurrences was expressed simply as a number and the accusative of the word ''þīhs'' ‘time, occurrence’: ''ǣn þīhs'' ‘once’, ''tua þīhsa'' ‘twice’, ''þrija þīhsa'' ‘three times’, and so on. Gradually these constructions fused together (Old Valthungian: ''aenþijhs'', ''tvaþijhsa'', ''þrijþijhsa''…) and perhaps based on the more common analogue of ‘twice’, around the time of Early Middle Valthungian they were reanalyzed as a genitive ending affixed to an ordinal (Middle Valthungian: ''ǣnþis'', ''tuaþis'', ''þriþis''…) The forms of the first three multiplicatives aren’t even particularly odd, in terms of language evolution, but that apparent ordinal + genitive construction was then applied analogously to the rest of the numbers, so where we might otherwise expect ''fim þīfs'' ‘five times’ to have become ''fimþis'', instead we find the ordinal form ''fimftis''.


Fractions are formed from the archaic genitive plural form of numbers followed by ''dǣlaro'', literally ‘of ___ parts’, e.g. ¾ = þrīs fiðra dǣlaro = ‘three of four parts’. (This is equivalent to the modern German construction of affixing ''-tel'' to the end of numbers, e.g. ''drittel'', ''viertel'', ''zehntel'', &c., ''-tel'' being a direct cognate to ''dǣl''.) The genitive numbers are a holdover from ancient times, and are rarely used outside of the context of fractions; in fact, most fractions are formed by simply adding a suffix of ''-a'' to the end of a number, without any consideration that it might have once been a genitive.
Fractions are formed from the archaic genitive plural form of numbers followed by ''dǣlaro'', literally ‘of ___ parts’, e.g. ¾ = þrīs fiðra dǣlaro = ‘three of four parts’. (This is equivalent to the modern German construction of affixing ''‑tel'' to the end of numbers, e.g. ''drittel'', ''viertel'', ''zehntel'', &c., ''‑tel'' being a direct cognate to ''dǣl''.) The genitive numbers are a holdover from ancient times, and are rarely used outside of the context of fractions; in fact, most fractions are formed by simply adding a suffix of ''‑a'' to the end of a number, without any consideration that it might have once been a genitive.


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle"
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Every noun in Valthungian (and many of the older Germanic languages, as well as modern German and Icelandic) has eight possible forms. These are the singular and plural forms of the nominative (those nouns which comprise the subject of the sentence), genitive (those used to indicate possession or relation), dative (the indirect object), and accusative (the direct object).
Every noun in Valthungian (and many of the older Germanic languages, as well as modern German and Icelandic) has eight possible forms. These are the singular and plural forms of the nominative (those nouns which comprise the subject of the sentence), genitive (those used to indicate possession or relation), dative (the indirect object), and accusative (the direct object).


Masculine and feminine nouns usually take an ending of –s or –a for the nominative singular, while neuter nouns take no ending. The genitive is almost universally indicated by –is (this is equivalent to the “’s” of the English possessive). The dative usually takes –a. The accusative usually does not take any ending.
Masculine and feminine nouns usually take an ending of ‑s or ‑a for the nominative singular, while neuter nouns take no ending. The genitive is almost universally indicated by ‑is (this is equivalent to the “’s” of the English possessive). The dative usually takes ‑a. The accusative usually does not take any ending.


In the plural, Masculine and feminine nouns usually take –as as an ending; neuter takes –a. The genitive plural takes –aro, borrowed from Latin. The dative plural takes –am, but in many cases this ending undergoes a process of metathesis, rendering it –ma. Finally, the accusative plural of masculine and feminine nouns is usually –ans, but again may metathesise to –nas; neuter accusative plurals generally take –a.
In the plural, Masculine and feminine nouns usually take ‑as as an ending; neuter takes ‑a. The genitive plural takes ‑aro, borrowed from Latin. The dative plural takes ‑am, but in many cases this ending undergoes a process of metathesis, rendering it ‑ma. Finally, the accusative plural of masculine and feminine nouns is usually ‑ans, but again may metathesise to ‑nas; neuter accusative plurals generally take ‑a.


Most of the actual declensions of nouns are fairly standard – much more standardised, in fact, than Gothic – however, the various phonological rules governing the language create a great deal of variation (See [[#Phonology|Phonology]]). It is important to be familiar with the rules set forth in the Phonology section to fully understand some of the otherwise unexpected variants that emerge.
Most of the actual declensions of nouns are fairly standard – much more standardised, in fact, than Gothic – however, the various phonological rules governing the language create a great deal of variation (See [[#Phonology|Phonology]]). It is important to be familiar with the rules set forth in the Phonology section to fully understand some of the otherwise unexpected variants that emerge.
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{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.2čugun|}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.2čugun|}}


Those class II verbs which are descended from ProtoGermanic *-euwaną have a slightly different paradigm, as the medial /w/ undergoes Verschärfung in East Germanic to /ngw/, and the result, with the exception of the past singular, is remarkably similar to class III.
Those class II verbs which are descended from ProtoGermanic *‑euwaną have a slightly different paradigm, as the medial /w/ undergoes Verschärfung in East Germanic to /ngw/, and the result, with the exception of the past singular, is remarkably similar to class III.
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.2w|bl}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.2w|bl}}


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====Strong Verbs: Class VII (reduplication)====
====Strong Verbs: Class VII (reduplication)====
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.7t|hǣ|hehǣ|hehǣ}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.7t|hǣ|hehǣ|hehǣ}}
<!--<small>Class VII strong verbs form the past by reduplication; that is, the first letter is repeated, followed by 〈e〉, then followed by the remainder of the verb and the usual strong endings.<br />
<!--<small>Class VII strong verbs form the past by reduplication; that is, the first letter is repeated, followed by ⟨e⟩, then followed by the remainder of the verb and the usual strong endings.<br />
Verbs beginning with 〈s〉 followed by a stop (i.e. 〈sp〉, 〈st〉, or 〈sk〉), the first two letters are repeated.<br />
Verbs beginning with ⟨s⟩ followed by a stop (i.e. ⟨sp⟩, ⟨st⟩, or ⟨sk⟩), the first two letters are repeated.<br />
When the stressed vowel is short, it must also be marked with an acute diacritic.</small>-->
When the stressed vowel is short, it must also be marked with an acute diacritic.</small>-->


{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.7t|lē|lelō|lelœu}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.7t|lē|lelō|lelœu}}
<!--<small>Verbs with 〈ē〉 as the primary vowel may also show ablaut to 〈ō〉 in the past (and subsequently umlaut to 〈œ̄〉 in the past subjunctive).</small>-->
<!--<small>Verbs with ⟨ē⟩ as the primary vowel may also show ablaut to ⟨ō⟩ in the past (and subsequently umlaut to ⟨œ̄⟩ in the past subjunctive).</small>-->


===Weak Verbs===
===Weak Verbs===
====Weak Verbs: Class Ia (-janą)====
====Weak Verbs: Class Ia (‑janą)====
{{Template:Valthungian/v.wk.1ja-pal|leǧ|leg|lag}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.wk.1ja-pal|leǧ|leg|lag}}


====Weak Verbs: Class Ib (-ijaną)====
====Weak Verbs: Class Ib (‑ijaną)====
{{Template:Valthungian/v.wk.1ija-pal|blenč|blenk|blank}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.wk.1ija-pal|blenč|blenk|blank}}


====Weak Verbs: Class II (-ōną)====
====Weak Verbs: Class II (‑ōną)====
{{Template:Valthungian/v.wk.2|fišk}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.wk.2|fišk}}


====Weak Verbs: Class III (-āną)====
====Weak Verbs: Class III (‑āną)====
{{Template:Valthungian/v.wk.3|ǧuk}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.wk.3|ǧuk}}


====Weak Verbs: Class IV (-naną)====
====Weak Verbs: Class IV (‑naną)====
====Weak Verbs: Class V (-ną)====
====Weak Verbs: Class V (‑ną)====


===Preterit-Present Verbs===
===Preterit-Present Verbs===
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===Anomalous Verbs===
===Anomalous Verbs===
''Dōn'' is sometimes categorised as a Class VII strong verb, though it does not follow the same reduplication or ablaut patterns of other verbs in this class. Some Germanic philologists also argue that the ancestor of Proto-Germanic ''dōną'' actually gave rise to the /d/-reduplication in the past tense of weak and preterit-present verbs.
''Dōn'' is sometimes categorised as a Class VII strong verb, though it does not follow the same reduplication or ablaut patterns of other verbs in this class. Some Germanic philologists also argue that the ancestor of Proto-Germanic ''dōną'' actually gave rise to the /d/‑reduplication in the past tense of weak and preterit-present verbs.


{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.7dōn}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.7dōn}}


The present indicative tense of ''gǣn/gangna'' has two forms – a short and a long form – as did the non-finite forms (the infinitive and the participles) as well as most of the imperatives. The past tenses show suppletion, and have been replaced by ''īǧ-'' from Proto-Germanic *''ijj-'', the same source as Old English ''ēode'', and ultimately related to the Latin verb ''ire''.
The present indicative tense of ''gǣn/gangna'' has two forms – a short and a long form – as did the non-finite forms (the infinitive and the participles) as well as most of the imperatives. The past tenses show suppletion, and have been replaced by ''īǧ‑'' from Proto-Germanic *''ijj‑'', the same source as Old English ''ēode'', and ultimately related to the Latin verb ''ire''.


{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.7gang}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.7gang}}
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{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.6stand}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.6stand}}


''Wisna'' is easily the most heavily suppleted of the Germanic verbs. Aside from the obvious ''wis-'' stem, which is completely missing from the present tenses, the present shows two other stems, ''i-'' and ''sī''. The imperative also has an anomalous ''ī'' as an alternative for the second person singular, though it is unrelated to the ''i-'' stem of the present, and may actually come from Latin ''ī'', imperative form of ''ire'' (‘to go’).
''Wisna'' is easily the most heavily suppleted of the Germanic verbs. Aside from the obvious ''wis‑'' stem, which is completely missing from the present tenses, the present shows two other stems, ''i‑'' and ''sī''. The imperative also has an anomalous ''ī'' as an alternative for the second person singular, though it is unrelated to the ''i‑'' stem of the present, and may actually come from Latin ''ī'', imperative form of ''ire'' (‘to go’).


{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.5wis}}
{{Template:Valthungian/v.st.5wis}}
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===Compound Tenses===
===Compound Tenses===
====Forming the Perfect====
====Forming the Perfect====
In Gothic, there was no explicit perfect or perfective aspect in verbs. In order to express the perfect, sometimes the prefix ''ga-'' was added to verbs. Latin had a dedicated perfect inflection in verbs.  
In Gothic, there was no explicit perfect or perfective aspect in verbs. In order to express the perfect, sometimes the prefix ''ga‑'' was added to verbs. Latin had a dedicated perfect inflection in verbs.  


In later Germanic and Romance languages, the perfect was formed by combining an auxiliary verb (usually ‘have’ or ‘be’) with a participle. In languages which make the distinction (such as French, German, and Italian), ‘have’ is used with most transitive verbs, while ‘be’ is reserved for intransitive verbs dealing with change of state or motion. Valthungian maintains a similar transitive/intransitive distinction as the aforementioned languages, but the distinction is much broader (purely transitive/intransitive, rather than the various rules, exceptions, and sub-rules that govern ''“être/sein/essere”'' verbs), and the difference in the realisation of the two types is much more extreme.
In later Germanic and Romance languages, the perfect was formed by combining an auxiliary verb (usually ‘have’ or ‘be’) with a participle. In languages which make the distinction (such as French, German, and Italian), ‘have’ is used with most transitive verbs, while ‘be’ is reserved for intransitive verbs dealing with change of state or motion. Valthungian maintains a similar transitive/intransitive distinction as the aforementioned languages, but the distinction is much broader (purely transitive/intransitive, rather than the various rules, exceptions, and sub-rules that govern ''“être/sein/essere”'' verbs), and the difference in the realisation of the two types is much more extreme.
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**‘He had gone home.’
**‘He had gone home.’


Transitive verbs are formed in the Gothic manner, though the ''ga-'' prefix from Gothic has since been grammaticalised and stands on its own as an adverb which is usually placed clause-finally.
Transitive verbs are formed in the Gothic manner, though the ''ga‑'' prefix from Gothic has since been grammaticalised and stands on its own as an adverb which is usually placed clause-finally.
*''S·ītmit '''gaf gā'''.''
*''S·ītmit '''gaf gā'''.''
**‘She had given it to him.’
**‘She had given it to him.’
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===Comparison===
===Comparison===
To form the comparative, most adjectives replace the usual endings with ''‑ums'' (which declines as an a-stem), though after i‑ and j‑stems, it becomes ''‑ims''. E.g.:  
To form the comparative, most adjectives replace the usual endings with ''‑ums'' (which declines as an a‑stem), though after i‑ and j‑stems, it becomes ''‑ims''. E.g.:  
* '''''mikils''''' ‘big’ → '''''mikilums''''' ‘bigger’
* '''''mikils''''' ‘big’ → '''''mikilums''''' ‘bigger’
* '''''grœunis''''' ‘green’ → '''''grœunims''''' ‘greener’
* '''''grœunis''''' ‘green’ → '''''grœunims''''' ‘greener’
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The dative case is used to form comparative clauses by replacing the English preposition ''than'':
The dative case is used to form comparative clauses by replacing the English preposition ''than'':
* ''Is ist þam brōðra sīnin hǭðum.'' ‘He is taller than his brother.’ (Literally: “He is to-the brother of-himself taller.”)
* ''Is ist þam brōðra sīnin hǭðum.'' ‘He is taller than his brother.’ (Literally: “He is to‑the brother of‑himself taller.”)


To form the superlative, most adjectives add ''‑ist'' to the stem.
To form the superlative, most adjectives add ''‑ist'' to the stem.
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The genitive case is used to form superlative clauses. The comparative itself is usually accompanied by a definite article:
The genitive case is used to form superlative clauses. The comparative itself is usually accompanied by a definite article:
* ''Is ist þiža brœuðro sīnaro sa hǭðist.'' ‘He is the tallest of his brothers.’ (Literally: “He is of-the brothers of-himself the tallest.”)
* ''Is ist þiža brœuðro sīnaro sa hǭðist.'' ‘He is the tallest of his brothers.’ (Literally: “He is of‑the brothers of‑himself the tallest.”)


===Adverbialization===
===Adverbialization===
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