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The orthography of Valthungian is quite regular to its phonology; indeed, there are very few exceptions: | The orthography of Valthungian is quite regular to its phonology; indeed, there are very few exceptions: | ||
* The letter ⟨n⟩ before ⟨g⟩ or ⟨k⟩ is realised as a velar nasal [ŋ]. Specifically, ⟨ng⟩ is [ŋɡ] and ⟨nk⟩ is [ŋk]. (E.g. ''drinkna'' [driŋk.na] ‘to drink’.) | |||
** In combinations where ⟨ng⟩ is followed by another nasal consonant, [ɡ] is elided in speech: ⟨ngm⟩ is [ŋm] and ⟨ngn⟩ is [ŋn]. (E.g. ''gangna'' [gaŋ.na] ‘to go’; not **[gaŋɡ.na].) In rapid speech this may also occur to the other nasal-stop combinations ⟨mbn⟩, ⟨mbm⟩, ⟨ndm⟩, and ⟨ndn⟩; sometimes the stop may also become glottal. | |||
* In the combinations ⟨hw⟩ (i.e. ⟨hu⟩ followed by a vowel), ⟨hl⟩, and ⟨hr⟩,⟨h⟩ is realised as [x]. | |||
* The sequence ⟨lju⟩ is realised as [ljɛu̯] (rather than the expected [lju]). (E.g. ''ljuga'' [ljɛu̯.ɡa] ‘lion’.) | |||
* The sequence ⟨rju⟩ is realised as [rɛu̯] (rather than the expected [rju]). (E.g. ''frjusna'' [frɛu̯s.na] ‘to freeze’.) | |||
* The diphthong ⟨eu⟩ is realised as [ɛu̯] (rather than the expected [e̞u̯]). (E.g. ''þreugi'' [θrɛu̯.ɡi] ‘wrath’.) | |||
* The diphthong ⟨œu⟩ is realised as [œy̑] (rather than the expected [ø̞u̯]). (E.g. ''grœunis'' [ɡrœy̑.nis] ‘green’.) | |||
* Medial ⟨dl⟩ (usually derived from earlier /ll/) is realised as [dɮ]. (E.g. ''hadla'' [ha.dɮa] ‘mansion’.) | |||
* For some speakers, word-final ⟨þs⟩ may be realised as [t̪s]. | |||
* Inexplicably, the letter ''wynia'', while quite regular in and of itself, has a rather irregular romanisation. It is sometimes romanised quite regularly as ⟨w⟩, though in combination with consonants before a vowel (/dw/, /tw/, /þw/, /hw/, /gw/, /kw/, or /sw/), it is romanised as ⟨u⟩ (i.e. ⟨du⟩, ⟨tu⟩, ⟨þu⟩, ⟨hu⟩, ⟨gu⟩,⟨ku⟩ and ⟨su⟩.) | |||
** This process cannot cross morpheme boundaries, so ''iþ'' + ''wītna'' → ''iþwītna'', not **''iþuītna''. | |||
Stress is indicated in the standard orthography with an acute accent ''only'' if: | Stress is indicated in the standard orthography with an acute accent ''only'' if: | ||
* The stress is ''not'' on the first syllable. | |||
** (By default, stress falls on the primary syllable.) | |||
* The stressed vowel is short. | |||
** (All unstressed long vowels were reduced to short vowels in the [[Middle Valthungian]] period.) | |||
* The stressed vowel is not ⟨œ⟩ or ⟨y⟩. | |||
** (The rounded front vowels can only occur as the result of i‑umlaut, which could only arise from a stressed vowel.) | |||
For example, ''in'''í'''la '' ‘excuse’, ''ak'''é'''čim'' 'even so'; but ''gar'''ǣ'''ts'' ‘correct’ or ''gavr'''œ'''čin'' ‘to handle’. | For example, ''in'''í'''la '' ‘excuse’, ''ak'''é'''čim'' 'even so'; but ''gar'''ǣ'''ts'' ‘correct’ or ''gavr'''œ'''čin'' ‘to handle’. | ||
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====''[[Contionary: als#Valthungian|als]]'' ‘all’==== | ====''[[Contionary: als#Valthungian|als]]'' ‘all’==== | ||
This determiner is inflectionally a little interesting because it has evolved an insertive / | This determiner is inflectionally a little interesting because it has evolved an insertive /d/ in parts of the inflection due to changes to the geminates in [[Old Valthungian]]. When ''[[Contionary: als#Valthungian|als]]'' is used in conjunction with another determiner, it is declined as a weak adjective and has the meaning of ‘entire’ or ‘complete’. | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;" | ||
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!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg | !style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg | ||
| als | | als | ||
|rowspan=2| | |rowspan=2| adlis | ||
|rowspan=2| | |rowspan=2| adlatma | ||
| | | adlan | ||
|- | |- | ||
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg | !style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg | ||
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|- | |- | ||
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg | !style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg | ||
|rowspan=3| | |rowspan=3| adla | ||
| | | adlažis | ||
|colspan=2| | |colspan=2| adla | ||
|- | |- | ||
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl | !style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl | ||
|rowspan=3| | |rowspan=3| adlaža | ||
|rowspan=3| | |rowspan=3| adlam | ||
| | | adlans | ||
|- | |- | ||
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl | !style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl | ||
| | | adla | ||
|- | |- | ||
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl | !style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl | ||
| | | adlas | ||
| | | adlas | ||
|} | |} | ||
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| þreǧis | | þreǧis | ||
| þreǧis | | þreǧis | ||
|} | |||
====''[[Contionary: elis#Valthungian|elis]]'' ‘other, another’==== | |||
''[[Contionary: elis#Valthungian|Elis]]'' can also be used as an adjective to mean ‘different’, in which case it follows the noun and may have a weak declension. | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;" | |||
! | |||
!colspan=4| elis ‘other’ | |||
|- | |||
!width=65px| | |||
!width=65px| Nom. | |||
!width=75px| Gen. | |||
!width=75px| Dat. | |||
!width=65px| Acc. | |||
|- | |||
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.sg | |||
| elis | |||
|rowspan=2| elis | |||
|rowspan=2| elitma | |||
| elin | |||
|- | |||
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.sg | |||
|rowspan=2| elit | |||
| elit | |||
|- | |||
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.sg | |||
| eližis | |||
|colspan=2| elia | |||
|- | |||
!style="text-align:right;"| masc.pl | |||
|rowspan=2| elia | |||
|rowspan=3| eliža | |||
|rowspan=3| elim | |||
| elins | |||
|- | |||
!style="text-align:right;"| neu.pl | |||
| elia | |||
|- | |||
!style="text-align:right;"| fem.pl | |||
| elis | |||
| elis | |||
|} | |} | ||
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{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle" | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! !!width=100px| # !!width= | ! !!width=100px| # !!width=150px| 1# !!width=100px| 2# ||width=100px| #0 !!width=100px| #00 !!width=100px| #000 !!width=100px| #000 | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 0 | ! 0 | ||
| nīþun || tǣjun (tǣn) || | | nīþun || tǣjun (tǣn) || tuǣ tiǧis|| ''tiǧis''|| ''tēhund'' || ''þūsunde'' || ''‑ljǭn'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 1 | ! 1 | ||
| ([[Valthungian#Singular_.28.E2.80.98one.E2.80.99.29|ǣns]]) || | | ([[Valthungian#Singular_.28.E2.80.98one.E2.80.99.29|ǣns]]) || ǣndlif || tuǣ tiǧis ǣns|| ''tǣjun'' || ǣn hund || ǣna þūsunde || miljǭn | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 2 | ! 2 | ||
| ([[Valthungian#Dual_.28.E2.80.98two.2C_both.E2.80.99.29|tuǣ]]) || tualif || | | ([[Valthungian#Dual_.28.E2.80.98two.2C_both.E2.80.99.29|tuǣ]]) || tualif || tuǣ tiǧi tuǣ|| tuǣ tiǧis || tuā hunda || tuōs þūsunǧis || biljǭn | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3 | ! 3 | ||
| ([[Valthungian#Trial_.28.E2.80.98three.2C_all_three.E2.80.99.29|þrīs]]) || þrižatǣn || | | ([[Valthungian#Trial_.28.E2.80.98three.2C_all_three.E2.80.99.29|þrīs]]) || þrigatǣn (þrižatǣn), ig || tuǣ tiǧi þrīs|| þrīs tiǧis || þrī hunda || þrīs þūsunǧis || þriljǭn | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 4 | ! 4 | ||
| fiður (fiðra) || fiðratǣn || | | fiður (fiðra) || fiðratǣn || tuǣ tiǧi fiður|| fiðra tiǧis || fiður hunda || fiður þūsunǧis || fiðriljǭn | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 5 | ! 5 | ||
| fim || fimfatǣn || | | fim || fimfatǣn || tuǣ tiǧi fim|| fim tiǧis || fim hunda || fim þūsunǧis || fimfiljǭn | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 6 | ! 6 | ||
| sǣs || sǣstatǣn || | | sǣs || sǣstatǣn || tuǣ tiǧi sǣs|| sǣs tiǧis || sǣs hunda || sǣs þūsunǧis || sǣsiljǭn | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 7 | ! 7 | ||
| sivun (sivna) || | | sivun (sivna) || sivuntǣn || tuǣ tiǧi sivun|| sivun tiǧis || sivun hunda || sivun þūsunǧis || sivniljǭn | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 8 | ! 8 | ||
| āta (āt) || ātatǣn || | | āta (āt) || ātatǣn || tuǣ tiǧis āta|| āta tiǧis || āta hunda || āta þūsunǧis || ātatiljǭn | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 9 | ! 9 | ||
| njun || | | njun || niðatǣn, iþ || tuǣ tiǧi njun|| njun tiǧis || njun hunda || njun þūsunǧis || njuniljǭn | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
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The number ‘four’ is ''fiður'', where we would normally expect **''fidur'' through regular sound change (specifically, the change of /d/ to /ð/ would normally be blocked by the following /w/ in ''*fidwōr''). There is also a further lenited form of ''fiðra'', which is optional when it stands alone, but standard in compounds. (Gothic also had two versions of ‘four’: ''fidwōr'' and a compound form ''fidur''.) | The number ‘four’ is ''fiður'', where we would normally expect **''fidur'' through regular sound change (specifically, the change of /d/ to /ð/ would normally be blocked by the following /w/ in ''*fidwōr''). There is also a further lenited form of ''fiðra'', which is optional when it stands alone, but standard in compounds. (Gothic also had two versions of ‘four’: ''fidwōr'' and a compound form ''fidur''.) | ||
The number ‘seven’ has the expected form of ''sivun'', but also a lenited form of ''sivna'', again, | The number ‘seven’ has the expected form of ''sivun'', but also a lenited form of ''sivna'', again, common in compounds but otherwise optional. ‘Eight’ is ''āta'', but may optionally be lenited to ''āt''. (This is a newer innovation, and is not considered to be correct in writing.) Finally ‘ten’ is ''tǣjun'' or lenited ''tǣn'', the latter being used exclusively in the “teen” numbers. | ||
For compounding numbers, Griutungi and Gothic separated each of the number’s components with the word ''jah'' (‘and’, now ''jā''), but Valthungian has dispensed with this and now uses ''i'' – possibly a shortened form of ''jā'' – only before the last component. For numbers ending with '' | For compounding numbers, Griutungi and Gothic separated each of the number’s components with the word ''jah'' (‘and’, now ''jā''), but Valthungian has dispensed with this and now uses ''i'' – possibly a shortened form of ''jā'' – only before the last component. For numbers ending with ''tiǧis'', a further contraction has become standard, and the new suffix is shortened to ''tiǧi'', e.g. ''þrīs tiǧi fim'' ‘thirty-five’. ''Hund'' becomes ''hundi'' and ''hunda'' is also contracted to ''hund·i'', ''þūsunde'' to ''þūsund·i'', and ''þūsunǧis'' to ''þūsunǧi''. (Note the lack of apostrophic interpunct in ''tiǧi'', ''hundi'', and ''þūsunǧi''.) No ''‑i‑'' is added before numbers beginning with a vowel, i.e. ''ǣn‑'' and ''āta''. | ||
Number terms higher than ‘thousand’ are ostensibly borrowed from Latin, though they contain their own Germanic innovations, e.g. ''þriljǭn'' ‘trillion’, ''fiðriljǭn'' ‘quadrillion’, ''fimfiljǭn'' ‘quintillion’, instead of the expected **''triljǭn'', **''kuaðriljǭn'', and **''kuintiljǭn''. | Number terms higher than ‘thousand’ are ostensibly borrowed from Latin, though they contain their own Germanic innovations, e.g. ''þriljǭn'' ‘trillion’, ''fiðriljǭn'' ‘quadrillion’, ''fimfiljǭn'' ‘quintillion’, instead of the expected **''triljǭn'', **''kuaðriljǭn'', and **''kuintiljǭn''. | ||
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| sivunþis | | sivunþis | ||
| seven times | | seven times | ||
| | | sivun dǣlaro | ||
| seventh | | seventh | ||
|- | |- | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! 11 | ! 11 | ||
| | | ǣndlift | ||
| | | ǣndlifta | ||
| eleventh | | eleventh | ||
| | | ǣndliftis | ||
| eleven times | | eleven times | ||
| | | ǣndliva dǣlaro | ||
| eleventh | | eleventh | ||
|- | |- | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! 13 | ! 13 | ||
| | | þrigatǣnþs | ||
| | | þrigatǣnþa | ||
| thirteenth | | thirteenth | ||
| | | þrigatǣnþis | ||
| thirteen times | | thirteen times | ||
| | | þrigatǣjun dǣlaro | ||
| thirteenth | | thirteenth | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 20 | ! 20 | ||
| | | tuǣ tiǧist | ||
| | | tuǣ tiǧista | ||
| twentieth | | twentieth | ||
| | | tuǣ tiǧistis | ||
| twenty times | | twenty times | ||
| tuǣtiǧa dǣlaro | | tuǣtiǧa dǣlaro | ||
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===Alternative Numbers=== | ===Alternative Numbers=== | ||
The Gothic number system, modeled after the Greek system (in turn modeled after the Hebrew), which used the letters of the alphabet instead of separate unique characters, continued to be used well into the middle ages ([[Middle Valthungian]]), and certain taboo numbers came to be called by their character representation rather than their numeric form. | The Gothic number system, modeled after the Greek system (in turn modeled after the Hebrew), which used the letters of the alphabet instead of separate unique characters, continued to be used well into the middle ages ([[Middle Valthungian]]), and certain taboo numbers came to be called by their character representation rather than their numeric form. Primary among these numbers were ‘13’ and ‘19’, which were written in Gothic as ''·ig·'' and ''·iþ·'', respectively. This also occurred with the numbers ‘113’ (''rig''), ‘119’ (''riþ''), ‘213’ (''sig''), ‘219’ (''siþ''), ‘313’ (''tig''), ‘319’ (''tiþ''), ‘413’ (''wig''), ‘419’ (''wiþ''), ‘513’ (''fig''), and ‘519’ (''fiþ''). (This was not mirrored in the higher numbers of the hundreds, because most of those combinations would have been unpronounceable.) | ||
The | Though this seems like a modern form of word-play, it is actually quite ancient. The rendering of ‘19’ as ''iþ'' exerted enough influence on the numeric form from early days that the modern form became ''niðatǣn'' rather than the expected **''njunatǣn''. Similarly, the standard form of ‘13’ is ''þrigatǣn'', though the expected ''þrižatǣn'' is still an accepted alternative. | ||
Certain slang terms have also developed out of this system, in reverse, as it were. For example, the homophony of hortative particle ''iþ'' with the number ''19'' gives rise to a nominal form ''þat | Certain slang terms have also developed out of this system, in reverse, as it were. For example, the homophony of hortative particle ''iþ'' with the number ''19'' gives rise to a nominal form ''þat niðatǣn'' referring to a duty or obligation. Similarly, a ‘road’ or ‘highway’ is sometimes referred to as a ‘413’ (''fiður-ig''), written ''wig'' (the accusative of ''wiǧ'' (‘road’). | ||
A much more recent slang term that has evolved from this system is the use of the number ‘843’ to represent the (unpronounceable) letter combination ''·omg·''. | A much more recent slang term that has evolved from this system is the use of the number ‘843’ to represent the (unpronounceable) letter combination ''·omg·''. | ||
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! Agent:<br />Unintentional / Inanimate | ! Agent:<br />Unintentional / Inanimate | ||
|| ''þiǧin'' ‘to receive’<br />''lenǧin'' ‘to cause to succeed’<br /> | || ''þiǧin'' ‘to receive’<br />''lenǧin'' ‘to cause to succeed’<br /> | ||
|| ''skīčin'' ‘to cause to happen’<br />'' | || ''skīčin'' ‘to cause to happen’<br />''skǣšin'' ‘to cause to happen’<br />''vreðna'' ‘to become’ | ||
|} | |} | ||
'''Agent/Patient Deliberate''': This tends to refer to things that happen as a result of mutual agreement | '''Agent/Patient Deliberate''': This tends to refer to things that happen as a result of mutual agreement | ||
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*''Ik '''skīkiða''' þis þljuðis '''angǣsiþ'''.'' | *''Ik '''skīkiða''' þis þljuðis '''angǣsiþ'''.'' | ||
**‘I '''was startled''' by the noise.’ | **‘I '''was startled''' by the noise.’ | ||
*''Þe lǭvas ''' | *''Þe lǭvas '''skāguðun''' þižis rynins '''avbrón'''.'' | ||
**‘The leaves '''were carried away''' by the stream.’ | **‘The leaves '''were carried away''' by the stream.’ | ||
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! Adverbial | ! Adverbial | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''''' | | '''''tils~þjuþs''''' ‘good’ | ||
| '''''batums''''' ‘better’ | | '''''batums''''' ‘better’ | ||
| '''''batist''''' ‘best’ | | '''''batist''''' ‘best’ | ||
| ''''' | | '''''tila''''' ‘well’ | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '''''līts'''''~'''''lītils'''''~'''''lītlas''''' ‘little, small’ | | '''''līts'''''~'''''lītils'''''~'''''lītlas''''' ‘little, small’ | ||
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| — | | — | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '''''uvils''''' ‘bad’ | | '''''uvils~balus''''' ‘bad’ | ||
| '''''vresums''''' ‘worse’ | | '''''vresums''''' ‘worse’ | ||
| '''''vresist''''' ‘worst’ | | '''''vresist''''' ‘worst’ | ||
| ''''' | | '''''balo''''' ‘badly, poorly’ | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '''''fǭs''''' ‘little, few’ | | '''''fǭs''''' ‘little, few’ | ||
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| neck | | neck | ||
! 156 | ! 156 | ||
| '''[[Contionary: stǣns#Valthungian|stǣns]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: | | '''[[Contionary: stǣns#Valthungian|stǣns]]''' (''m''), '''[[Contionary: hadlus#Valthungian|hadlus]]''' (''m'') | ||
| stone | | stone | ||
|- | |- |