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===Orthography=== | ===Orthography=== | ||
{| | |||
| style="vertical-align: top" | | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+ Consonants | |||
! rowspan="2" | spelling ||colspan="2"| [[w:International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] || rowspan="2"| Remarks | |||
|- | |||
! normally || final | |||
|- | |||
| '''b''' | |||
| {{IPA|/b/}} || {{IPA|/p/}} || | |||
|- | |||
| '''ch''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/x/}} || | |||
|- | |||
|- | |||
| '''c''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/tʃ/}} || | |||
|- | |||
| ''cg'' | |||
| {{IPA|/dʒ/}} || {{IPA|/tʃ/}} || Treated as a double consonant in terms of checking syllables | |||
<!-- | |||
| '''chj''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ç/}} || | |||
|--> | |||
| '''d''' | |||
| {{IPA|/d/}} || {{IPA|/t/}} || | |||
|- | |||
<!--| '''dj''' | |||
| {{IPA|/dʒ/}} || {{IPA|/tʃ/}} || | |||
|--> | |||
| '''f''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/f/}} || | |||
|- | |||
| '''g''' | |||
| {{IPA|/ɡ/}} || {{IPA|/k/}} || | |||
|- | |||
<!--| '''gj''' | |||
| {{IPA|/ɟ/}} || {{IPA|/c/}} || | |||
|--> | |||
| '''gh''' | |||
| {{IPA|/ɣ/}} || {{IPA|/x/}} || | |||
|- | |||
<!--| '''ghj''' | |||
| {{IPA|/ʝ/}} || {{IPA|/ç/}} || | |||
|--> | |||
| '''h''' | |||
| {{IPA|/ɦ/}} || — || | |||
|- | |||
| '''j''' | |||
| {{IPA|/j/}} || — || | |||
|- | |||
| '''k''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/k/}} || | |||
|- | |||
<!--| '''kj''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/c/}} || | |||
|--> | |||
| '''l''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/l/}} || Pronounced dark/velarized ([ɫ]) word-finally and before consonants. | |||
|- | |||
| '''lj''' | |||
| colspan="2"| {{IPA|/ʎ/}} | |||
|- | |||
| '''m''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/m/}} || | |||
|- | |||
| '''n''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/n/}} || Assimilates place of articulation with following consonant. | |||
|- | |||
| '''nj''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ɲ/}} || | |||
|- | |||
| '''ng''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ŋ/}} || | |||
|- | |||
| '''p''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/p/}} || | |||
|- | |||
| '''q''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/k/}} || In loanwords | |||
|- | |||
| '''qu''' | |||
| {{IPA|/kv/}} || — || In loanwords | |||
|- | |||
| '''r''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/r/}} || | |||
|- | |||
| '''s''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/s/}} || | |||
|- | |||
| '''sc''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ʃ/}} || | |||
|- | |||
<!--| '''sch''' | |||
| {{IPA|/sx/}}, {{IPA|/s/}}<ref name="sch"/> || {{IPA|/s/}}<ref name="sch">Used only in the suffix ''-isch'' {{IPA|/is/}} and its form ''-ische'' {{IPA|/isə/}}.</ref> | |||
|--> | |||
| '''t''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/t/}} || | |||
|- | |||
<!--| '''tj''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/tʃ/}} || | |||
|- | |||
| '''th''' | |||
| {{IPA|/t/}}|| — || Mostly in loanwords, or dialectal for /θ/. | |||
|--> | |||
| '''v''' | |||
| {{IPA|/v/}} || — || | |||
|- | |||
| '''w''' | |||
| {{IPA|/v/}} || {{IPA|/f/}} || | |||
|- | |||
| '''x''' | |||
| colspan="2"| {{IPA|/ks/}} || In loanwords | |||
|- | |||
| '''z''' | |||
| {{IPA|/z/}} || — || | |||
|- | |||
| '''zj''' | |||
| {{IPA|/ʒ/}} || — || In loanwords | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
| style="vertical-align: top" | | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+ Vowels and diphthongs | |||
! rowspan="2" | spelling || colspan="2" | [[w:International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] | |||
|- | |||
! checked || free | |||
|- | |||
| '''a''' | |||
| {{IPA|/ɑ/}} || {{IPA|/aː/}} | |||
|- | |||
| '''aa''' | |||
| {{IPA|/aː/}} || — | |||
|- | |||
| '''ä''' | |||
| {{IPA|/æ/}} || {{IPA|/ɛː/}} | |||
|- | |||
| '''ää''' | |||
| {{IPA|/ɛː/}} || — | |||
|- | |||
| '''aai''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/aːi̯/}} | |||
|- | |||
| '''ai''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ɑi̯/}} | |||
|- | |||
| '''au''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ɔu̯/}} | |||
|- | |||
| '''e''' | |||
| {{IPA|/ɛ/}}, {{IPA|/ə/}}<ref name="unstressed"/> || {{IPA|/e(ː)/}}, {{IPA|/ə/}}<ref name="unstressed">{{angbr|e}} and {{angbr|i}}, when unstressed, are sometimes pronounced {{IPA|/ə/}}.</ref> | |||
|- | |||
| '''ee''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/eː/}} | |||
|- | |||
| '''eei''' | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| '''eeu''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/eːu̯/}} | |||
|- | |||
| '''ei''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/iː/}} | |||
|- | |||
| '''eu''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/øː/}} | |||
|- | |||
| '''i, y''' | |||
| {{IPA|/ɪ/}}, {{IPA|/ə/}}<ref name="unstressed"/> || — | |||
|- | |||
| '''ie''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/iə̯/}} | |||
|- | |||
| '''ij''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ei̯~ɪi̯/}} | |||
|- | |||
| '''iu''' | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| '''o''' | |||
| {{IPA|/ɔ/}} || {{IPA|/oː/}} | |||
|- | |||
| '''oi''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ɔi̯/}} | |||
|- | |||
| '''oo''' | |||
| {{IPA|/o(ː)/}} || — | |||
|- | |||
| '''ooi''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/oːi̯/}} | |||
|- | |||
| '''oou''' | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| '''ou''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/u(ː)/}} | |||
|- | |||
| '''ö''' | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| '''öö''' | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| '''öü''' | |||
| | |||
|- | |||
| '''u''' | |||
| {{IPA|/ʊ/}} || {{IPA|/uː/}} | |||
|- | |||
| '''uo''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/uə̯/}} | |||
|- | |||
| '''ui''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ʊɪ̯/}} | |||
|- | |||
| '''uu''' | |||
| {{IPA|/y(ː)/}} || — | |||
|- | |||
| '''ü''' | |||
|- | |||
| '''üü''' | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
|} | |||
<!-- | |||
The following additional letters and pronunciations appear in non-native vocabulary or words using older, obsolete spellings (often conserved in proper names): | |||
{| | |||
| style="vertical-align: top" | | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+ [[Consonant]]s | |||
! rowspan="2" | spelling ||colspan="2"| [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] | |||
|- | |||
! normally || final | |||
|- | |||
| '''c''' | |||
| {{IPA|/s/}}, {{IPA|/k/}}, {{IPA|/tʃ/}} <ref name="c">{{angbr|c}} before {{angbr|e}}, {{angbr|i}}, {{angbr|y}}, is pronounced {{IPA|/s/}} (or {{IPA|/tʃ/}} in some loanwords from Italian) and {{IPA|/k/}} otherwise.</ref> || {{IPA|/k/}} | |||
|- | |||
| '''ç''' | |||
| {{IPA|/s/}}<ref>The [[cedilla]] is used to indicate pronunciation as {{IPA|/s/}} when {{angbr|c}} is followed by {{angbr|a}}, {{angbr|o}} or {{angbr|u}}.</ref> || — | |||
|- | |||
| '''ck''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/k/}} | |||
|- | |||
| '''ch''' | |||
| {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, {{IPA|/tʃ/}}, {{IPA|/k/}} <ref name="ch">{{angbr|ch}} is pronounced {{IPA|/k/}} in Italian loanwords, {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, {{IPA|/tʃ/}} in loanwords from other sources.</ref> || — | |||
|- | |||
| '''g''' | |||
| {{IPA|/ʒ/}}, {{IPA|/dʒ/}}, {{IPA|/ɡ/}}<ref name="g"/> || {{IPA|/k/}}<ref name="g">{{angbr|g}} may be pronounced {{IPA|/ʒ/}} or {{IPA|/dʒ/}} before {{angbr|e}} {{angbr|i}} or {{angbr|y}} in words of Romance or English origin.</ref> | |||
|- | |||
| '''gh''' | |||
| {{IPA|/ɣ/}}, {{IPA|/x/}} || {{IPA|/x/}} | |||
|- | |||
| '''gch''' | |||
| {{IPA|/x/}} || — | |||
|- | |||
| '''(i)ll''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/j/}}<ref>{{angbr|(i)ll}} is found in words from French or occasionally Spanish.</ref> | |||
|- | |||
| '''j''' | |||
| {{IPA|/ʒ/}}, {{IPA|/dʒ/}}, {{IPA|/x/}} <ref name="j"/> || {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, {{IPA|/x/}} <ref name="j">{{angbr|j}} is pronounced {{IPA|/x/}} in Spanish loanwords, as a postalveolar in loanwords from other sources.</ref> | |||
|- | |||
| '''ñ''' | |||
| {{IPA|/nj/}}<ref>The letter {{angbr|ñ}} occurs only in a few Spanish loanwords.</ref> || — | |||
|- | |||
| '''ph''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/f/}}<ref name="ph">Used only in some proper names like ''[[Zutphen]]''. Words of Greek origin are written with {{angbr|f}} but formerly with {{angbr|ph}}.</ref> | |||
|- | |||
| '''q''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/k/}}<ref name="q">In the rare cases when {{angbr|q}} is ''not'' followed by {{angbr|u}}, it is pronounced {{IPA|/k/}}. In those cases, {{angbr|q}} is most likely a result of [[transliteration]] from languages such as [[Arabic language|Arabic]].</ref> | |||
|- | |||
| '''qu''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/kʋ/}}, {{IPA|/k/}}<ref name="qu">{{angbr|qu}} is normally pronounced {{IPA|/kʋ/}} but as {{IPA|/k/}} before {{angbr|e}} or {{angbr|i}} in loanwords from French or Spanish.</ref> | |||
|- | |||
| '''s''' | |||
| {{IPA|/z/}}<ref name="s">{{angbr|s}} may be pronounced {{IPA|/z/}} before a vowel in words of foreign origin.</ref> || — | |||
|- | |||
| '''sch''' | |||
| {{IPA|/ʃ/}}<ref name="sch2"/> || {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, {{IPA|/s/}}<ref name="sch2">{{IPA|/ʃ/}} is used mostly in words of German origin. It is also {{IPA|/s/}} finally in older Dutch spellings, which are now spelled with just {{angbr|s}}</ref> | |||
|- | |||
| '''sh''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ʃ/}} | |||
|- | |||
| '''sj''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ʃ/}}<ref name="(t)sj">{{IPA|/ʃ/}} and {{IPA|/tʃ/}} occur as independent phonemes only in words of foreign origin. The sounds are approximated using the "native" spellings {{angbr|sj}} and {{angbr|tsj}} respectively.</ref> | |||
|- | |||
| '''sz''' | |||
| — || {{IPA|/s/}}<ref name="sz">Used in some proper names such as ''[[Lambert Jacobsz|Jacobsz]]'', as a contraction of ''-s zoon'' (...'s son).</ref> | |||
|- | |||
| '''ti(e)''' | |||
| {{IPA|/(t)si/}}<ref name="ti">{{angbr|ti}} followed by a vowel is pronounced {{IPA|/(t)si/}} in loanwords of Latin origin.</ref> || — | |||
|- | |||
| '''th''' | |||
| {{IPA|/t/}}, {{IPA|/d/}}<ref name="th"/> || {{IPA|/t/}}<ref name="th">{{angbr|th}} is {{IPA|/t/}} in words of Greek origin. In English loanwords, it is most often approximated with {{IPA|/t/}} or {{IPA|/d/}} according to the English pronunciation, or speakers may attempt to pronounce dental fricatives, as in English.</ref> | |||
|- | |||
| '''tsj''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/tʃ/}}<ref name="(t)sj"/> | |||
|- | |||
| '''x''' | |||
| {{IPA|/ks/}}, {{IPA|/ɡz/}}<ref name="x">{{angbr|x}} is sometimes pronounced {{IPA|/ɡz/}} between vowels, usually in southern dialects.</ref> || {{IPA|/ks/}} | |||
|- | |||
| '''y''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/j/}} | |||
|- | |||
| '''z''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ts/}}, {{IPA|/dz/}}<ref>{{angbr|z}} is {{IPA|/ts/}} in words of German or Italian origin. In Italian words, it may also be {{IPA|/dz/}} between vowels.</ref> | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
| style="vertical-align: top" | | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+ [[Vowel]]s and [[diphthong]]s | |||
! rowspan="2" | spelling || colspan="2" | [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] | |||
|- | |||
! checked || free | |||
|- | |||
| '''aaij''', '''aay''', '''aij''', '''ay''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/aːi̯/}}<ref name="ij-y">In diphthongs, {{angbr|ij}} and {{angbr|y}} are obsolete spellings for {{angbr|i}}. They are found mostly in names.</ref> | |||
|- | |||
| '''ae''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/aː/}}, {{IPA|/eː/}}<ref name="ae">{{angbr|ae}} is an obsolete spelling for {{angbr|aa}}. In Latin words, it is treated identical to {{angbr|ee}}.</ref> | |||
|- | |||
| '''aei''', '''aeij''', '''aey''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/aːi̯/}}<ref name="ij-y"/><ref name="ae"/> | |||
|- | |||
| '''ai''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ɛː/}} | |||
|- | |||
| '''au(x)''', '''eau(x)''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/oː/}}<ref name="au">In words of French origin.</ref> | |||
|- | |||
| '''è''', '''ê''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ɛ/}}, {{IPA|/ɛː/}} | |||
|- | |||
| '''é''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/eː/}}, {{IPA|/ei̯/}} | |||
|- | |||
| '''eij''', '''ey''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ɛi̯/}}<ref name="ij-y"/> | |||
|- | |||
| '''eu''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/œː/}}, {{IPA|/œy̯/}}<ref name="eu"> {{angbr|eu}} is pronounced as {{IPA|/œy̯/}} by some speakers in words of Greek origin.</ref> | |||
|- | |||
| '''o''', '''ô''' | |||
| {{IPA|/ɔː/}} || — | |||
|- | |||
| '''oeij''', '''oey''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ui̯/}}<ref name="ij-y"/> | |||
|- | |||
| '''oi''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ʋɑ/}}, {{IPA|/ʋaː/}}, {{IPA|/oː/}}<ref name="oi">{{angbr|oi}} is pronounced {{IPA|/ʋɑ/}} or {{IPA|/ʋaː/}} in French loanwords. In archaic Dutch spellings, mostly proper nouns, it may also be {{IPA|/oː/}} (for example, [[Oisterwijk]] or [[Helvoirt]]).</ref> | |||
|- | |||
| '''oo''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/u(ː)/}}<ref>{{angbr|oo}} is generally {{IPA|/u(ː)/}} in English loanwords.</ref> | |||
|- | |||
| '''ooij''', '''ooy''', '''oij''', '''oy''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/oːi̯/}}<ref name="ij-y"/> | |||
|- | |||
| '''ou''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/u(ː)/}}<ref>{{angbr|ou}} is generally {{IPA|/u(ː)/}} in loanwords from French or Greek.</ref> | |||
|- | |||
| '''u''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/u(ː)/}} | |||
|- | |||
| '''ui''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/ʋi(ː)/}}, {{IPA|/uː/}}<ref>{{angbr|ui}} is pronounced {{IPA|/ʋi(ː)/}} in loanwords from French. In English loanwords, such as ''cruise'', it is {{IPA|/uː/}}.</ref> | |||
|- | |||
| '''uij''', '''uy''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/œy̯/}}<ref name="ij-y"/> | |||
|- | |||
| '''y''' | |||
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|/i/}}, {{IPA|/ɪ/}}, {{IPA|/ɛi̯/}}<ref name="y">{{angbr|y}} is usually pronounced as {{angbr|i}} or {{angbr|ie}}. It is also an obsolete spelling variant of {{angbr|ij}}.</ref> | |||
|} | |||
|} | |||
--> | |||
=====Alphabet===== | |||
{|style="text-align:center" | |||
| | |||
{|class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
! Letter !! Name !! IPA | |||
|- | |||
| '''A a''' || a || [aː] | |||
|- | |||
| '''B b''' || be || [beː] | |||
|- | |||
| '''C c''' || ce || [seː] | |||
|- | |||
| '''D d''' || de || [deː] | |||
|- | |||
| '''E e''' || e || [eː] | |||
|- | |||
| '''F f''' || ef || [ɛf] | |||
|- | |||
| '''G g''' || ge || [ɡeː] | |||
|- | |||
| '''H h''' || ha || [ɦaː] | |||
|- | |||
| '''I i''' || i || [iː] | |||
|} | |||
| | |||
{|class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
! Letter !! Name !! IPA | |||
|- | |||
| '''J j''' || je || [jeː] | |||
|- | |||
| '''K k''' || ka || [kʰaː] | |||
|- | |||
| '''L l''' || el || [ɛɫ] | |||
|- | |||
| '''M m''' || em || [ɛm] | |||
|- | |||
| '''N n''' || en || [ɛn] | |||
|- | |||
| '''O o''' || o || [oː] | |||
|- | |||
| '''P p''' || pe || [pʰeː] | |||
|- | |||
| '''Q q''' || ku || [kʰyː] | |||
|- | |||
| '''R r''' || er || [ɛɾ] | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
| | |||
{|class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
! Letter !! Name !! IPA | |||
|- | |||
| '''S s''' || es || [ɛs] | |||
|- | |||
| '''T t''' || te || [tʰeː] | |||
|- | |||
| '''U u''' || u || [yː] | |||
|- | |||
| '''V v''' || ve || [feː] | |||
|- | |||
| '''W w''' || we || [veː] | |||
|- | |||
| '''X x''' || iks || [ɪks] | |||
|- | |||
| '''Y y''' || Griekeise i || [gɾiːˈkʰɛɪsə iː] | |||
|- | |||
| ('''IJ ij''') || longe i || [ˈlɔŋə iː] | |||
|- | |||
| '''Z z''' || zet || [zɛtʰ] | |||
|} | |||
|} | |||
====Consonants==== | ====Consonants==== | ||
<!-- | <!-- | ||
Line 193: | Line 640: | ||
² After /w/. | ² After /w/. | ||
--> | --> | ||
===Historical phonology=== | ===Historical phonology=== | ||
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | {| class=wikitable style="text-align:center" |
edits