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Naturally, the origin of the [[w:Indo-European languages|indo-european family]] has attracted the curiosity of thousands of researchers in the last centuries, since [[w:William Jones (philologist)|William Jones']] presidential discourse to the Asiatic Society in 1786<ref>https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sanskrit-language</ref>, which famously addressed the similarity between [[w:Sanskrit|Sanskrit]] and [[w:Languages of Europe|european languages]]. '''Further works that [...]''' | Naturally, the origin of the [[w:Indo-European languages|indo-european family]] has attracted the curiosity of thousands of researchers in the last centuries, since [[w:William Jones (philologist)|William Jones']] presidential discourse to the Asiatic Society in 1786<ref>https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sanskrit-language</ref>, which famously addressed the similarity between [[w:Sanskrit|Sanskrit]] and [[w:Languages of Europe|european languages]]. '''Further works that [...]''' | ||
In the hybrid model, Aryan must have been spoken somewhere near the Caucasus Mountains in compliance with the [[w:Armenian hypothesis|Armenian Hypothesis]], which in its current form holds that the speakers of "Pre-Proto-Indo-European" pertained to the genepool of the [[w:Caucasus hunter-gatherer|Caucasian Hunter-Gatherers]] (CHG)<ref name= | In the hybrid model, Aryan must have been spoken somewhere near the Caucasus Mountains in compliance with the [[w:Armenian hypothesis|Armenian Hypothesis]], which in its current form holds that the speakers of "Pre-Proto-Indo-European" pertained to the genepool of the [[w:Caucasus hunter-gatherer|Caucasian Hunter-Gatherers]] (CHG)<ref name=Lazaridis>Lazaridis et alii (2022); ''The genetic history of the Southern Arc: a bridge between West Asia and Europe''</ref>, who would eventually contribute to the formation of the [[w:Yamnaya culture|Yamnaya Culture]] and the dispersion of "Core Proto-Indo-European" as detailed in the [[w:Kurgan hypothesis|Kurgan Hypothesis]]. The age of the language is more controversial, being set between 12,000 and 10,000 years Before Present (BP), or the double of its daughter-language's, to coincide with the notion of [[Linguistic Modernity]]. | ||
==History== | ==History== | ||
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==Historical and Geographical Distribution== | ==Historical and Geographical Distribution== | ||
Since Lazaridis et al's paper<ref name= | Since Lazaridis et al's paper<ref name=Lazaridis>Lazaridis et alii (2022); ''The genetic history of the Southern Arc: a bridge between West Asia and Europe''</ref>, absence of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern%20hunter-gatherer Eastern European Hunter-Gatherer] (EHG) ancestry in the Anatolian component of the Indo-European speaking populations has suggested a caucasian homeleand for earlier stages of PIE rather than a pre-Yamnaya pontic continuance. Recent studies<ref>Brami (2019), ''Anatolia: from the origins of agriculture to the spread of Neolithic economies''</ref><ref>Ulas et al (2024), ''Drawing diffusion patterns of Neolithic agriculture in Anatolia''</ref>, furthermore, point to a total farming economy by the Zagros around 6,000 BC, which tempts an older dating for a Transitional Dialect such as Aryan. | ||
==Phonology== | ==Phonology== | ||
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*Overall, the dual is formed by erasing sounds of the singular, then reduplicating it (e.g. ''*h<sub>5</sub>ih<sub>1</sub>ṓn'' ⇒ ''*ōi̯ṓn''; ''*tū́'' ⇒ ''*ūi̯ū́''; ''*aī́h<sub>0</sub>i'' ⇒ ''*aīaī́''), while the plural is formed by erasing the reduplication of the dual, then adding the serial particle ''*-s-'' (e.g. ''*ōi̯ṓn'' ⇒ ''*ṓns''; ''*ūi̯ū́'' ⇒ ''*ū́s''; ''*aīaī́'' ⇒ ''*aī́s''), and the collective simply does the latter but with the suffix ''*-a'' (e.g. ''*ōi̯ṓn'' ⇒ ''*ṓna''; ''*ūi̯ū́'' ⇒ ''*ū́a''; ''*aīaī́'' ⇒ ''*aī́a''''). Medial ''*i̯'' ~ ''*u̯'' is inserted to avoid diphthongs between reduplicated vowels, and ''*ts'' is applied in other cases when two bordering vowels are similar (except those involving schwas). | *Overall, the dual is formed by erasing sounds of the singular, then reduplicating it (e.g. ''*h<sub>5</sub>ih<sub>1</sub>ṓn'' ⇒ ''*ōi̯ṓn''; ''*tū́'' ⇒ ''*ūi̯ū́''; ''*aī́h<sub>0</sub>i'' ⇒ ''*aīaī́''), while the plural is formed by erasing the reduplication of the dual, then adding the serial particle ''*-s-'' (e.g. ''*ōi̯ṓn'' ⇒ ''*ṓns''; ''*ūi̯ū́'' ⇒ ''*ū́s''; ''*aīaī́'' ⇒ ''*aī́s''), and the collective simply does the latter but with the suffix ''*-a'' (e.g. ''*ōi̯ṓn'' ⇒ ''*ṓna''; ''*ūi̯ū́'' ⇒ ''*ū́a''; ''*aīaī́'' ⇒ ''*aī́a''''). Medial ''*i̯'' ~ ''*u̯'' is inserted to avoid diphthongs between reduplicated vowels, and ''*ts'' is applied in other cases when two bordering vowels are similar (except those involving schwas). | ||
**The products of this process would eventually substitute the plural forms of the first and second-person (i.e. ''*ṓns'' "we (plural)" ⇒ ∅, replaced by ''*ōi̯ṓn'' "we (dual)" (Aryan) ⇒ ''*wéy'' "we (plural)" (PIE); ''*ūs'' "you (plural)" ⇒ ∅, replaced by ''*ūi̯ū́'' "you (dual)" (Aryan) ⇒ ''*yū́'' "you (plural)" (PIE)). | **The products of this process would eventually substitute the plural forms of the first and second-person (i.e. ''*ṓns'' "we (plural)" ⇒ ∅, replaced by ''*ōi̯ṓn'' "we (dual)" (Aryan) ⇒ ''*wéy'' "we (plural)" (PIE); ''*ūs'' "you (plural)" ⇒ ∅, replaced by ''*ūi̯ū́'' "you (dual)" (Aryan) ⇒ ''*yū́'' "you (plural)" (PIE)). | ||
**The particle <''*m''> gains the property of the serial particle <''*s''> when the latter conflates with the particle ''*ts'' (e.g. third-person plural locative ''*itsim'' instead of ''*itsis''). This contamination was likely encouraged due the abundant presence of ''*m'' in the accusative, and produces an alternative explanation to the hypothesis that the oblique of the first-person plural was''*ms-'' before becoming ''*ns-''<ref name=Sihler>Sihler | **The particle <''*m''> gains the property of the serial particle <''*s''> when the latter conflates with the particle ''*ts'' (e.g. third-person plural locative ''*itsim'' instead of ''*itsis''). This contamination was likely encouraged due the abundant presence of ''*m'' in the accusative, and produces an alternative explanation to the hypothesis that the oblique of the first-person plural was''*ms-'' before becoming ''*ns-''<ref name=Sihler>Andrew Sihler (1995); [https://archive.org/details/sihler-andrew-new-comparative-grammar-of-greek-and-latin/mode/2up ''New Comparative Grammar Of Greek And Latin'']</ref>. Later in PIE, not only plural forms (e.g. Aryan ''*-nas'' (1.PL.VB.) ⇒ PIE ''*-mos'' (1.PL.VB.)), but also singular forms would become contaminated (e.g. ''*iai̯'' "to him" (Aryan) ⇒ ''*h<sub>1</sub>esmōy'' "to him" (PIE)). | ||
***e.g. genitive plural of the third-person ''*itsi̯am'' (Aryan) ⇒ ''*éysom'' (PIE) ⇒ ''eum'' (Latin). | ***e.g. genitive plural of the third-person ''*itsi̯am'' (Aryan) ⇒ ''*éysom'' (PIE) ⇒ ''eum'' (Latin). | ||
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[...] | [...] | ||
By examining a large corpus of hellenic texts, Jakob Wackernagel stated in his essay how enclitics in Greek sentences are mostly located in the second position<ref name=Wackernagel>Wackernagel | By examining a large corpus of hellenic texts, Jakob Wackernagel stated in his essay how enclitics in Greek sentences are mostly located in the second position<ref name=Wackernagel>Jakob Wackernagel (1892); [https://archive.org/details/indogermanischef01berluoft/page/332/mode/2up ''Über ein Gesetz der indogermanischen Worstellung'']</ref>. For example, he contrasted specifically the accusative of the first-person pronoun in the isolated (''ἐμέ'') and enclitic (''με'') forms: | ||
<blockquote>Besonders belehrend sind aber die paar Inschriften mit ''ἐμέ''. Zweimal steht dieses ''ἐμέ'' auch an zweiter Stelle: IGA. 20,8 (Korinth) ''᾿Απολλόδωρος ἐμὲ ἀνέθ[ηκε]'' und Gazette archéol. 1888 S. 168 ''Μεναΐδας ἐμ’ ἐποί(ϝ)εςε Χαρόπ(ι)''. Aber sechsmal steht ''ἐμέ'' anders: Klein S.39 ''Ἐξηκίας ἔγραψε κἀπόηςε ἐμέ'' (Vers?) 5. 40 ''Ἑξηκίας ἔγραψε κἀ(ι)ποίης᾽ ἐμέ'' (Vers?). S.''ΟῚ Χαριταῖος ἐποίηςεν ἔμ᾽ εὖ''. 8. 82 ''Ἑρμογένης ἐποίηςεν ἐμέ''. 8.85 ''Ἑρμογένης ἐποίηςεν ἐνέ'' (liess ''ἐμέ''). S. 85 ''Σακωνίδης ἔγραψεν ἐμέ''. Diese Stellen zeigen, dass die regelmässige Stellung von ''με'' hinter dem ersten Wort nicht zufällig und dass sie durch seine enklitische Natur bedingt ist. [Vgl. noch die Nachträge.]</blockquote> | <blockquote>Besonders belehrend sind aber die paar Inschriften mit ''ἐμέ''. Zweimal steht dieses ''ἐμέ'' auch an zweiter Stelle: IGA. 20,8 (Korinth) ''᾿Απολλόδωρος ἐμὲ ἀνέθ[ηκε]'' und Gazette archéol. 1888 S. 168 ''Μεναΐδας ἐμ’ ἐποί(ϝ)εςε Χαρόπ(ι)''. Aber sechsmal steht ''ἐμέ'' anders: Klein S.39 ''Ἐξηκίας ἔγραψε κἀπόηςε ἐμέ'' (Vers?) 5. 40 ''Ἑξηκίας ἔγραψε κἀ(ι)ποίης᾽ ἐμέ'' (Vers?). S.''ΟῚ Χαριταῖος ἐποίηςεν ἔμ᾽ εὖ''. 8. 82 ''Ἑρμογένης ἐποίηςεν ἐμέ''. 8.85 ''Ἑρμογένης ἐποίηςεν ἐνέ'' (liess ''ἐμέ''). S. 85 ''Σακωνίδης ἔγραψεν ἐμέ''. Diese Stellen zeigen, dass die regelmässige Stellung von ''με'' hinter dem ersten Wort nicht zufällig und dass sie durch seine enklitische Natur bedingt ist. [Vgl. noch die Nachträge.]</blockquote> | ||
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A riddle in German: | A riddle in German: | ||
: ''Der Vater ist noch nicht geboren,'' | : ''Der Vater ist noch nicht geboren,'' | ||
: ''der Sohn ist schon auf dem Dache.''<ref name=Aarne>Anti Aarne; [https://digitalisate.sub.uni-hamburg.de/recherche/detail?tx_dlf%5Bdouble%5D=0&tx_dlf%5Bid%5D=48996&tx_dlf%5Bpage%5D=32&tx_dlf_navigation%5Baction%5D=main&tx_dlf_navigation%5Bcontroller%5D=Navigation&cHash=7cd75d7f3224787416091debb4db9c9a Vergleichende Rätselforschungen] | : ''der Sohn ist schon auf dem Dache.''<ref name=Aarne>Anti Aarne (1918-1920); [https://digitalisate.sub.uni-hamburg.de/recherche/detail?tx_dlf%5Bdouble%5D=0&tx_dlf%5Bid%5D=48996&tx_dlf%5Bpage%5D=32&tx_dlf_navigation%5Baction%5D=main&tx_dlf_navigation%5Bcontroller%5D=Navigation&cHash=7cd75d7f3224787416091debb4db9c9a Vergleichende Rätselforschungen]</ref> | ||
:: The father is not yet born, | :: The father is not yet born, | ||
:: the son is already on the roof. | :: the son is already on the roof. | ||
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: ''noire est la semmence,'' | : ''noire est la semmence,'' | ||
: ''l'homme qui le semme,'' | : ''l'homme qui le semme,'' | ||
: ''est de très grand science.''<ref name=Aarne>Anti Aarne; [https://digitalisate.sub.uni-hamburg.de/recherche/detail?tx_dlf%5Bdouble%5D=0&tx_dlf%5Bid%5D=48996&tx_dlf%5Bpage%5D=32&tx_dlf_navigation%5Baction%5D=main&tx_dlf_navigation%5Bcontroller%5D=Navigation&cHash=7cd75d7f3224787416091debb4db9c9a Vergleichende Rätselforschungen] | : ''est de très grand science.''<ref name=Aarne>Anti Aarne (1918-1920); [https://digitalisate.sub.uni-hamburg.de/recherche/detail?tx_dlf%5Bdouble%5D=0&tx_dlf%5Bid%5D=48996&tx_dlf%5Bpage%5D=32&tx_dlf_navigation%5Baction%5D=main&tx_dlf_navigation%5Bcontroller%5D=Navigation&cHash=7cd75d7f3224787416091debb4db9c9a Vergleichende Rätselforschungen]</ref> | ||
:: White is the field, | :: White is the field, | ||
:: black is the seed, | :: black is the seed, | ||