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'''Aryan''' (''*Airás'', [[w:Help:IPA|[əi̯ˈrəs]]]), also referred to as '''Pre-Proto-Indo-European,''' is an [[ab interiori language]] depicting the transition from [[Paleolithic Codes]] to [[w:Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] (PIE). There are no historical records of its existence, or comparative data to support it; rather, it is an abductive experiment based on the hypothesis of [[Transitional Dialects]].
'''Aryan''' (''*Ai̯ri̯áh<sub>0</sub>'', [[w:Help:IPA|[əi̯ˈri̯əʔ]]]), also referred to as '''Pre-Proto-Indo-European,''' is an [[ab interiori language]] depicting the transition from [[Paleolithic Codes]] to [[w:Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] (PIE). There are no historical records of its existence, or comparative data to support it; rather, it is an abductive experiment based on the hypothesis of [[Transitional Dialects]].


In most of known [[w:History|History]], indo-european speaking populations have been widespread in [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]], bearing fruits from civilizations such as those of the [[w:Roman empire|Roman Empire]], the [[w:Ancient Greece|Hellenistic City-States]], and the [[w:List of ancient Indo-Aryan peoples and tribes|Rigvedic Tribes]]. Memorable personalities who spoke natively dialects from those areas include the roman general [[w:Gaius Julius Caesar|Julius Caesar]] (speaker of [[w:Latin|Latin]]), the macedonian king [[w:Alexander the Great|Alexander the Great]] (speaker of [[w:Ancient Greek|Ancient Greek]]), the nazi chancellor [[w:Adolf Hitler|Adolf Hitler]] (speaker of [[w:German language|German]]), the french emperor [[w:Napoleon Bonaparte|Napoleon Bonaparte]] (speaker of [[w:Corsican langugae|Corsican]]), the british physicist [[w:Isaac Newton|Isaac Newton]] (speaker of [[w:English language|English]]), the italian renascentist [[w:Leonardo da Vinci|Leoanardo da Vinci]] (speaker of [[w:Tuscan dialect|Tuscan Italian]]), the indian ascetic [[w:Gautama Buddha|Gautama Buddha]] (speaker of [[w:Prakrit language|Prakrit]]), et cetera. Also, due the trajectory of the linguistic stock along the millenia, some of the most culturally influential works of Literature have been yielded, such as the [[w:Vulgate|Vulgate]], the [[w:Iliad|Iliad]], and the [[w:Vedas|Vedas]]. As of the [[w:21st Century|21<sup>st</sup> Century]], half of the world's population speaks 454 indo-european languages<ref>https://www.ethnologue.com/</ref>, with the [[w:Americas|Americas]], [[w:Europe|Europe]], [[w:Iran|Iran]], [[w:Pakistan|Pakistan]], and [[w:India|India]] being today the centers of native speakers due the [[w:Indo-European migrations|Indo-European Migrations]] and [[w:Colonial empires|European Colonialism]].
In most of known [[w:History|History]], indo-european speaking populations have been widespread in [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]], bearing fruits from civilizations such as those of the [[w:Roman empire|Roman Empire]], the [[w:Ancient Greece|Hellenistic City-States]], and the [[w:List of ancient Indo-Aryan peoples and tribes|Rigvedic Tribes]]. Memorable personalities who spoke natively dialects from those areas include the roman general [[w:Gaius Julius Caesar|Julius Caesar]] (speaker of [[w:Latin|Latin]]), the macedonian king [[w:Alexander the Great|Alexander the Great]] (speaker of [[w:Ancient Greek|Ancient Greek]]), the nazi chancellor [[w:Adolf Hitler|Adolf Hitler]] (speaker of [[w:German language|German]]), the french emperor [[w:Napoleon Bonaparte|Napoleon Bonaparte]] (speaker of [[w:Corsican langugae|Corsican]]), the british physicist [[w:Isaac Newton|Isaac Newton]] (speaker of [[w:English language|English]]), the italian renascentist [[w:Leonardo da Vinci|Leoanardo da Vinci]] (speaker of [[w:Tuscan dialect|Tuscan Italian]]), the indian ascetic [[w:Gautama Buddha|Gautama Buddha]] (speaker of [[w:Prakrit language|Prakrit]]), et cetera. Also, due the trajectory of the linguistic stock along the millenia, some of the most culturally influential works of Literature have been yielded, such as the [[w:Vulgate|Vulgate]], the [[w:Iliad|Iliad]], and the [[w:Vedas|Vedas]]. As of the [[w:21st Century|21<sup>st</sup> Century]], half of the world's population speaks 454 indo-european languages<ref>https://www.ethnologue.com/</ref>, with the [[w:Americas|Americas]], [[w:Europe|Europe]], [[w:Iran|Iran]], [[w:Pakistan|Pakistan]], and [[w:India|India]] being today the centers of native speakers due the [[w:Indo-European migrations|Indo-European Migrations]] and [[w:Colonial empires|European Colonialism]].
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In the hybrid model, Aryan must have been spoken somewhere near the Caucasus Mountains in compliance with the [[w:Armenian hypothesis|Armenian Hypothesis]], which in its current form holds that the speakers of "Pre-Proto-Indo-European" pertained to the genepool of the [[w:Caucasus hunter-gatherer|Caucasian Hunter-Gatherers]] (CHG)<ref name=Lazaridis>Lazaridis et alii (2022); ''The genetic history of the Southern Arc: a bridge between West Asia and Europe''</ref>, who would eventually contribute to the formation of the [[w:Yamnaya culture|Yamnaya Culture]] and the dispersion of "Core Proto-Indo-European" as detailed in the [[w:Kurgan hypothesis|Kurgan Hypothesis]]. The age of the language is more controversial, being set between 12,000 and 10,000 years Before Present (BP), or the double of its daughter-language's, to coincide with the notion of [[Linguistic Modernity]].
In the hybrid model, Aryan must have been spoken somewhere near the Caucasus Mountains in compliance with the [[w:Armenian hypothesis|Armenian Hypothesis]], which in its current form holds that the speakers of "Pre-Proto-Indo-European" pertained to the genepool of the [[w:Caucasus hunter-gatherer|Caucasian Hunter-Gatherers]] (CHG)<ref name=Lazaridis>Lazaridis et alii (2022); ''The genetic history of the Southern Arc: a bridge between West Asia and Europe''</ref>, who would eventually contribute to the formation of the [[w:Yamnaya culture|Yamnaya Culture]] and the dispersion of "Core Proto-Indo-European" as detailed in the [[w:Kurgan hypothesis|Kurgan Hypothesis]]. The age of the language is more controversial, being set between 12,000 and 10,000 years Before Present (BP), or the double of its daughter-language's, to coincide with the notion of [[Linguistic Modernity]].
==Etymology==
The word ''*Ai̯ri̯áh<sub>0</sub>'' is influenced but not based on the Indo-Iranian ethnonym ''*Áryas'' "Aryan", as the root ''*h<sub>5</sub>ir'' "member/comrade" comes from Pangaean ''ʕihr'' "racial person".


==History==
==History==
===Development from Paleolithic Codes===
===Development from Paleolithic Codes===


The history of Aryan taken into account starts with the transition from Atomism to Double Articulation by the dialects of the Upper Paleolithic, mostly regarding the [[Pangaean Code]] as its ultimate source, next to the influence of the [[Diluvian Code|Diluvian]] and [[Hyperborean Code|Hyperborean]] Codes. Although the actor responsible for this transition is a matter of debate even within the experiment, the loss of archaic features is assumed to coincide with the [[w:Last Glacial Period|End of the Last Ice Age]]. At that time (12,000 BP), the loss of strict adherence to the primordial grammar might have allowed sound changes to take place, as seen below.<br>
The story of Aryan starts with the transition from Atomism to Double Articulation, or from the [[Pangaean Code]] to Neolithic dialects (circa 12,000 BP). Noticeable is the influence of the [[Diluvian Code|Diluvian]] and [[Hyperborean Code|Hyperborean]] Codes, which triggered several sound changes:


*Weak (plosive) stops become aspirated/murmured preceding a laryngeal consonant, as strong (ejective/implosive) stops gain plosive qualities in the same position.<br>
*Weak (plosive) stops become aspirated/murmured preceding a laryngeal consonant, as strong (ejective/implosive) stops gain plosive qualities in the same position.<br>
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|''*wid-rás'' "aquatic"
|''*wid-rás'' "aquatic"
|''*ud-rós'' "aquatic"  
|''*ud-rós'' "aquatic"  
|-
| ''ˈɗ̟ɦɨho-ə'' "foot"
| ''*díop<sup>h</sup>-as'' "foot"
| ''*pód-s'' "foot"
|-
| ''ˈɗ̟ɦɨho ˈə'' "foot-like"
| ''*p<sup>h</sup>d-yás'' "pedestrian"
| ''*ped-yós'' "on foot"
|-
|-
|''ˈkhuħ-ə'' "sound"
|''ˈkhuħ-ə'' "sound"
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|}
|}


===Development into Indo-European Languages===
===Development into Indo-European Languages [...]===
 
Some tendences include the aspirated velars of Aryan becoming the PIE palatal series (*Kʰ ⇒ *Ḱ); ....
 
https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Proto-Indo-European_roots&from=A


Some correspondences include the aspirated velars of Aryan becoming the PIE palatal series (*Kʰ→*Ḱ); ....
*bʰeyh₂-


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
!Codex
!Codex
!Aryan
!Aryan
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| k̠-
| k̠-
| *kʰpʰ-
| *kʰpʰ-
| *ǵʰ/d ~ *ḱh<sub>2</sub>d- ~ *ǵʰ/s ~ *ǵʰ/∅
| *ǵʰ-d
| ''*kʰpʰuh<sub>1</sub>-'' ⇒ [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/ǵʰewd-|''*ǵʰewd-'']] "pour", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/ǵʰed-|''*ǵʰed-'']] "to defecate", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/ǵʰes-|''*ǵʰes-'']] "hand", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/ǵʰey-|''*ǵʰey-'']] "winter" (earlier lexical transition from "autumn", with similar use of English "fall"), [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/ḱh₂d-|''*ḱh<sub>2</sub>d-'']] "fall" [sense of "detaching" turned into "falling"]
| 1. [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/ǵʰewd-|''*ǵʰewd-'']] "to pour", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/ǵʰed-|''*ǵʰed-'']] "to defecate", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/ḱh₂d-|''*ḱh₂d-'']] "to fall"
|-
|-
| -k̠
| -k̠
| *-kp
| *-kp
| (...)
| *-k<sup>w</sup>
|
| 1. [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/leykʷ-|''*leykʷ-'']] "to leave"
|-
|-
| k-
| k-
| *kʰ-
| *kʰ-
| *ḱ
| *ḱ
| ''*ki'' ⇒ ''*kʰi'' ⇒ [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/ḱe|''ḱe'']] "this"
| 1. [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/ḱe|''*ḱe'']] "this"
|-
|-
| -k
| -k
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| k̟-
| k̟-
| *kʰtʰ-  
| *kʰtʰ-  
| *ḱ/s ~ *k/s  ~ *k/d ~ *gʰ/s ~ *g/∅
| *ḱ-s
| ''k̟hĩ̤ho'' ⇒ ''*kʰtʰīh<sub>1</sub>o'' ⇒ ''*(s)ker-'', ''*(s)kelH-'', ''*sek-'', ''*ḱes-'', ''*kh₂eyd-'' "to cut"; ''k̟ʕii̯h'' ⇒ ''*kʰtʰeyh<sub>1</sub>-'' ⇒ ''*gʰays-'' ~ ''*gleyH-'' "to stick"
| 1. [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/(s)ker-|''*(s)ker-'']], [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/(s)kelH-|''*(s)kelH'']], [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/sek-|''*sek-'']], [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/ḱes-|''*ḱes-'']], [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/kh₂eyd-|''*kh₂eyd-'']] "to cut"; 3. [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/gleyH-|''*gleyH-'']] "to stick"
|-
|-
| -k̟
| -k̟
| -kt
| *-kt
| *ḱ/∅ ~ *ǵ/∅
| *p-ḱ
| (...) ''*peh₂ḱ-'' "to join", ''*peh₂ǵ-'' "to attach"
| 1. [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/peh₂ḱ-|''*peh₂ḱ-'']] "to join", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/peh₂ǵ-|''*peh₂ǵ-'']] "to attach"; 2. [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/leyp-|''*leyp-'']] "to stick", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/leyǵ-|''*leyǵ-'']] "to bind"; 3. [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰendʰ-|''*bʰendʰ-'']] "to bind"
|-
|-
| g̠-
| g̠-
| *gʰbʰ-
| *gʰbʰ-
| *gʰ/p ~ *gʰ/w
| *gʰ-bʰ
| ''g̠ʕih'' > ''*gʰbʰih<sub>1</sub>-'' ⇒ ''*(s)pregʰ-'' "to sprinkle"; ''g̠ho̰hr'' "scattering glow" ⇒ ''*gʰbʰōr-'' "glow" ⇒ ''*gʷʰer-'' "to be warm"
| 1. [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/(s)pregʰ-|''*(s)pregʰ-'']] "sprinkle", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/glewbʰ-|''*glewbʰ-'']] "split", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰeh₂g-|''*bʰeh₂g-'']] "to divide"; 3. [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰeyd-|''*bʰeyd-'']] "to split"
|-
|-
| -g̠
| -g̠
| -gb
|  
|  
|  
| *h₁éǵʰ "out"
|
|-
|-
| g-
| g-
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| g̟-
| g̟-
| *gʰdʰ-
| *gʰdʰ-
| *gʰ/dʰ
| *gʰ-dʰ
| ''g̟ʕih'' ⇒ ''*gʰdʰih<sub>1</sub>-'' ⇒ ''*gʰedʰ-'' "to join"
|  [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/gʰedʰ-|''*gʰedʰ-'']] "to join", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰendʰ-|''*bʰendʰ-'']] "to bind"
|-
|-
| -g̟
| -g̟
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| k̠ʼ-
| k̠ʼ-
| *kp-
| *kp-
| *g/bʰ ~ *k/p
| *bʰ-g, *k-p
| ''k̠ʼʕih'' ⇒ ''*kpih<sub>1</sub>-'' > ''*bʰeg-'' ~ ''*bʰreg-'' ~ ''*bʰrew-'' ~ ''*bʰrews-'' ~ ''*kelh₂-'' ~ ''*(s)kep-'' "to break"
| [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰeg-|''*bʰeg-'']] "break", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰreg-|''*bʰreg-'']] "break", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰrew-|''*bʰrew-'']] "break", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰrews-|''*bʰrews-'']] "break", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/kelh₂-|''*kelh₂-'']] "break", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/(s)kep-|''*(s)kep-'']] "break", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/Hrewp-|''*Hrewp-'']] "break" [may be from [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/Hrew-|''*Hrew-'']] "tear out"]
|-
|-
| -k̠ʼ
| -k̠ʼ
| *-kʰpʰ
| *-kʰpʰ
| *ǵ/w
| *w-ǵ
| ''ʕihk̠ʼ'' ⇒ ''*h<sub>5</sub>ikʰpʰ-'' ⇒ ''*lewǵ-'' ~ ''*weh₂ǵ-'' ~ ''*wreh₁ǵ-'' "to break"
| ''*lewǵ-'' ~ ''*weh₂ǵ-'' ~ ''*wreh₁ǵ-'' "to break"
|-
|-
| kʼ-
| kʼ-
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|-
|-
| p̠-
| p̠-
|  
| *pʰtʰ-
|
| *bʰ/gʷ
|  
| [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰegʷ-|''*bʰegʷ-'']] "flee", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰewg-|''*bʰewg-'']] "flee"
|-
|-
| -p̠
| -p̠
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|-
|-
| p-
| p-
| *pʰ
| *pʰ-
| *bʰ
| *bʰ-
| ''pʕihr'' ⇒ ''*pʰair-'' ⇒ ''*bʰer-'' "to bear"  
| [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰer-|''*bʰer-'']] "bear"
|-
|-
| -p
| -p
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|-
|-
| p̠ʼ-
| p̠ʼ-
| *pt-
|  
|  
|
|  
|  
|-
|-
| -p̠ʼ
| -p̠ʼ  
|  
| *-pʰtʰ
|  
| *bʰ-dʰ
|
| [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰedʰ-|''*bʰedʰ-'']] "dig"
|-
|-
| pʼ-
| pʼ-
| *p-
| *p-
| *p
| *p
| ''pʼʕih'' > ''*pair-'' ⇒ ''*per-'' "to go through", ''*pel-'' "to drive", ''*pent-'' "to pass", ''*pes-'' "penis"
| [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/per-|''*per-'']] "go through", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/pel-|''*pel-'']] "drive", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/pent-|''*pent-'']] "pass", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/pes-|''*pes-'']] "penis"
|-
|-
| -pʼ
| -pʼ
|  
| *-pʰ
|  
| *bʰ
|
| [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰerH-|''*bʰerH-'']] "pierce"
|-
|-
|-
|-
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|-
|-
| ɓ̟-
| ɓ̟-
|  
| *bʰ-
|
| *bʰ
|  
| [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰed-|''*bʰed-'']] "improve"
|-
|-
| -ɓ̟
| -ɓ̟
Line 717: Line 716:
|  
|  
|
|
|}
|-
 
| ʘ̠-
 
|
 
|
 
|
: *bʰegʷ- "to flee" < *-pʰtʰ "to escape" < …
|-
| -ʘ̠
|
|
|
|-
| ʘ-
| *dʷ-
| *bʰ-
| [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰed-|''*bʰed-'']] "improve", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰil-|''*bʰil-'']] "lovely"
|-
| -ʘ
|
|
|
|-
| ʘ̟-
|
|
|
|-
| -ʘ̟
|
|
|
|-
| ǀ̠-
|
|
|
|-
| -ǀ̠
|
|
|
|-
| ǀ-
|
|
|
|-
| -ǀ
|
|
| [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰeyh₂-|''*bʰeyh₂-'']] "to shake"
|-
| ǀ̟-
|
|
|
|-
| -ǀ̟
|
|
|
|}
 
 
[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰerǵʰ-|''*bʰerǵʰ-'']] "ascend"
 
: *bʰegʷ- "to flee" < *-pʰtʰ "to escape" < …
 
: *bʰerǵʰ- "to rise up " < *pk- "to eject" (?)
 
: *bʰil "good" < *dʷih<sub>1</sub>
 
[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/ǵʰes-|''*ǵʰes-'']] "hand", [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/ǵʰey-|''*ǵʰey-'']] "winter" (earlier lexical transition from "autumn", with similar use of English "fall"),
 
[[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/gʷʰer-|''*gʷʰer-'']] "warm" [from ''*gʰbʰōr-'' "glow"], [[wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/bʰeh₃g-|''*bʰeh₃g-'']] "bake/roast" [from ''*gʰbʰor-'' "kindle"]
 
*temh<sub>1</sub>
 
kpih1 > bʰeg-; h5ikʰpʰ > weh2ǵ- ∅
 
r is added when the laryngeal is modified (h2 > h1)
 
l is added when the laryngeal is erased (h1 > ∅)
 
∅ (H) > r (H̥) > l (∅)
 
 
*bʰewdʰ “to be awake”
 
: *bʰeyd  ~ *delh<sub>1</sub> “to split”
 
: *deh<sub>2</sub>y- ~ *bʰeh<sub>2</sub>g- "to divide"
 
: *deh<sub>3</sub> "to give"
 
‘’’D lemmas’’’
 
 
dewh1 (*deh3)
 
>
 
daim "to build" (*dem)
 
daik "to take" (*deḱ)
 
daipʰkʰ "to lead" (*dewk)
 
when two voiced consonants in a root, they becomes aspirated
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
In a root with a cluster, if there is no consonant as coda except:
 
-'''a laryngeal''', the laryngeal is erased and the second element of the cluster becomes the coda.
 
:''*gʰedʰ-'' (PIE) < ''((*gʰed-))'' < ''*gʰdʰih<sub>1</sub>-'' (Aryan) < ''g̟ʕih'' (Codex)
 
-'''a liquid''', the liquid is incorporated and the first element of the cluster becomes the coda.
 
:''*(s)pregʰ-'' ~ ''*sper-'' (PIE) < ''((*bregʰ-))'' <  ''* gʰbʰair'' (Aryan)  < ''g̠ʕihr'' (Codex)
 
exception: roots with longs vowels
[dʰuh2- < pʰtʰūh1- (**pʰūt)]
 
h1egóM < aikṓm < aku
ˈᴇːʔ > *ēh0 (Aryan) > *ih2 (PIE)
uˈħihurk̟ʼ-a > *h<sub>2</sub>úrkʰtʰa > *h<sub>2</sub>ŕ̥tḱoes
*i and *u disappear before sonorants
mur, mrás > mer
as PIE only accepts thorn clusters...
 
 
 
The language is demonstrared using two modern Indo-European languages (German and Russian) and two ancient ones (Latin and Greek).
 
 
mobile roots:
-*r "quality"
-*m "result"
-*dʰ "fixation"


: *bʰerǵʰ- "to rise up " < *pk- "to eject" (?)
NOTE: PIE neuter particle *-om derives from Aryan *(_)-am, which forms result nouns


: *bʰil "good" < *dʷih<sub>1</sub> < ʘ̪-
origin of PIE declensions:


(_)-as Hysterokinetic:
*kʰúh2as > (*ḱléwos) > *ḱléwos
*kʰuh2ásyas > (*ḱlewésyos) > *ḱléwesos
(∅)-ás Hysterokinetic:
*pdás > *pád∅s (*pods) > *pṓds
*pdasyás > *padás∅s (*pedés) > *pedés
*(á)-as Acrostatic:
*pkáih1as > (*ǵʰéyos)  > *ǵʰéyos
*pkáih1asyas > (*ǵʰéyosyos) > *ǵʰéyosyo
*(a)-ás Acrostatic:
*pkaisás > (*ǵʰoysós) > *ǵʰoysós
*pkaisásyas > (*ǵʰoysésyos) > *ǵʰoysósyo


*temh<sub>1</sub>
ptár > ph2tḗr
ptsaryás > ptryás (pətrés)> ph2trés


kpih1 > bʰeg-; h5ikʰpʰ > weh2ǵ- ∅


r is added when the laryngeal is modified (h2 > h1)
What marks a Transitional Dialect:
*the presence of mobile roots


l is added when the laryngeal is erased (h1 > ∅)


∅ (H) > r (H̥) > l (∅)
''p̠hṵh'' "fume" > ''*pʰtʰawimás'' (''*pʰtʰūh<sub>1</sub>-*más'') "smoke" > ''*dʰuh<sub>2</sub>mós'' (''*dʰewh<sub>2</sub>-*mós'')


*Hu, *u, *uH, *HuH > *we, *u, *ew, *we
Inheritances:
huhg̠ > *h1ugp > *wegʷ
ɦuhd > *h4ud > *sweyd
*ud > *úd
p̟ʼhuh > *pkuh > *ǵʰew
pʼhuh > *puh > *plew
Borrowings:
*h2ekʷ
-
*Hū, *ū, *ūH, *HūH> h2ew, ew, ewh2, h2ew
Inheritances:
p̠hṵh > *pʰtʰawi > *dʰewh2
krhṳh > *GRuia > *krewh2
Borrowings:
-phu- [Diluvian] > *po > *peh3
-
*Ho, o, oH, HoH > *h3e, e, *eh3, *Hew
Inheritances:
kʼhohr > *kohr > *kerh3 (variant *ker from *kor)
hoħd > *h1od > *h3ed
ħoħd > *h2od > *h3ed
... > *poh2 > *peh3 (*puH)
pʰol > bʰel "shine"
*h1oh1 > *h1ews
Borrowings:
pohar [Diluvian] > *pawar (*paw-(a)-ar) > *péh2wr̥ (pew-r̥)
*h1engʷ < *h1ew-ǵenh1-yéti
-
*Hō, ō, ōH, HōH > *h3u, h3, *uh3, *Hu
Inheritances:
Borrowings:
-
*Ha, *a, *aH, *HaH > *h2e, *h2, *eh2, *h2e
Inheritances:
phah > *pʰah > *bʰeh2
Borrowings:
-
*ā > ...
Inheritances:
Borrowings:
-
*a > *e/o
Inheritances:
ə > *(á)as > *(é)os
Borrowings:
-
*He, *e, *eH, HeH > *h1e, *h1, *eh1, *h1e
Inheritances:
heħd > *h1ed > *h1ed
Borrowings:
-
*Hē, *ē, *ēH, HēH > ...
Inheritances:
Borrowings:
-
*Hi, i, iH, HiH > *ye, *i, *ey, *ye
Inheritances:
Borrowings:
-
*Hī, ī, īH, HīH > h1ey, ey, eyh1, h1ey
Inheritances:
ʕii̯h > *ī > *h1ey
Borrowings:
+
*ew > eh3 [see: *gdew > deh3]
*aw > ew [see: kʰaw-ás > ḱlew]
+
h4- > s-


*bʰewdʰ “to be awake”
heħʘ̪ > h1eh2dʷ [nominative *séh2dʷ (=**h1éh2dʷ-as)] > *sweh2dʷ- > suavis
 
there can only be one laryngeal in a root... except when former clicks.
: *bʰeyd  ~ *delh<sub>1</sub> “to split”
*meh2dʷ (=**h1eh2dʷ-más) > *médʰu [*mélid, a variation]
 
dʷ- > *b-~bʰ-, -dʷ > -d
: *deh<sub>2</sub>y- ~ *bʰeh<sub>2</sub>g- "to divide"
dʲ- > *s~*sw-, -dʲ > -di
 
*h<sub>2</sub>oh<sub>2</sub>dʲ-, *h<sub>2</sub>óh<sub>2</sub>dʲam "hatred"
: *deh<sub>3</sub> "to give"
? > *ak "sharp" borrowing
 
*dʲairgʰ > *swergʰ... "be ill"
‘’’D lemmas’’’
sour < *sūrós (*sweh2-rós) < *dʲāyrás (=*dʲeh2-rás)
 
 
dewh1 (*deh3)
 
>
 
daim "to build" (*dem)
 
daik "to take" (*deḱ)
 
daipʰkʰ "to lead" (*dewk)
 
when two voiced consonants in a root, they becomes aspirated
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
In a root with a cluster, if there is no consonant as coda except:
 
-'''a laryngeal''', the laryngeal is erased and the second element of the cluster becomes the coda.
 
:''*gʰedʰ-'' (PIE) < ''((*gʰed-))'' < ''*gʰdʰih<sub>1</sub>-'' (Aryan) < ''g̟ʕih'' (Codex)
 
-'''a liquid''', the liquid is incorporated and the first element of the cluster becomes the coda.
 
:''*(s)pregʰ-'' ~ ''*sper-'' (PIE) < ''((*bregʰ-))'' <  ''* gʰbʰair'' (Aryan)  < ''g̠ʕihr'' (Codex)
 
exception: roots with longs vowels
[dʰuh2- < pʰtʰūh1- (**pʰūt)]
 
h1egóM < aikṓm < aku
ˈᴇːʔ > *ēh0 (Aryan) > *ih2 (PIE)
uˈħihurk̟ʼ-a > *h<sub>2</sub>úrkʰtʰa > *h<sub>2</sub>ŕ̥tḱoes
*i and *u disappear before sonorants
mur, mrás > mer
as PIE only accepts thorn clusters...
 


h2isṓm/aísmi, h2isṓmas/aísmas > *h1ésmi, *h1smós
h2isḗs/aíssi, h2isḗtas/aístas  > *h1ési, *h1sté (*h1stés 2P.DUAL)
h2isī́t/aísti, h2isī́nt/aísant> *h1ésti, *h1sénti


The language is demonstrared using two modern Indo-European languages (German and Russian) and two ancient ones (Latin and Greek).
*/ə/ > */e/ when pretonic or tonic polysyllabic [exception: o-derivation]
*/ə/ > */o/ when postonic or tonic monosyllabic (*pʰ∅rás > *pʰárs >*pʰórs > *pʰṓr) [exception: o-derivation] *monosyllabic words without pithc accept /e/ instead (*swa > *swe)
*/əi̯/ > */e/, */aː/ when result of zero-grade (''*gain-'' >''*g∅n-tás'' > ''*gnaitás'' > ''*gnātós'', as in Latin gnātus and Greek -γνητός)
*/ai̯/ > */ai̯/
*kʰpʰ-
*kp- > *kʷʰ-
*kn- > *sn-
*h<sub>2</sub>i (TD) > *h<sub>1</sub>e (PIE)
an original click as onset inverts the laryngeals:
ǁheħp > tɬeh1p> seh1p
an original click as coda preserves both laryngeals:
heħʘ̪ > *h1eh2dʷ > sweh2d
həħǁ > *h1ah2t͡ɬ > *sent
 
When an <e> is introduced in adjectives, the accent falls
n̠ʕih > *knaiás > *sénos "old"
compare
*sādú > *swādús "sweet"
*sādú méh2dʷ
*swādús médʰu~mélid
 
Primordial elements transitioned into particles in Aryan. That is: Aryan roots could be changed back then. Those were the mobile roots. For example: *dʷ survived as PIE *-id, which was a particle used to indicate comestibles.
 
*pʰrás


laryngeals turn into vowels and vice-versa
*mai > *meh1


mobile roots:
?we are searching for a single voiceless plosive before a voiced one?
-*r "quality"
?"Aryan doesn't accept initial voiced clusters of original implosives? As if **dbíoh1 > *díopʰ "?
-*m "result"
-*dʰ "fixation"


NOTE: PIE neuter particle *-om derives from Aryan *(_)-am, which forms result nouns


origin of PIE declensions:


(_)-as Hysterokinetic:
h1uC ~ h1oC > uj ~ oj
*kʰúh2as > (*ḱléwos) > *ḱléwos
h1aC ~ h1əC > aj ~ i
*kʰuh2ásyas > (*ḱlewésyos) > *ḱléwesos
h1iC ~ h1eC > ī ~ ej
(∅)-ás Hysterokinetic:
Cuh1 ~ Coh1 > uj ~ oj
*pdás > *pád∅s (*pods) > *pṓds
Cah1 ~ Cəh1 > aj ~ i
*pdasyás > *padás∅s (*pedés) > *pedés
Cih1 ~ Ceh1 > ī ~ ej
*(á)-as Acrostatic:
-
*pkáih1as > (*ǵʰéyos)  > *ǵʰéyos
h2uC ~ h2oC > aw ~ ow
*pkáih1asyas > (*ǵʰéyosyos) > *ǵʰéyosyo
h2aC ~ h2əC > ā ~ i
*(a)-ás Acrostatic:
h2iC ~ h2eC > aj ~ ej
*pkaisás > (*ǵʰoysós) > *ǵʰoysós
Cuh2 ~ Coh2 > aw ~ ow
*pkaisásyas > (*ǵʰoysésyos) > *ǵʰoysósyo
Cah2 ~ Cəh2 > ā ~ i
Cih2 ~ Ceh2 > aj ~ ej
-
h3uC ~ h3oC > ū ~ ow
h3aC ~ h3əC > wa ~ u
h3iC ~ h3eC > ī ~ je
Cuh3 ~ Coh3 > ū~ ow
Cah3 ~ Cəh3 > wa ~ u
Cih3 ~ Ceh3 > iw ~ ew


ptár > ph2tḗr
ptsaryás > ptryás (pətrés)> ph2trés




What marks a Transitional Dialect:
*the presence of mobile roots




''p̠hṵh'' "fume" > ''*pʰtʰawimás'' (''*pʰtʰūh<sub>1</sub>-*más'') "smoke" > ''*dʰuh<sub>2</sub>mós'' (''*dʰewh<sub>2</sub>-*mós'')
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 396px; text-align:center;"
 
! style="width: 66px; " |
*Hu, *u, *uH, *HuH > *we, *u, *ew, *we
! style="width: 66px; " |Sanskrit
Inheritances:
! style="width: 66px; " |Avestan
huhg̠ > *h1ugp > *wegʷ
! style="width: 66px; " |O.C.S.
ɦuhd > *h4ud > *sweyd
! style="width: 66px; " |Lithuanian
*ud > *úd
! style="width: 66px; " |Albanian
p̟ʼhuh > *pkuh > *ǵʰew
! style="width: 66px; " |Armenian
pʼhuh > *puh > *plew
! style="width: 66px; " |Hittite
Borrowings:
! style="width: 66px; " |Tocharian
*h2ekʷ
! style="width: 66px; " |Greek
-
! style="width: 66px; " |Latin
*Hū, *ū, *ūH, *HūH> h2ew, ew, ewh2, h2ew
! style="width: 66px; " |Goidelic
Inheritances:
! style="width: 66px; " |Gothic
p̠hṵh > *pʰtʰawi > *dʰewh2
|-
krhṳh > *GRuia > *krewh2
! >*p
Borrowings:
| p; pʰ
-phu- [Diluvian] > *po > *peh3
| p; f
-
| p
*Ho, o, oH, HoH > *h3e, e, *eh3, *Hew
| p
Inheritances:
| p
kʼhohr > *kohr > *kerh3 (variant *ker from *kor)
| h; w
hoħd > *h1od > *h3ed
| p;  pp
ħoħd > *h2od > *h3ed
| p
... > *poh2 > *peh3 (*puH)
| p / pt
pʰol > bʰel "shine"
| p
*h1oh1 > *h1ews
| ∅
Borrowings:
| f; β
pohar [Diluvian] > *pawar (*paw-(a)-ar) > *péh2wr̥ (pew-r̥)
|-
*h1engʷ < *h1ew-ǵenh1-yéti
! >*t
-
|
*Hō, ō, ōH, HōH > *h3u, h3, *uh3, *Hu
|
Inheritances:
|
Borrowings:
| x x
-
|
*Ha, *a, *aH, *HaH > *h2e, *h2, *eh2, *h2e
|
Inheritances:
|
phah > *pʰah > *bʰeh2
|
Borrowings:
|
-
|
*ā > ...
|
Inheritances:
|
Borrowings:
|-
-
! >*k
*a > *e/o
|
Inheritances:
| x x
ə > *(á)as > *(é)os
|
Borrowings:
|
-
|
*He, *e, *eH, HeH > *h1e, *h1, *eh1, *h1e
|
Inheritances:
|
heħd > *h1ed > *h1ed
|
Borrowings:
|
-
|
*Hē, *ē, *ēH, HēH > ...
|
Inheritances:
|
Borrowings:
|-
-
! >*ḱ
*Hi, i, iH, HiH > *ye, *i, *ey, *ye
|
Inheritances:
| x x
Borrowings:
|
-
|
*Hī, ī, īH, HīH > h1ey, ey, eyh1, h1ey
|
Inheritances:
|
ʕii̯h > *ī > *h1ey
|
Borrowings:
|
+
|
*ew > eh3 [see: *gdew > deh3]
|
*aw > ew [see: kʰaw-ás > ḱlew]
|
+
|
h4- > s-
|}
 
p pt p ∅ f;
b [β] [C 6] f;
v, f[C 2]
 


heħʘ̪ > h1eh2dʷ [nominative *séh2dʷ (=**h1éh2dʷ-as)] > *sweh2dʷ- > suavis
there can only be one laryngeal in a root... except when former clicks.
*meh2dʷ (=**h1eh2dʷ-más) > *médʰu [*mélid, a variation]
dʷ- > *b-~bʰ-, -dʷ > -d
dʲ- > *s~*sw-, -dʲ > -di
*h<sub>2</sub>oh<sub>2</sub>dʲ-, *h<sub>2</sub>óh<sub>2</sub>dʲam "hatred"
? > *ak "sharp" borrowing
*dʲairgʰ > *swergʰ... "be ill"
sour < *sūrós (*sweh2-rós) < *dʲāyrás (=*dʲeh2-rás)


h2isṓm/aísmi, h2isṓmas/aísmas > *h1ésmi, *h1smós
thorn clusters, *sD, *sR, ? *ts, ? Bartholomae's law...
h2isḗs/aíssi, h2isḗtas/aístas  > *h1ési, *h1sté (*h1stés 2P.DUAL)
h2isī́t/aísti, h2isī́nt/aísant> *h1ésti, *h1sénti


*/ə/ > */e/ when pretonic or tonic polysyllabic [exception: o-derivation]
{| class=wikitable style="white-space: nowrap;"
*/ə/ > */o/ when postonic or tonic monosyllabic (*pʰ∅rás > *pʰárs >*pʰórs > *pʰṓr) [exception: o-derivation] *monosyllabic words without pithc accept /e/ instead (*swa > *swe)
|+ Table 1. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European single consonants
*/əi̯/ > */e/, */aː/ when result of zero-grade (''*gain-'' >''*g∅n-tás'' > ''*gnaitás'' > ''*gnātós'', as in Latin gnātus and Greek -γνητός)
|-
*/ai̯/ > */ai̯/
! rowspan="3"| PIE
*kʰpʰ-
! colspan="2"| [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
*kp- > *kʷʰ-
! colspan="2"| [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
*kn- > *sn-
! rowspan="3"| [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Anatolian languages|Anatol.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! colspan="2" rowspan="2"| [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Italic languages|Italic]] !! colspan="2"| [[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
*h<sub>2</sub>i (TD) > *h<sub>1</sub>e (PIE)
! colspan="2"| [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
an original click as onset inverts the laryngeals:
|- align=center
ǁheħp > tɬeh1p> seh1p
! rowspan="2"| [[Sanskrit]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Avestan]]
an original click as coda preserves both laryngeals:
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]]
heħʘ̪ > *h1eh2dʷ > sweh2d
! rowspan="2"| [[Hittite language|Hitt.]]
həħǁ > *h1ah2t͡ɬ > *sent
! rowspan="2"| [[Latin]]
 
! colspan="2"| [[Old Irish]]
When an <e> is introduced in adjectives, the accent falls
! rowspan="2"| [[Gothic language|Gothic]]
n̠ʕih > *knaiás > *sénos "old"
! rowspan="2"| [[English language|English]]
compare
|- align=center
*sādú > *swādús "sweet"
| <small>normal</small>
*sādú méh2dʷ
| <small>C+[j] <ref group=C name=consonants>A capital ''C'' stands for ''consonant'' in this table</ref></small>
*swādús médʰu~mélid
| <small>normal</small>
 
| <small>-C- <ref group=C name=VXV>Between vowels</ref> <ref group=C name=consonants/></small>
Primordial elements transitioned into particles in Aryan. That is: Aryan roots could be changed back then. Those were the mobile roots. For example: *dʷ survived as PIE *-id, which was a particle used to indicate comestibles.
|- align=center
 
!{{PIE|*p}}
*pʰrás
|{{PIE|p}}; {{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H>Before an original h₂.</ref>
 
|{{PIE|p}}; {{PIE|f}} <ref group=C name=CH>Before a consonant or original laryngeal.</ref>
laryngeals turn into vowels and vice-versa
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|p}}
*mai > *meh1
|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|w}} <ref group=C name=VCV>After a vowel.</ref>
 
|{{PIE|p}}, pp
?we are searching for a single voiceless plosive before a voiced one?
| colspan="2" |p
?"Aryan doesn't accept initial voiced clusters of original implosives? As if **dbíoh1 > *díopʰ "?
|{{PIE|pt}}
 
|{{PIE|p}}
 
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
 
|{{PIE|f}};<br />{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[β]}} <ref group="C" name="Verner">Following an unstressed vowel ([[Verner's law]]).</ref>
h1uC ~ h1oC > uj ~ oj
|{{PIE|f}};<br />{{PIE|v, f}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
h1aC ~ h1əC > aj ~ i
|- align=center
h1iC ~ h1eC > ī ~ ej
!{{PIE|*t}}
Cuh1 ~ Coh1 > uj ~ oj
|{{PIE|t}}; {{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[t̪ʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
Cah1 ~ Cəh1 > aj ~ i
|{{PIE|t}}; {{PIE|θ}}<ref group=C name=CH/>
Cih1 ~ Ceh1 > ī ~ ej
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|t}}
-
|{{PIE|tʿ}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}}
h2uC ~ h2oC > aw ~ ow
|{{PIE|t}}, tt;<br />{{PIE|z}} {{IPA|[ts]}} <ref group=C name=Cie>Before a (PIE) front vowel ({{PIE|*i, *e}}).</ref>
h2aC ~ h2əC > ā ~ i
|{{PIE|t}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[c]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
h2iC ~ h2eC > aj ~ ej
|{{PIE|t}}
Cuh2 ~ Coh2 > aw ~ ow
|rowspan="4"|{{PIE|s}}; {{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}}<ref group=C name=VCV/>
Cah2 ~ Cəh2 > ā ~ i
|{{PIE|t}}
Cih2 ~ Ceh2 > aj ~ ej
|{{PIE|t}}|| {{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[θ]}}
-
|{{PIE|þ}} {{IPA|[θ]}};<br />{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[ð]}}; <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
h3uC ~ h3oC > ū ~ ow
|{{PIE|th}};<br />{{PIE|d}}; <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
h3aC ~ h3əC > wa ~ u
|- align=center
h3iC ~ h3eC > ī ~ je
!{{PIE|*ḱ}}
Cuh3 ~ Coh3 > ū~ ow
|{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}
Cah3 ~ Cəh3 > wa ~ u
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|s}}
Cih3 ~ Ceh3 > iw ~ ew
|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
 
|{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[θ]}};<br />{{PIE|k}}<ref group=C name=XSon>Before a [[sonorant]].</ref>
 
|{{PIE|s}}
 
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}, kk
 
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
 
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 396px; text-align:center;"
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}}
! style="width: 66px; " |
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}} || rowspan="3"| {{PIE|ch}} {{IPA|[x]}}
! style="width: 66px; " |Sanskrit
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɣ]}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
! style="width: 66px; " |Avestan
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|∅}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|y}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/><br />
! style="width: 66px; " |O.C.S.
|- align=center
! style="width: 66px; " |Lithuanian
!{{PIE|*k}}
! style="width: 66px; " |Albanian
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}; {{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[t͡ɕ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
! style="width: 66px; " |Armenian
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}; {{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[tʃ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|x}}<ref group=C name=CH/>
! style="width: 66px; " |Hittite
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|č}} {{IPA|[tʃ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[ts]}}<ref group=C name=Xie>Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.</ref>
! style="width: 66px; " |Tocharian
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
! style="width: 66px; " |Greek
|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[c]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
! style="width: 66px; " |Latin
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|kʿ}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
! style="width: 66px; " |Goidelic
|- align=center
! style="width: 66px; " |Gothic
!{{PIE|*kʷ}}
|-
|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|s}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[c]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
! >*p
|{{PIE|ku}}, kku
| p; pʰ
|{{PIE|p}};<br />{{PIE|t}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|k}}<ref group=C name=Xu>Before or after a (PIE) {{PIE|u}}</ref>
| p; f
|{{PIE|qu}} {{IPA|[kʷ]}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}} <ref group=C>Before or after a (PIE) rounded vowel ({{PIE|*u}}, {{PIE|*o}}).</ref>
| p
|{{PIE|ƕ}} {{IPA|[ʍ]}};<br />{{PIE|gw, w}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/><br />
| p
|{{PIE|wh}};<br />{{PIE|w}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
| p
|- align=center
| h; w
!{{PIE|*b}}
| p;  pp
|{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|bh}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
| p
|{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|β}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
| p / pt
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|b}}
| p
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|p}}
| ∅
| {{PIE|b}}
| f; β
| {{PIE|pt}}
|-
| {{PIE|b}}
! >*t
|{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}} || -{{IPA|[β]}}-
|
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|p}}
|
|- align=center
|
!{{PIE|*d}}
| x x
|{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|dh}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
|
|{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|δ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
|
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|d}}
|
|{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|t}}
|
|{{PIE|ts}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
|
|{{PIE|d}}
|
|rowspan="4"|{{PIE|z}} {{IPA|[zd]}} > {{IPA|[z]}}
|
|{{PIE|d}}
|-
|{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[d]}} || -{{IPA|[ð]}}-
! >*k
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|t}}
|  
|- align=center
| x x
!{{PIE|*ǵ}}
|
|{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[d͡ʑ]}};<br />{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
|
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|z}}
|
|{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
|
|{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<br />{{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
|
|{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[ts]}}
|
| rowspan="2"|k
|
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɡ]}} || rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|[ɣ]}}-
|-
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
! >*ḱ
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|c / k}};<br />{{PIE|ch}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|  
|- align=center
| x x
!{{PIE|*g}}
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[d͡ʑ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gh}}; <ref group=C name=P+H/> {{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|γ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|dz}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
|
|{{PIE|g}}
|
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
|
|
|
|
|}
 
p pt p ∅ f;
b [β] [C 6] f;
v, f[C 2]
 
 
 
thorn clusters, *sD, *sR, ? *ts, ? Bartholomae's law...
 
{| class=wikitable style="white-space: nowrap;"
|+ Table 1. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European single consonants
|-
! rowspan="3"| PIE
! colspan="2"| [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
! colspan="2"| [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
! rowspan="3"| [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Anatolian languages|Anatol.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! colspan="2" rowspan="2"| [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Italic languages|Italic]] !! colspan="2"| [[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
! colspan="2"| [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|- align=center
|- align=center
! rowspan="2"| [[Sanskrit]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Avestan]]
!{{PIE|*gʷ}}
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]]
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|z}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
! rowspan="2"| [[Hittite language|Hitt.]]
|ku
! rowspan="2"| [[Latin]]
|{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|d}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=Xu/>
! colspan="2"| [[Old Irish]]
|{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w > v]}};<br />{{PIE|gu}} {{IPA|[ɡʷ]}} <ref group=C name=ngw>After {{PIE|n}}.</ref>
! rowspan="2"| [[Gothic language|Gothic]]
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}} ||rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|[β]}}-
! rowspan="2"| [[English language|English]]
|{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
|{{PIE|qu}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
| <small>normal</small>
!{{PIE|''*pʰ''}}
| <small>C+[j] <ref group=C name=consonants>A capital ''C'' stands for ''consonant'' in this table</ref></small>
|{{PIE|bh}} {{IPA|[bʱ]}}
| <small>normal</small>
|{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|β}} <ref group=C name=YAv>In [[Avestan#Forms and stages of development|Younger Avestan]], after a vowel.</ref>
| <small>-C- <ref group=C name=VXV>Between vowels</ref> <ref group=C name=consonants/></small>
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|b}}
|- align=center
|{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|w}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
!{{PIE|*p}}
| colspan="2"|p
|{{PIE|p}}; {{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H>Before an original h₂.</ref>
|{{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}}
|{{PIE|p}}; {{PIE|f}} <ref group=C name=CH>Before a consonant or original laryngeal.</ref>
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|p}}
|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|w}} <ref group=C name=VCV>After a vowel.</ref>
|{{PIE|p}}, pp
| colspan="2" |p
|{{PIE|pt}}
|{{PIE|pt}}
|{{PIE|p}}
|{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X>At the beginning of a word</ref><br />{{PIE|b}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}};<br />{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[β]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|f}} <ref group=C name=final/>
|{{PIE|f}};<br />{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[β]}} <ref group="C" name="Verner">Following an unstressed vowel ([[Verner's law]]).</ref>
|{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|v / f}}<ref group=C name=VXVR>Between vowels, or between a vowel and r, l (on either side)</ref>
|{{PIE|f}};<br />{{PIE|v, f}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*t}}
!{{PIE|''*tʰ''}}
|{{PIE|t}}; {{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[t̪ʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
|{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[dʱ]}}
|{{PIE|t}}; {{PIE|θ}}<ref group=C name=CH/>
|{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|δ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|t}}
| colspan="4"|{{PIE|d}}
|{{PIE|tʿ}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}}
|t
|{{PIE|t}}, tt;<br />{{PIE|z}} {{IPA|[ts]}} <ref group=C name=Cie>Before a (PIE) front vowel ({{PIE|*i, *e}}).</ref>
|{{PIE|t}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[c]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
|{{PIE|t}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[c]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
|{{PIE|t}}
|{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}}
|rowspan="4"|{{PIE|s}}; {{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}}<ref group=C name=VCV/>
| rowspan="4"|{{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}}
|{{PIE|t}}
|{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|b}} <ref group=C>After {{PIE|u, r}} or before {{PIE|r, l}}.</ref>
|{{PIE|t}}|| {{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[θ]}}
|{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[d]}} || -{{IPA|[ð]}}-
|{{PIE|þ}} {{IPA|[θ]}};<br />{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[ð]}}; <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
|{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|þ}} <ref group=C name=final/>
|{{PIE|th}};<br />{{PIE|d}}; <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
|{{PIE|d}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ḱ}}
!{{PIE|*ǵʰ}}
|{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}
|{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|s}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|z}}
|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
|{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
|{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[θ]}};<br />{{PIE|k}}<ref group=C name=XSon>Before a [[sonorant]].</ref>
|{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<br />{{PIE|d}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
|{{PIE|s}}
|{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[dz]}};<br />{{PIE|z}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}, kk
| rowspan="2"|k
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|h}} / {{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}} || rowspan="3"| {{PIE|ch}} {{IPA|[x]}}
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɡ]}} || rowspan="3"| -{{IPA|[ɣ]}}-
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɣ]}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɣ]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[x]}} <ref group=C name=final/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|∅}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|y}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/><br />
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|y / w}}<ref group=C name=VXVR/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*k}}
!{{PIE|*gʰ}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}; {{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[t͡ɕ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|gh}} {{IPA|[ɡʱ]}};<br />{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}; {{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[tʃ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|x}}<ref group=C name=CH/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|γ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|č}} {{IPA|[tʃ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[ts]}}<ref group=C name=Xie>Before secondary (post-PIE) front-vowels.</ref>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|dz}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[c]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|{{PIE|g}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|kʿ}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ǰ}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*kʷ}}
!{{PIE|*gʷʰ}}
|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|s}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[c]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|z}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|{{PIE|ku}}, kku
|ku
|{{PIE|p}};<br />{{PIE|t}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|k}}<ref group=C name=Xu>Before or after a (PIE) {{PIE|u}}</ref>
|{{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}};<br />{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}}<ref group=C name=Xu/>
|{{PIE|qu}} {{IPA|[kʷ]}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[k]}} <ref group=C>Before or after a (PIE) rounded vowel ({{PIE|*u}}, {{PIE|*o}}).</ref>
|{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|g}} /<br />{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|gu}} {{IPA|[ɡʷ]}} <ref group=C name=ngw/>
|{{PIE|ƕ}} {{IPA|[ʍ]}};<br />{{PIE|gw, w}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/><br />
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|b}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|w}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|gw}} <ref group=C name=ngw/>
|{{PIE|wh}};<br />{{PIE|w}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|b}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|w}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*b}}
! rowspan="2"|{{PIE|*s}}
|{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|bh}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
|{{PIE|s}}
|{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|β}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
|{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[h, x]}}
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|b}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|s}}
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|p}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|sh}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}};<br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}};<ref group=C name=X’V>Before a stressed vowel</ref><br />{{PIE|h}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| {{PIE|b}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| {{PIE|pt}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[s]}}
| {{PIE|b}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|ṣ}} {{IPA|[ʂ]}}
|{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}} || -{{IPA|[β]}}-
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|s}};<ref group=C name=PCP>Before or after an obstruent (p, t, k, etc.; s)</ref><ref group=C name=final/>/<br />{{PIE|∅}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{IPA|[¯]}} <ref group=C>Before or after a resonant ({{PIE|r, l, m, n}}).</ref><!-- Perhaps better treated under PIE clusters *sm, *ms etc.? -->
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|p}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|i}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|r}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}} {{IPA|ʃ}}|| rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|[h]}}-
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|z}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|r}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*d}}
|{{PIE|ṣ}} {{IPA|[ʂ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki>After {{PIE|r, u, k, i}} ([[Ruki sound law]]).</ref>
|{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|dh}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/>
|{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|δ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
|{{PIE|x}} {{IPA|[x]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/>
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|d}}
|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/>
|{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|t}}
|{{PIE|ts}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
|{{PIE|d}}
|rowspan="4"|{{PIE|z}} {{IPA|[zd]}} > {{IPA|[z]}}
|{{PIE|d}}
|{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[d]}} || -{{IPA|[ð]}}-
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|t}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ǵ}}
! {{PIE|*m}}
|{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[d͡ʑ]}};<br />{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
| colspan="9"|{{PIE|m}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|z}}
| {{PIE|in}}
|{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
| {{PIE|m}}
|{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<br />{{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
| {{PIE|m}} {{IPA|[m]}} || -{{IPA|[w̃]}}-
|{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[ts]}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|m}}
| rowspan="2"|k
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɡ]}} || rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|[ɣ]}}-
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|c / k}};<br />{{PIE|ch}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*g}}
! {{PIE|*-m}} <ref group=C name=final>At the end of a word.</ref>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[d͡ʑ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gh}}; <ref group=C name=P+H/> {{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} <ref group=C name=P+H/>
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|m}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|γ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
|{{PIE|˛}} {{IPA|[˜]}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|dz}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
|{{PIE|∅}}
|{{PIE|g}}
|n
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|k}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
| --
|{{PIE|m}} [˜]
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gʷ}}
! {{PIE|*n}}
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|z}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
|ku
|{{PIE|n}};<br />{{PIE|˛}} {{IPA|[˜]}} <ref group=C name=final/>
|{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|d}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=Xu/>
| colspan="4"|{{PIE|n}}
|{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w > v]}};<br />{{PIE|gu}} {{IPA|[ɡʷ]}} <ref group=C name=ngw>After {{PIE|n}}.</ref>
|{{PIE|n}};<br />{{PIE|ñ}} {{IPA|[ɲ]}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}} ||rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|[β]}}-
|{{PIE|n}}
|{{PIE|q}} {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
|{{PIE|in}}
|{{PIE|qu}}
| colspan="5"|{{PIE|n}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|''*pʰ''}}
! {{PIE|*l}}
|{{PIE|bh}} {{IPA|[bʱ]}}
|{{PIE|r}} (dial. {{PIE|l}})
|{{PIE|b}}; {{PIE|β}} <ref group=C name=YAv>In [[Avestan#Forms and stages of development|Younger Avestan]], after a vowel.</ref>
|{{PIE|r}}
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|b}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|l}}
|{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|w}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|{{PIE|l}};<br />{{PIE|ll}} {{IPA|[ɫ]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| colspan="2"|p
|{{PIE|l}} /<br />{{PIE|ɫ}} {{IPA|[ɫ<br /> > ɣ]}}
|{{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}}
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|l}}
|{{PIE|pt}}
| {{PIE|il}}
|{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X>At the beginning of a word</ref><br />{{PIE|b}}
| colspan="5"|{{PIE|l}}
|{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[b]}};<br />{{PIE|b}} {{IPA|[β]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|f}} <ref group=C name=final/>
|{{PIE|b}};<br />{{PIE|v / f}}<ref group=C name=VXVR>Between vowels, or between a vowel and r, l (on either side)</ref>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|''*tʰ''}}
! {{PIE|*r}}
|{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[dʱ]}}
|{{PIE|r}}/{{PIE|l}}<ref group=C name=rare>rare</ref>
|{{PIE|d}}; {{PIE|δ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|r}}
| colspan="4"|{{PIE|d}}
|{{PIE|r}} {{IPA|[ɾ]}};<br />{{PIE|rr}} {{IPA|[r]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
|t
| colspan="4"|{{PIE|r}}
|{{PIE|t}};<br />{{PIE|c}} {{IPA|[c]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
| {{PIE|ir}}
|{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}}
| colspan="5"|{{PIE|r}}
| rowspan="4"|{{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}}
|{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|b}} <ref group=C>After {{PIE|u, r}} or before {{PIE|r, l}}.</ref>
|{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[d]}} || -{{IPA|[ð]}}-
|{{PIE|d}};<br />{{PIE|d}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|þ}} <ref group=C name=final/>
|{{PIE|d}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ǵʰ}}
! {{PIE|*y}}
|{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|y}} {{IPA|[j]}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|z}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[j]}}
|{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
|{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}
|{{PIE|dh}} {{IPA|[ð]}};<br />{{PIE|d}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
|{{PIE|∅}}
|{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[dz]}};<br />{{PIE|z}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|y}} {{IPA|[j]}}
| rowspan="2"|k
|{{PIE|z}} {{IPA|[zd]}} > {{IPA|[z]}} /<br />{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|∅}} <ref group=C name=VXV/>
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|k}};<br />{{PIE|ś}} {{IPA|[ɕ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
|?{{PIE|i}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
|{{PIE|i}} {{IPA|[j]}};<br />{{PIE|∅}} <ref group=C name=VXV/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|h}} / {{PIE|g}}<ref group=C name=XSon/>
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
| rowspan="3"|{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɡ]}} || rowspan="3"| -{{IPA|[ɣ]}}-
|{{PIE|j}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[ɣ]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|g}} {{IPA|[x]}} <ref group=C name=final/>
|{{PIE|y}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|y / w}}<ref group=C name=VXVR/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gʰ}}
! {{PIE|*w}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|gh}} {{IPA|[ɡʱ]}};<br />{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[ɦ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
|{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[ʋ]}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}; {{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|γ}} <ref group=C name=YAv/>
|{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[w]}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ž}} {{IPA|[ʒ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|dz}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
|{{PIE|v}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}}
|{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[ʋ]}}
|{{PIE|g}}
|{{PIE|v}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|ǰ}} {{IPA|[dʒ]}} <ref group=C name=Cie/>
|{{PIE|g}} / {{PIE|w}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|w}}
|{{PIE|w > h / ∅}}
|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w > v]}}
|{{PIE|f}} || -{{PIE|∅}}-
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|w}}
|-
! PIE !! [[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! [[Avestan|Av.]] !! [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]]+/j/ !! [[Latin]] !!colspan="2"| [[Old Irish]] !! [[Gothic language|Gothic]] !! [[English language|English]]
|}
 
Notes for table 1:
{{reflist|group=C}}
 
===Consonant clusters===
 
Proto-Indo-European also had numerous [[consonant cluster]]s, such as {{PIE|*st}}, {{PIE|*ḱs}}. In most cases in most languages, each consonant in a cluster develops according to the normal development given in the table above. Many consonant clusters however also show special developments in multiple languages. Some of these are given by the following table (with cases of otherwise predictable development in gray):
 
{| class=wikitable style="white-space: nowrap;"
|+ Table 2. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European consonant clusters
|-
! rowspan="3"| PIE
! colspan="2"| [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
! colspan="2"| [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
! rowspan="3"| [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Anatolian languages|Anatol.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! colspan="2" rowspan="2"| [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Italic languages|Italic]] !! [[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
! colspan="2"| [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gʷʰ}}
! rowspan="2"| [[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Avestan|Av.]]
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|z}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}}<ref group=C name=Xie/>
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]]
|ku
! rowspan="2"| [[Hittite language|Hitt.]]
|{{PIE|ph}} {{IPA|[pʰ]}};<br />{{PIE|th}} {{IPA|[tʰ]}}; <ref group=C name=Cie/><br />{{PIE|kh}} {{IPA|[kʰ]}}<ref group=C name=Xu/>
! rowspan="2"| [[Latin]]
|{{PIE|f}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|g}} /<br />{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w]}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|gu}} {{IPA|[ɡʷ]}} <ref group=C name=ngw/>
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Irish]]
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|b}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|w}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{PIE|gw}} <ref group=C name=ngw/>
! rowspan="2"| [[Gothic language|Gothic]]
|{{PIE|g}};<br />{{PIE|b}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|w}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
! rowspan="2"| [[English language|English]]
|- align=center
|- align=center
! rowspan="2"|{{PIE|*s}}
| <small>normal</small>
|{{PIE|s}}
| <small>C+[j]</small><!--
|{{PIE|h}} {{IPA|[h, x]}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|s}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|sh}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}};<br />{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}};<ref group=C name=X’V>Before a stressed vowel</ref><br />{{PIE|h}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[s]}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|ṣ}} {{IPA|[ʂ]}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|h}};<ref group=C name=#X/><br />{{PIE|s}};<ref group=C name=PCP>Before or after an obstruent (p, t, k, etc.; s)</ref><ref group=C name=final/>/<br />{{PIE|∅}};<ref group=C name=VXV/><br />{{IPA|[¯]}} <ref group=C>Before or after a resonant ({{PIE|r, l, m, n}}).</ref><!-- Perhaps better treated under PIE clusters *sm, *ms etc.? -->
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|i}}
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|r}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}} {{IPA|ʃ}}|| rowspan="2"| -{{IPA|[h]}}-
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|z}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
| rowspan="2"|{{PIE|s}};<br />{{PIE|r}} <ref group="C" name="Verner"/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
|{{PIE|ṣ}} {{IPA|[ʂ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki>After {{PIE|r, u, k, i}} ([[Ruki sound law]]).</ref>
!{{PIE|*}}
|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/>
| style="color:gray"|
|{{PIE|x}} {{IPA|[x]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/>
|
|{{PIE|š}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}<ref group=C name=Ruki/>
|
|- align=center
|
! {{PIE|*m}}
|
| colspan="9"|{{PIE|m}}
|
| {{PIE|in}}
|
| {{PIE|m}}
|
| {{PIE|m}} {{IPA|[m]}} || -{{IPA|[w̃]}}-
|
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|m}}
|
|
|
|
|-->
|- align=center
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*-m}} <ref group=C name=final>At the end of a word.</ref>
!{{PIE|*sr}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|m}}
| style="color:gray"| sr
|{{PIE|˛}} {{IPA|[˜]}}
| r
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
| str
|{{PIE|∅}}
| style="color:gray"| sr
|n
| rr {{IPA|[r]}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
| (a)r
| --
| š(ša)r {{IPA|ʃʃr}}
|{{PIE|m}} [˜]
|  
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
| style="color:gray"| rh
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
| fr-, -br-
| style="color:gray"| sr
| str
| str
|- align=center
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*n}}
!{{PIE|*tw}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|n}}
| style="color:gray"| tv
|{{PIE|n}};<br />{{PIE|˛}} {{IPA|[˜]}} <ref group=C name=final/>
| θβ
| colspan="4"|{{PIE|n}}
| style="color:gray"| tv
|{{PIE|n}};<br />{{PIE|ñ}} {{IPA|[ɲ]}}
| style="color:gray"| tv
|{{PIE|n}}
| t
|{{PIE|in}}
| kʿ {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
| colspan="5"|{{PIE|n}}
| ttu, ddu
|
| s-, -ss-
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
| p?
| t
| style="color:gray"| þw
| style="color:gray"| thw
|- align=center
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*l}}
!{{PIE|*dʰw}}
|{{PIE|r}} (dial. {{PIE|l}})
| style="color:gray"| dhv
|{{PIE|r}}
| rowspan="2"| ðβ
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|l}}
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| dv
|{{PIE|l}};<br />{{PIE|ll}} {{IPA|[ɫ]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| dv
|{{PIE|l}} /<br />{{PIE|ɫ}} {{IPA|[ɫ<br /> > ɣ]}}
| rowspan="2"| d
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|l}}
| ?
| {{PIE|il}}
| tu, du
| colspan="5"|{{PIE|l}}
|
|
|
| f
| rowspan="2"| d
| style="color:gray"| dw
| style="color:gray"| dw
|- align=center
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*r}}
!{{PIE|*dw}}
|{{PIE|r}}/{{PIE|l}}<ref group=C name=rare>rare</ref>
| style="color:gray"| dv
| colspan="3"|{{PIE|r}}
| (e)rk
|{{PIE|r}} {{IPA|[ɾ]}};<br />{{PIE|rr}} {{IPA|[r]}}<ref group=C name=VXV/>
| tu, du
| colspan="4"|{{PIE|r}}
|
| {{PIE|ir}}
|
| colspan="5"|{{PIE|r}}
|
| b
| style="color:gray"| tw
| style="color:gray"| tw
|- align=center
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*y}}
!{{PIE|*tl}}
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|y}} {{IPA|[j]}}
| style="color:gray"|
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|j}} {{IPA|[j]}}
|
|{{PIE|gj}} {{IPA|[ɟ]}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}
| sl
|{{PIE|∅}}
| kl, sl
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|y}} {{IPA|[j]}}
|
|{{PIE|z}}  {{IPA|[zd]}} > {{IPA|[z]}} /<br />{{PIE|h}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}  <ref group=C name=VXV/>
|
|?{{PIE|i}}
|
|{{PIE|i}} {{IPA|[j]}};<br />{{PIE|∅}}  <ref group=C name=VXV/>
|
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
| tl
|{{PIE|j}}
|
|{{PIE|y}}
| kl
| tl
|
|
|- align=center
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*w}}
!{{PIE|*dl}}
|{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[ʋ]}}
| ll
|{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[w]}}
|  
|{{PIE|v}}
|  
|{{PIE|v}} {{IPA|[ʋ]}}
|  
|{{PIE|v}}
|  
|{{PIE|g}} / {{PIE|w}}
|
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|w}}
|
|{{PIE|w > h / ∅}}
|
|{{PIE|i}}
|
|{{PIE|u}} {{IPA|[w > v]}}
|  
|{{PIE|f}} || -{{PIE|∅}}-
|  
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|w}}
|  
|-
|  
! PIE !! [[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! [[Avestan|Av.]] !! [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]]+/j/ !! [[Latin]] !!colspan="2"| [[Old Irish]] !! [[Gothic language|Gothic]] !! [[English language|English]]
|  
|}
 
Notes for table 1:
{{reflist|group=C}}
 
===Consonant clusters===
 
Proto-Indo-European also had numerous [[consonant cluster]]s, such as {{PIE|*st}}, {{PIE|*ḱs}}. In most cases in most languages, each consonant in a cluster develops according to the normal development given in the table above. Many consonant clusters however also show special developments in multiple languages. Some of these are given by the following table (with cases of otherwise predictable development in gray):
 
{| class=wikitable style="white-space: nowrap;"
|+ Table 2. Reflexes of Proto-Indo-European consonant clusters
|-
! rowspan="3"| PIE
! colspan="2"| [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
! colspan="2"| [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
! rowspan="3"| [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Anatolian languages|Anatol.]] !! rowspan="3"| [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! colspan="2" rowspan="2"| [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Italic languages|Italic]] !! [[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
! colspan="2"| [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|- align=center
|- align=center
! rowspan="2"| [[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Avestan|Av.]]
!{{PIE|*dn}}
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan="2"| [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]]
| nn, ṇṇ
! rowspan="2"| [[Hittite language|Hitt.]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Latin]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Old Irish]]
! rowspan="2"| [[Gothic language|Gothic]]
! rowspan="2"| [[English language|English]]
|- align=center
| <small>normal</small>
| <small>C+[j]</small><!--
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*}}
| style="color:gray"|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ḱw}}
| style="color:gray"| śv
| sp
| style="color:gray"| sv
| style="color:gray"| šv
| s
| <span style="color:gray">sk,</span> š
|
|
|
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
| style="color:gray"| qu {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
| style="color:gray"| cu {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
| style="color:gray"| {{transl|got|ƕ}} {{IPA|[xʷ]}}
| style="color:gray"| wh
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ǵʰw}}
| style="color:gray"| hv
|
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| zv
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| žv
| rowspan="2"| z
|
|
|
|
Line 1,374: Line 1,576:
|
|
|
|
|-->
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sr}}
!{{PIE|*ǵw}}
| style="color:gray"| sr
| style="color:gray"| jv
| r
|
| str
|
| style="color:gray"| sr
|
| rr {{IPA|[r]}}
|
| (a)r
| š(ša)r {{IPA|ʃʃr}}
|
| style="color:gray"| rh
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
| fr-, -br-
| style="color:gray"| sr
| str
| str
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*tw}}
| style="color:gray"| tv
| θβ
| style="color:gray"| tv
| style="color:gray"| tv
| t
| kʿ {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
| ttu, ddu
|
|
| s-, -ss-
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
| p?
| t
| style="color:gray"| þw
| style="color:gray"| thw
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dʰw}}
| style="color:gray"| dhv
| rowspan="2"| ðβ
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| dv
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| dv
| rowspan="2"| d
| ?
| tu, du
|
|
|
|
|
|
| f
| style="color:gray"| q {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
| rowspan="2"| d
| style="color:gray"| qu {{IPA|[kw]}}
| style="color:gray"| dw
|- align=center
| style="color:gray"| dw
!{{PIE|*sw}}
| style="color:gray"| sv
| xuu {{IPA|[xʷ]}}
| style="color:gray"| sv
| style="color:gray"| sv
| v, d<ref group="CC">Word initially. See Orel, V. (2000).</ref>
| kʿ {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
| colspan="2" |normal dev.
| style="color:gray"| h
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
| style="color:gray"| su {{IPA|[sw]}}
| s
| style="color:gray"| sw
| style="color:gray"| sw
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sp}}
| style="color:gray"| sp
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh>In contrast to {{PIE|*s}} normally giving {{PIE|''h''}} in Avestan, Armenian and Greek.</ref>
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"| sp
|{{PIE|f}}
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh/><br/>/ pʿ {{IPA|[pʰ]}}
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh/> || ?
| style="color:gray"| sp
|{{PIE|f}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|sp}} <ref group=CC name=GSL>[[Germanic spirant law]]: {{PIE|*p, *t, *k, *kʷ}} remain stops when preceded by another stop or {{PIE|*s}}.</ref>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dw}}
!{{PIE|*sbʰ}}
| style="color:gray"| dv
| style="color:gray"|
| (e)rk
| spʰ
| tu, du
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| b
| style="color:gray"| tw
| style="color:gray"| tw
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*tl}}
| style="color:gray"|
|
|
| sl
| kl, sl
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| tl
|
|
| kl
| tl
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
|-align=center
!{{PIE|*dl}}
!{{PIE|*sd}}
| ll
| d; ḷ<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" /> > ḍ, ḍḍ
| zd
| zd
| zd
|  
|  
| st
|
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
| d
| -t- {{IPA|[d]}}
| st
| st
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sdʰ}}
| dh; ḷh<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" /> > ḍh, ḍḍh
| zd
| zd
| zd
|  
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| sth
|
|
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
| -t- {{IPA|[d]}}
| zd
| d
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dn}}
!{{PIE|*st}}
| nn, ṇṇ
| st; ṣṭ<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" />
|
| st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|  
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"| st
|
| style="color:gray"| {{PIE|sht}} {{IPA|[ʃt]}}
|  
| st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|
| st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|
|rowspan="5"|{{PIE|s}}; {{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}}<ref group=CC name=VCV>Between vowels.</ref>
|
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|st}}
|  
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|st}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|  
|  
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ḱw}}
!{{PIE|*sḱ}}
| style="color:gray"| śv
|{{PIE|ch}} {{IPA|[t͡ɕʰ]}}; {{PIE|cch}}<ref group=CC name=VCV/>
| sp
|{{PIE|s}}?
| style="color:gray"| sv
|{{PIE|sk}}
| style="color:gray"| šv
|{{PIE|š}}?
| s
|{{PIE|h}}
| <span style="color:gray">sk,</span> š
|?? {{PIE|č`}}; {{PIE|c`}}<ref group=CC name=VCV/>
|
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|
|rowspan="2"|sk; <ref group="CC" name="noh"/><br/>kh {{IPA|[kʰ]}};<ref group=CC name=RX>After {{PIE|r, l, m, n, t, d}}, possibly other consonants?</ref><br />skh {{IPA|[skʰ]}} <ref group=CC>After (Greek) {{PIE|th}} causes aspiration in the cluster and then disappears, typical example *πάθ-σκ-ω (*páth-sk-ō) gives πάσχω (páskhō). {{clarify|date=August 2016|reason=does this mean a cluster *-dʰsk-?}}</ref>
|
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|sc}} {{IPA|[sk]}}
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
|rowspan="3" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|sc}} {{IPA|[sk]}}
| style="color:gray"| qu {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|sk}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
| style="color:gray"| cu {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
|rowspan="3"|{{PIE|sh}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
| style="color:gray"| {{transl|got|ƕ}} {{IPA|[xʷ]}}
|- align=center
| style="color:gray"| wh
!{{PIE|*sk}}
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| sk, {śc, ch}<ref group=CC name=nvh>Before front vowels.</ref>
|rowspan="2"| sk, sč <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|rowspan="2"|?
|rowspan="2"| sk <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ǵʰw}}
!{{PIE|*skʷ}}
| style="color:gray"| hv
| style="color:gray"|norm.
|
| style="color:gray"|{{PIE|squ}} {{IPA|[skʷ]}}
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| zv
|{{PIE|sq}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| žv
|- align=center
| rowspan="2"| z
!{{PIE|*t+t}} {{IPA|[tst]}}
|
|{{PIE|tt}}; {{PIE|tth}} <ref group=CC name=P+H>Before an original laryngeal.</ref>
|
|{{PIE|st}}; {{PIE|sθ}}?<ref group=CC name=CH>Before a consonant or original laryngeal.</ref>
|
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|st}}
|
|{{PIE|s}}
|
|{{PIE|s}}?
|{{PIE|zt}}, {{PIE|zzašt}}, {{PIE|zzazz}} {{IPA|[tst]}}
|{{PIE|ss}}?
|{{PIE|st}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|ss}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|ss}} / {{PIE|st}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sǵ}}
| jj
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ǵw}}
!{{PIE|*sgʰ}}
| style="color:gray"| jv
| jj<ref group=CC name=nvh/>
|
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dt}}
| tt
| st
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| style="color:gray"| q {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
|st
| style="color:gray"| qu {{IPA|[kw]}}
| st
|- align=center
|  
!{{PIE|*sw}}
| style="color:gray"| sv
| xuu {{IPA|[xʷ]}}
| style="color:gray"| sv
| style="color:gray"| sv
| v, d<ref group="CC">Word initially. See Orel, V. (2000).</ref>
| kʿ {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
| colspan="2" |normal dev.
| style="color:gray"| h
| style="color:gray"| ''n/a''
| style="color:gray"| su {{IPA|[sw]}}
| s
| s
| style="color:gray"| sw
|  
| style="color:gray"| sw
| ss
| ss [s]
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sp}}
!{{PIE|*ddʰ}}
| style="color:gray"| sp
| ddʰ
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh>In contrast to {{PIE|*s}} normally giving {{PIE|''h''}} in Avestan, Armenian and Greek.</ref>
| zd
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"| sp
|  
|{{PIE|f}}
|  
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh/><br/>/ pʿ {{IPA|[pʰ]}}
|  
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
| sp <ref group=CC name=noh/> || ?
| style="color:gray"| sp
|{{PIE|f}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|sp}} <ref group=CC name=GSL>[[Germanic spirant law]]: {{PIE|*p, *t, *k, *kʷ}} remain stops when preceded by another stop or {{PIE|*s}}.</ref>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sbʰ}}
| style="color:gray"|
| spʰ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| d
| t
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dʰt}}
| ddʰ
| zd, st
|
| st
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| st
|
|  
|
|  
|
|
|
|-align=center
!{{PIE|*sd}}
| d; ḷ<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" /> > ḍ, ḍḍ
| zd
| zd
| zd
|  
|  
| st
|
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
| d
| -t- {{IPA|[d]}}
| st
| st
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sdʰ}}
! {{PIE|*pt}}
| dh; ḷh<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" /> > ḍh, ḍḍh
| style="color:gray"| pt
| zd
| ft
| zd
| t?
| zd
| style="color:gray"| pt
|  
| rowspan="4"| t || || || |
|
| style="color:gray"| pt ||
|
| style="color:gray"| pt
|
|rowspan="4"| cht {{IPA|[xt]}}
| sth
|colspan="2"| ft <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|  
|  
| -t- {{IPA|[d]}}
| zd
| d
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*st}}
! {{PIE|*ḱt}}
| st; ṣṭ<ref name="Ruki" group="CC" />
| ṣṭ {{IPA|[ʂʈ]}}
| st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
| št {{IPA|[ʃt]}}
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"| st
| st
| style="color:gray"| {{PIE|sht}} {{IPA|[ʃt]}}
| št {{IPA|[ʃt]}}
| st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
| |
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|rowspan="3"|
| st <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan="5"|{{PIE|s}}; {{PIE|tt}}/{{PIE|ss}}<ref group=CC name=VCV>Between vowels.</ref>
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|st}}
|rowspan="2"|
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|st}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| ct {{IPA|[kt]}}
|rowspan="3"| ht <ref group=CC name=GSL/> || rowspan="3"| ght {{IPA|[t]}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sḱ}}
! {{PIE|*kt}}
|{{PIE|ch}} {{IPA|[t͡ɕʰ]}}; {{PIE|cch}}<ref group=CC name=VCV/>
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt
|{{PIE|s}}?
|rowspan="2"| xt
|{{PIE|sk}}
|rowspan="2"| t?
|{{PIE|š}}?
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt
|{{PIE|h}}
|rowspan="2"|
|?? {{PIE|č`}}; {{PIE|c`}}<ref group=CC name=VCV/>
|colspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|rowspan="2"|sk; <ref group="CC" name="noh"/><br/>kh {{IPA|[kʰ]}};<ref group=CC name=RX>After {{PIE|r, l, m, n, t, d}}, possibly other consonants?</ref><br />skh {{IPA|[skʰ]}} <ref group=CC>After (Greek) {{PIE|th}} causes aspiration in the cluster and then disappears, typical example *πάθ-σκ-ω (*páth-sk-ō) gives πάσχω (páskhō). {{clarify|date=August 2016|reason=does this mean a cluster *-dʰsk-?}}</ref>
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|sc}} {{IPA|[sk]}}
|rowspan="3" style="color:gray"|{{PIE|sc}} {{IPA|[sk]}}
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|sk}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|rowspan="3"|{{PIE|sh}} {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sk}}
! {{PIE|*kʷt}}
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| sk, {śc, ch}<ref group=CC name=nvh>Before front vowels.</ref>
| || style="color:gray"| pt ||
|rowspan="2"| sk, sč <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
| ct {{IPA|[kt]}}
|colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|rowspan="2"|?
|rowspan="2"| sk <ref group="CC" name="noh"/>
|colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="color:gray"|normal dev.
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*skʷ}}
! {{PIE|*ps}}
| style="color:gray"|norm.
| ps
| style="color:gray"|{{PIE|squ}} {{IPA|[skʷ]}}
| || || || || || ||
|{{PIE|sq}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
| style="color:gray"| ps ||
| style="color:gray"| ps || s, ss || style="color:gray"| fs || ps
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*t+t}} {{IPA|[tst]}}
!{{PIE|*ts}}
|{{PIE|tt}}; {{PIE|tth}} <ref group=CC name=P+H>Before an original laryngeal.</ref>
| ts
|{{PIE|st}}; {{PIE|sθ}}?<ref group=CC name=CH>Before a consonant or original laryngeal.</ref>
|  
| colspan="2"|{{PIE|st}}
|{{PIE|s}}
|{{PIE|s}}?
|{{PIE|zt}}, {{PIE|zzašt}}, {{PIE|zzazz}} {{IPA|[tst]}}
|{{PIE|ss}}?
|{{PIE|st}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|ss}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|ss}} / {{PIE|st}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sǵ}}
| jj
|  
|  
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
Line 1,670: Line 1,853:
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*sgʰ}}
! {{PIE|*ḱs}}
| jj<ref group=CC name=nvh/>
| kṣ || š || || || sh {{IPA|[ʃ]}} ||
| ||
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| ks
| rowspan="2"|
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| x {{IPA|[ks]}}
| rowspan="2"|
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| hs
| rowspan="3"| x {{IPA|[ks]}}
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*ks}}
| rowspan="2"| kṣ<ref group=CC name=Ruki>After {{PIE|r, u, k, i}} ([[Ruki sound law]]).</ref> || rowspan="2"| xš<ref group=CC name=Ruki/>
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan="2"|
| || (ks)
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*kʷs}}
| style="color:gray"| kʷs || || style="color:gray"| ps || || x {{IPA|[ks]}} || ||
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gs}}
| kṣ
|
|  
|  
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
Line 1,686: Line 1,890:
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dt}}
!{{PIE|*gʷs}}
| tt
| kṣ
| st
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
Line 1,694: Line 1,898:
|
|
|
|
|st
|
| st
|  
|
|
|
|  
|  
| s
|  
|  
| ss
| ss [s]
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ddʰ}}
!{{PIE|*ǵʰs}}
| ddʰ
| kṣ
| zd
| ž
|  
|  
|  
|  
Line 1,712: Line 1,916:
|
|
|  
|  
| ks
|  
|  
| d
| t
|  
|  
|  
|  
|
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dʰt}}
!{{PIE|*gʰs}}
| ddʰ
| kṣ
| zd, st
|
|  
|  
|  
| st
|  
|  
|
|
|
|
|
|
| st
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
Line 1,734: Line 1,938:
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*pt}}
!{{PIE|*gʷʰs}}
| style="color:gray"| pt
| kṣ
| ft
|  
| t?
|  
| style="color:gray"| pt
|  
| rowspan="4"| t || || || |
|  
| style="color:gray"| pt ||
|
| style="color:gray"| pt
|
|rowspan="4"| cht {{IPA|[xt]}}
|
|colspan="2"| ft <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*ḱt}}
| ṣṭ {{IPA|[ʂʈ]}}
| št {{IPA|[ʃt]}}
| st
| št {{IPA|[ʃt]}}
| |
|rowspan="3"|
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| ct {{IPA|[kt]}}
|rowspan="3"| ht <ref group=CC name=GSL/> || rowspan="3"| ght {{IPA|[t]}} <ref group=CC name=GSL/>
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*kt}}
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt
|rowspan="2"| xt
|rowspan="2"| t?
|rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| kt
|rowspan="2"|
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*kʷt}}
| || style="color:gray"| pt ||
| ct {{IPA|[kt]}}
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*ps}}
| ps
| ps
| || || || || || ||
| style="color:gray"| ps ||
| style="color:gray"| ps || s, ss || style="color:gray"| fs || ps
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ts}}
| ts
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|
|
|
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*tḱ}}
| kṣ
| š
|
|
| k
|
|
|
| kt
|  
|  
| s
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*ḱs}}
!{{PIE|*tk}}
| kṣ || š || || || sh {{IPA|[ʃ]}} ||
| ||
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| ks
| rowspan="2"|
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| x {{IPA|[ks]}}
| rowspan="2"|
| rowspan="2" style="color:gray"| hs
| rowspan="3"| x {{IPA|[ks]}}
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*ks}}
| rowspan="2"| kṣ<ref group=CC name=Ruki>After {{PIE|r, u, k, i}} ([[Ruki sound law]]).</ref> || rowspan="2"| xš<ref group=CC name=Ruki/>
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan="2"|
|rowspan="2"|
| || (ks)
|- align=center
! {{PIE|*kʷs}}
| style="color:gray"| kʷs || || style="color:gray"| ps || || x {{IPA|[ks]}} || ||
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gs}}
| kṣ
| kṣ
|  
| xš
|  
|  
|  
|  
Line 1,821: Line 1,979:
|
|
|
|
|  
| kt
|  
|  
|  
|  
Line 1,828: Line 1,986:
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gʷs}}
!{{PIE|*dʰǵʰ}}
| kṣ
| kṣ
| z
|  
|  
|  
| ž
|
|  
|  
|
|
|
| tk
|
| tk/k
|  
| khth
|  
|  
|  
|  
Line 1,844: Line 2,002:
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ǵʰs}}
!{{PIE|*dʰgʰ}}
| kṣ
| kṣ
| ž
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|
|
| tk
|
|
|
|
|
|  
|  
| ks
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gʰs}}
!{{PIE|*dʰgʷʰ}}
| kṣ
| kṣ
|  
| γž
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|
|
| kts
|
|
|
| phth
|
|
|
|
|
|
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*gʷʰs}}
| kṣ
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ps
|
|  
|  
| s
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|- align=center|
! PIE
! [[Sanskrit|Skr.]]
! [[Avestan|Av.]] !! [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]]+/j/ !! [[Latin]] !! [[Old Irish]] !! [[Gothic language|Gothic]] !! [[English language|English]]
|}
-->
===Orthography===
{| class=wikitable
! rowspan=2|Trad. PIE !! rowspan=2|[[Laryngeal theory|Laryng. PIE]] !! rowspan=2|[[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Avestan|Av.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Greek language|Greek]] !! rowspan=2|[[Latin]]<ref group=V name=initial>In initial syllables only.</ref> !! rowspan=2|[[Proto-Celtic]] !! rowspan=2|[[Gothic language|Gothic]]<ref group=V name=nonfinal>In non-final syllables only.</ref> !! colspan=2|[[Old English]]<ref group=V name=initial/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*tḱ}}
! normal !! [[Germanic umlaut|umlauted]]<ref group=V name=iumlaut>Before ''i'', ''ī'', or /j/ in the next syllable in [[Proto-Germanic]] ([[Germanic umlaut|''i''-umlaut]]).</ref>
| kṣ
| š
|
|
| k
|
|
|
| kt
|
| s
|
|
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*tk}}
!{{PIE|*e}}
| kṣ
!{{PIE|*e}}, {{PIE|*h₁e}}
| xš
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|  
|colspan="3"|{{PIE|e}}
|  
|{{PIE|je, ie, e, i}}; {{PIE|ja}}<ref group=V name=closed>In a closed syllable.</ref>
|  
|{{PIE|ä}}
|
|e, ʔe, i
|
|colspan="3"|{{PIE|e}}
|
|{{PIE|i}}; {{PIE|aí}} {{IPA|[ɛ]}}<ref group=V name=Vrh>Before ''r, h''.  Gothic, but not other Germanic languages, merges /e/ and /i/.</ref>
| kt
|{{PIE|e; eo}}<ref group=V name=OE>Before ''h, w'', or before ''r, l'' plus a consonant ([[Old English phonology#Breaking and retraction|"breaking"]]).</ref> || {{PIE|i; ie}}<ref group=V name=OE/>
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dʰǵʰ}}
!{{PIE|*a}}
| kṣ
!({{PIE|*a}}<ref group=V name=a?>The existence of PIE non-allophonic ''a'' is disputed.</ref>), {{PIE|*h₂e}}
| z
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|o}}
|  
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a}}
| ž
|{{PIE|a}}
|  
|{{PIE|ha, a}}
|
|{{PIE|ā}}
| tk
|{{PIE|ha, a}}
| tk/k
|colspan="3"|{{PIE|a}}
| khth
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a}}
|  
|rowspan=6|{{PIE|æ}}; {{PIE|a}};<ref group=V name=bright>Before a back vowel in the next syllable ([[Anglo-Frisian brightening#A restoration|''a'' restoration]]).</ref> {{PIE|ea}}<ref group=V name=OE/>
|  
|rowspan=6|{{PIE|e; ie}}<ref group=V name=OE/>
|  
|- align=center
|  
!rowspan=2|{{PIE|*o}}
|  
!{{PIE|*h₃e}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|o, a}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a, e}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan="2" colspan="3"|{{PIE|o}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dʰgʰ}}
!{{PIE|*o}}
| kṣ
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}; {{PIE|ā}}<ref group=V name=Brugmann>In open syllables ([[Brugmann's law]]).</ref>
|  
|  
|
|
|
| tk
|
|
|
|
|
|
|  
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*dʰgʷʰ}}
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*ə}}<ref group=V name=CVC>Between consonants, or at the end of a word after a consonant.</ref>
| kṣ
!{{PIE|*h₁}}<ref group=V name=CVC/>
| γž
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|i}}
|
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|i, ∅}}
|
|rowspan="6" colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a, ∅}}
|
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ā}}
| kts
|∅
|
|{{PIE|e}}
| phth
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a, ∅}}
| s
|
|
|
|- align=center|
! PIE
! [[Sanskrit|Skr.]]
! [[Avestan|Av.]] !! [[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! [[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! [[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! [[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! [[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! [[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]] !! [[Greek language|Greek]]+/j/ !! [[Latin]] !! [[Old Irish]] !! [[Gothic language|Gothic]] !! [[English language|English]]
|}
 
 
-->
===Orthography===
 
{| class=wikitable
! rowspan=2|Trad. PIE !! rowspan=2|[[Laryngeal theory|Laryng. PIE]] !! rowspan=2|[[Sanskrit|Skr.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Avestan|Av.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Old Church Slavonic|O.C.S.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Armenian language|Arm.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Albanian language|Alb.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Tocharian languages|Toch.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Hittite language|Hitt.]] !! rowspan=2|[[Greek language|Greek]] !! rowspan=2|[[Latin]]<ref group=V name=initial>In initial syllables only.</ref> !! rowspan=2|[[Proto-Celtic]] !! rowspan=2|[[Gothic language|Gothic]]<ref group=V name=nonfinal>In non-final syllables only.</ref> !! colspan=2|[[Old English]]<ref group=V name=initial/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
! normal !! [[Germanic umlaut|umlauted]]<ref group=V name=iumlaut>Before ''i'', ''ī'', or /j/ in the next syllable in [[Proto-Germanic]] ([[Germanic umlaut|''i''-umlaut]]).</ref>
!{{PIE|*h₂}}<ref group=V name=CVC/>
|ḫ
|{{PIE|a}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*e}}
!{{PIE|*h₃}}<ref group=V name=CVC/>
!{{PIE|*e}}, {{PIE|*h₁e}}  
|∅
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|o}}
|colspan="3"|{{PIE|e}}
|- align=center
|{{PIE|je, ie, e, i}}; {{PIE|ja}}<ref group=V name=closed>In a closed syllable.</ref>
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*-}}
|{{PIE|ä}}
!{{PIE|*h₁-}}<ref group=V name=#VC>At the beginning of a word, followed by a consonant.</ref>
|e, ʔe, i
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|colspan="3"|{{PIE|e}}
|{{PIE|e (a?)}}
|{{PIE|i}}; {{PIE|aí}} {{IPA|[ɛ]}}<ref group=V name=Vrh>Before ''r, h''.  Gothic, but not other Germanic languages, merges /e/ and /i/.</ref>
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|{{PIE|e; eo}}<ref group=V name=OE>Before ''h, w'', or before ''r, l'' plus a consonant ([[Old English phonology#Breaking and retraction|"breaking"]]).</ref> || {{PIE|i; ie}}<ref group=V name=OE/>
|a, ∅
|{{PIE|e (o)}}
|rowspan="3" colspan="5"|{{PIE|∅}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*a}}
!{{PIE|*h₂-}}<ref group=V name=#VC/>
!({{PIE|*a}}<ref group=V name=a?>The existence of PIE non-allophonic ''a'' is disputed.</ref>), {{PIE|*h₂e}}
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|o}}
|ḫa
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|ha, a}}
|{{PIE|ā}}
|{{PIE|ha, a}}
|colspan="3"|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan=6|{{PIE|æ}}; {{PIE|a}};<ref group=V name=bright>Before a back vowel in the next syllable ([[Anglo-Frisian brightening#A restoration|''a'' restoration]]).</ref> {{PIE|ea}}<ref group=V name=OE/>
|rowspan=6|{{PIE|e; ie}}<ref group=V name=OE/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!rowspan=2|{{PIE|*o}}
!{{PIE|*h₃-}}<ref group=V name=#VC/>
!{{PIE|*h₃e}}
|{{PIE|a, ha}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|o, a}}
|{{PIE|o}}
|rowspan=5|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a, e}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan="2" colspan="3"|{{PIE|o}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*o}}
!{{PIE|*ē}}
|colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}; {{PIE|ā}}<ref group=V name=Brugmann>In open syllables ([[Brugmann's law]]).</ref>
!{{PIE|*ē}}, {{PIE|*eh₁}}
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|{{PIE|ā}}
|{{PIE|ě}}
|{{PIE|ė}}
|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|o, ua}}
|{{PIE|a/e}}?; {{PIE|ā}}?<ref group=V name=final>In a final syllable.</ref>
|{{PIE|ē, e, i}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ē}}
|{{PIE|ī}}
|{{PIE|ē}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ǣ}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*ə}}<ref group=V name=CVC>Between consonants, or at the end of a word after a consonant.</ref>
!{{PIE|*ā}}
!{{PIE|*h₁}}<ref group=V name=CVC/>
!({{PIE|*ā}}<ref group=V name=a?/>), {{PIE|*eh₂}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|i, ∅}}
|{{PIE|o}} {{IPA|[oː]}}
|rowspan="6" colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a, ∅}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ā}}
|∅
|{{PIE|e}}
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|a, ∅}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*h₂}}<ref group=V name=CVC/>
|ḫ
|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|a/o}}?
|{{PIE|a, ah}}
|{{PIE|ā > ē}}<ref group=V name=Attic>''ā'' > ''ē'' in Attic and Ionic dialects only.</ref>
|{{PIE|ā}}
|{{PIE|ā}}
|rowspan=2 colspan=2|{{PIE|ō}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ē}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*h₃}}<ref group=V name=CVC/>
!{{PIE|*ō}}
|∅
!{{PIE|*ō}}, {{PIE|*eh₃}}
|{{PIE|o}}
|{{PIE|uo}}
|- align=center
|{{PIE|u}}
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*-}}
|{{PIE|e}}
!{{PIE|*h₁-}}<ref group=V name=#VC>At the beginning of a word, followed by a consonant.</ref>
|{{PIE|a/ā}}?; {{PIE|ū}}?<ref group=V name=final/>
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|{{PIE|a, ā}}
|{{PIE|e (a?)}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ō}}
|rowspan="3" colspan="2"|{{PIE|∅}}
|{{PIE|ā}}; {{PIE|ū}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|a, ∅
|{{PIE|e (o)}}
|rowspan="3" colspan="5"|{{PIE|∅}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*h₂-}}<ref group=V name=#VC/>
!{{PIE|*i}}
|rowspan="2"|{{PIE|a}}
!{{PIE|*i}}
|ḫa
|colspan=2|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|ь}}
|- align=center
|{{PIE|i}}
!{{PIE|*h₃-}}<ref group=V name=#VC/>
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|a, ha}}
|{{PIE|i}}; {{PIE|e}}<ref group=V name=a>Before ''ā'' in the following syllable.</ref>
|{{PIE|o}}
|{{PIE|ä}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|i}}, ī
|colspan=3|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|i}}; {{PIE|aí}} {{IPA|[ɛ]}}<ref group=V name=Vrh/>
|colspan=2|{{PIE|i}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ē}}
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*ī}}
!{{PIE|*ē}}, {{PIE|*eh₁}}
!{{PIE|*ih₁}}
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|{{PIE|ā}}
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|{{PIE|ě}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|ė}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|y}} {{IPA|[iː]}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|o, ua}}
|{{PIE|a/e}}?; {{PIE|ā}}?<ref group=V name=final>In a final syllable.</ref>
|{{PIE|ē, e, i}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ē}}
|{{PIE|ī}}
|{{PIE|ī}}
|{{PIE|ē}}
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ǣ}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|ei}} {{IPA|[iː]}}
|rowspan=4 colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ih₂}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|i}}<br/>or {{PIE|<sup>(j)</sup>a}}?<ref group=V name=breaking>The so-called [[vowel breaking|breaking]] is disputed (typical examples are {{PIE|*proti-h₃kʷo-}} > Ved. ''prátīkam'' ~ Gk. {{lang|grc|πρόσωπον}}; {{PIE|*gʷih₃u̯o-}} > Ved. ''jīvá-'' ~ Arm. ''keank‘'', Gk. {{lang|grc|ζωός}}; {{PIE|*duh₂ro-}} > Ved. ''dūrá-'' ~ Arm. ''erkar'', Gk. {{lang|grc|δηρός}})</ref>
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|yā}}
|{{PIE|ī}} or {{PIE|<sup>(j)</sup>ā}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ā}}
!{{PIE|*ih₃}}
!({{PIE|*ā}}<ref group=V name=a?/>), {{PIE|*eh₂}}
|{{PIE|ī}} or {{PIE|<sup>(j)</sup>ō}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|o}} {{IPA|[oː]}}
|{{PIE|a}}
|{{PIE|a/o}}?
|{{PIE|a, ah}}
|{{PIE|ā > ē}}<ref group=V name=Attic>''ā'' > ''ē'' in Attic and Ionic dialects only.</ref>
|{{PIE|ā}}
|{{PIE|ā}}
|rowspan=2 colspan=2|{{PIE|ō}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ē}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ō}}
!{{PIE|*ei}}
!{{PIE|*ō}}, {{PIE|*eh₃}}
!{{PIE|*ei}}, {{PIE|*h₁ei}}
|{{PIE|uo}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ai > ē}}
|{{PIE|u}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ai > ōi}},<br/>{{PIE|āi > aē}}<ref group=V name=Brugmann/>  
|{{PIE|e}}
|{{PIE|ei}}; {{PIE|ie}}<ref group=V name=stress>Under stress.</ref>  
|{{PIE|a/ā}}?; {{PIE|ū}}?<ref group=V name=final/>
|{{PIE|a, ā}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|ō}}
|{{PIE|ā}}; {{PIE|ū}}<ref group=V name=final/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*i}}
!{{PIE|*i}}
|colspan=2|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|ь}}
|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|e}}
|{{PIE|i}}; {{PIE|e}}<ref group=V name=a>Before ''ā'' in the following syllable.</ref>
|{{PIE|ē}}
|{{PIE|ä}}
|{{PIE|ei}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|i}}, ī
|{{PIE|ī}}
|colspan=3|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|ē}}
|{{PIE|i}}; {{PIE|aí}} {{IPA|[ɛ]}}<ref group=V name=Vrh/>
|colspan=2|{{PIE|i}}
|- align=center
|- align=center
!rowspan=3|{{PIE|*ī}}
!{{PIE|*oi}}
!{{PIE|*ih₁}}
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|y}} {{IPA|[iː]}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|i}}
|{{PIE|ī}}
|rowspan=3 colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|rowspan=4|{{PIE|ei}} {{IPA|[iː]}}
|rowspan=4 colspan=2|{{PIE|ī}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ih₂}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|i}}<br/>or {{PIE|<sup>(j)</sup>a}}?<ref group=V name=breaking>The so-called [[vowel breaking|breaking]] is disputed (typical examples are {{PIE|*proti-h₃kʷo-}} > Ved. ''prátīkam'' ~ Gk. {{lang|grc|πρόσωπον}}; {{PIE|*gʷih₃u̯o-}} > Ved. ''jīvá-'' ~ Arm. ''keank‘'', Gk. {{lang|grc|ζωός}}; {{PIE|*duh₂ro-}} > Ved. ''dūrá-'' ~ Arm. ''erkar'', Gk. {{lang|grc|δηρός}})</ref>
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|yā}}
|{{PIE|ī}} or {{PIE|<sup>(j)</sup>ā}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ih₃}}
|{{PIE|ī}} or {{PIE|<sup>(j)</sup>ō}}?<ref group=V name=breaking/>
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*ei}}
!{{PIE|*ei}}, {{PIE|*h₁ei}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ai > ē}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|ai > ōi}},<br/>{{PIE|āi > aē}}<ref group=V name=Brugmann/>
|{{PIE|ei}}; {{PIE|ie}}<ref group=V name=stress>Under stress.</ref>
|{{PIE|i}}
|rowspan=3|{{PIE|e}}
|{{PIE|ē}}
|{{PIE|ei}}
|{{PIE|ī}}
|{{PIE|ē}}
|- align=center
!{{PIE|*oi}}
!{{PIE|*oi}}, {{PIE|*h₃ei}}
!{{PIE|*oi}}, {{PIE|*h₃ei}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ě}}
|rowspan=2|{{PIE|ě}}
Line 2,740: Line 2,802:
===Pitch Accent===
===Pitch Accent===


==Morphology==
==Morphology== [...]


[...]
[...]
Line 2,763: Line 2,825:
*gʷaināsay, *gʷaināmas
*gʷaināsay, *gʷaināmas


Aryan has only zero-grade (∅) and full grade (_)
Aryan morphology deals with full-grade (_) and null-grade (∅).
.


*(_)-as [forms active animate nouns] EX: kʰúh<sub>2</sub>as "sound" = PIE *(é)-os in *ḱlewos
Aryan ''*(á)-s'' [PIE ''*(ó)-s''] forms nouns, as in ''*p<sup>h</sup>árs'' "thief" [PIE ''*b<sup>h</sup>ṓr'' "thief"] from ''*p<sup>h</sup>air'' "bearing".
*(∅)-ás [forms active animate adjectives] EX: *pdás "capable to step" = PIE *(e)-ós in *pṓds
*(á)-as [forms passive animate nouns] EX: ... = PIE *(ó)-os in ...
*(a)-ás [forms passive animate adjectives] EX: = PIE *(o)-ós, *the construction became agentive instead of passive in PIE, but some archaic forms remain, such as *gʰoysós "spear"
*(_)-ar [forms active inanimate nouns] EX: *húdar "water" = PIE *-r̥ in *wódr̥
*(∅)-ár [forms active inanimate adjectives]  
*(á)-ar [forms passive inanimate nouns]
*(a)-ár [forms passive inanimate adjectives]


mas
Aryan ''*(_)-as'' [PIE ''*(é)-os''] forms active animate nouns, as in ''kʰúh<sub>2</sub>as'' "living sound" [PIE ''*ḱlewos'' "fame"]. If the meaning intended is "racial", furthermore, the affix becomes ''*(_)-(a)ras'' [PIE ''*(∅)-(u)ros''], as in ''h<sub>5</sub>ímsaras'' "engenderer" [PIE ''*h<sub>2</sub>ḿ̥suros'' "deity"].


*(_)-tár [forms agent nouns]
Aryan ''*(∅)-ás'' [PIE ''*(e)-ós''] forms active animate adjectives, as in ...
*(_)-tram [forms instrument nouns] *fusion of *(_)-tár [agent particle] and *-am [neuter particle]
*(∅)-C-ás [forms derived nouns through mobile roots] EX: *pʰtʰūymás PIE = PIE *(∅)-mós


===Root===
Aryan ''*(á)-as'' [PIE ''*(ó)-os''] forms passive animate nouns, as in ''*p<sup>h</sup>áras'' "what is born" [PIE ''*b<sup>h</sup>óros'' "what is brought"]
In Aryan, roots are either static or mobile. In the first case, they serve as a prototypical source of meaning, impossible to be further decomposed. Otherwise, further analysis is possible through pure consonantal and vocalic segments, treated as "fundamental atoms".


A consonantal root is intrinsically modified by vocalic roots.
Aryan ''*(a)-ás'' [PIE ''*(o)-ós''] forms passive animate adjectives, as in ... became agentive instead of passive in PIE, but some archaic forms remain, such as *gʰoysós "spear"


*pʰair < action root *p "bearing" + class root *h5ih1 "person" + epenthetic *r
Aryan ''*(_)-ar'' [PIE *([é/ó)-r̥] forms active inanimate nouns, as in ''*húdar'' "water" [PIE  ''*wódr̥'' "water"]


===Clitic===
Aryan ''*(∅)-ár'' forms active inanimate adjectives.


In Aryan, clitics, similarly to tones, became fossilized as affixes.
Aryan ''*(á)-ar'' forms passive inanimate nouns.
 
Aryan ''*(a)-ár'' forms passive inanimate adjectives.
 
-
 
Aryan  ''*(_)-tár'' forms agent nouns.
 
Aryan  ''*(_)-tram'' forms instrument nouns. It is a fusion of ''*(_)-tár'' [agent particle] and ''*-am'' [neuter particle]
 
Aryan ''*(∅)-C-ás'' [PIE ''*(∅)-mós''] [forms derived nouns through mobile roots] EX: ''*pʰtʰūymás'' PIE =
 
===Root===
In Aryan, roots are either static or mobile. In the first case, they serve as a prototypical source of meaning, impossible to be further decomposed. Otherwise, further analysis is possible through pure consonantal and vocalic segments, treated as "fundamental atoms".
 
A consonantal root is intrinsically modified by vocalic roots.
 
*pʰair < action root *p "bearing" + class root *h5ih1 "person" + epenthetic *r
 
===Clitic===
 
In Aryan, clitics, similarly to tones, became fossilized as affixes.


===Ablaut===
===Ablaut===
Line 3,069: Line 3,141:


====Personal Pronouns [...]====
====Personal Pronouns [...]====
[...]
English, German, French, Italian, Portuguese, Russian, Persian, Latin, Greek, Sanskrit...
Brugmann; Grundriss [...] ⇒ Schmidt, Stammbildung und Flexion (argues in favor of eǵ as older tham eǵom) ⇒ P. Forchheimer, The category of person in language, Berlin 1953
⇒ Benveniste, La nature des pronoms > https://www.academia.edu/1478874/Die_komplexe_Morphologie_der_urindogermanischen_Personalpronomina_draft_
Stop Borrowing! Anatolian/Indo-European Stops, Voice, and Northwest Semitic Loans – With Notes on Ugaritic grdš, ztr, dġṯ and Other Words


[...]
[...]
Line 3,112: Line 3,193:


*The first-person singular ''*h<sub>5</sub>ih<sub>1</sub>ṓn'' (PIE ''*h<sub>1</sub>eǵHóm'') seems to be a descendent of the primordial form ''ˈʕih-ɔː'' "I" , which would regularly yield stress on the first syllable, yet it is observed that in PIE the consonant <''*ǵ''> appears (probably a consequence from the sound change '''*h<sub>1</sub> ⇒ *ǵ / V_V'''), plus the affixation of <''*n''>, a borrowing from Diluvian ''nao'' "this person".
*The first-person singular ''*h<sub>5</sub>ih<sub>1</sub>ṓn'' (PIE ''*h<sub>1</sub>eǵHóm'') seems to be a descendent of the primordial form ''ˈʕih-ɔː'' "I" , which would regularly yield stress on the first syllable, yet it is observed that in PIE the consonant <''*ǵ''> appears (probably a consequence from the sound change '''*h<sub>1</sub> ⇒ *ǵ / V_V'''), plus the affixation of <''*n''>, a borrowing from Diluvian ''nao'' "this person".
**In PIE, the emphatic''*h<sub>1</sub>eǵHóm'' could be interpreted as more archaic than ''*h₁eǵH'', as Homeric Greek ''ἐγών'' and Sanskrit ''अहम्'' suggest. The emphatic particle ''*-om'' (PIE) likely arose due the contaminator <''*m''>.
**In PIE, the emphatic ''*h<sub>1</sub>eǵHóm'' could be interpreted as more archaic than ''*h₁eǵH'', as Homeric Greek ''ἐγών'' and Sanskrit ''अहम्'' suggest. The emphatic particle ''*-om'' (PIE) likely arose due the contaminator <''*m''>.
**The nasal in ''*h<sub>5</sub>ih<sub>1</sub>ṓn'' "I" became <''*m''> primarily due two distinct processes; one phonetic and other phonological. It was either subsequently labialized by the preceding vowel, shortening the nucleus (i.e. /oːn/ ⇒ /own/ ⇒ /om/), and/or swapped by the contaminator ''*m'' based on its inflected forms.
**The nasal in ''*h<sub>5</sub>ih<sub>1</sub>ṓn'' "I" became <''*m''> primarily due two distinct processes; one phonetic and other phonological. It was either subsequently labialized by the preceding vowel, shortening the nucleus (i.e. /oːn/ ⇒ /own/ ⇒ /om/), and/or swapped by the contaminator ''*m'' based on its inflected forms.
***This sound change affected all other inflections of the first person singular (e.g. ''*nh<sub>0</sub>(m)'' "me" (Aryan) ⇒ ''*mh<sub>0</sub>'' ~ ''*h<sub>0</sub>m'' "me" (?) ⇒ ''*me'' ~ ''*h<sub>1</sub>me'' "me" (PIE)).
***This sound change affected all other inflections of the first person singular (e.g. ''*nh<sub>0</sub>(m)'' "me" (A) ⇒ ''*mh<sub>0</sub>'' ~ ''*h<sub>0</sub>m'' "me" (?) ⇒ ''*me'' ~ ''*h<sub>1</sub>me'' "me" (PIE)).
*The second-person singular ''*tū́'' (PIE ''*túH'') seems to be a descendent of Diluvian ''taocar'' "the person one refers to", with an unusual vocalic paradigm. If this is correct, a more conservative alternative might have been ''*táu''.
*The second-person singular ''*tū́'' (PIE ''*túH'') seems to be a descendent of Diluvian ''taocar'' "the person one refers to", with an unusual vocalic paradigm. If this is correct, a more conservative alternative might have been ''*táu''.
**In PIE, the pronoun ''*túH'' is extremely conservative, found as ''tu'' in Latin, ''σύ'' in Greek, and ''त्वम्'' in Sanskrit, for example. In PIA, though, Hittite ''zīg'' and Palaic ''ti'' suggest Indo-Anatolian ''*tī́'' <ref name=Kloekorst>Alwin Kloekorst (2007); [https://archive.org/details/etymological-dictionary-of-the-hittite-inherited-lexicon/mode/1up ''Etymological Dictionary Of The Hittite Inherited Lexicon'']</ref>.
**In PIE, the pronoun ''*túH'' is extremely conservative, found as ''tu'' in Latin, ''σύ'' in Greek, and ''त्वम्'' in Sanskrit, for example. In PIA, though, Hittite ''zīg'' and Palaic ''ti'' suggest Indo-Anatolian ''*tī́''<ref name=Kloekorst>Alwin Kloekorst (2007); [https://archive.org/details/etymological-dictionary-of-the-hittite-inherited-lexicon/mode/1up ''Etymological Dictionary Of The Hittite Inherited Lexicon'']</ref>; although it could also be pointed out that the Anatolitan counterparts might be mere rearrangements from the non-emphatic PIE 1.SG.NOM. ''*h<sub>1</sub>eǵ(ō)'' plus an accusative enclitic of the second-person singular (i.e. ''*te-eǵ'' ⇒ ''*tī́ǵ'' (PA))<ref name=Szemerényi>Oswald Szemerényi (1990); [https://archive.org/details/szemerenyieinfuhrungindievergleichendesprachwissenschaft4thedition1990/mode/2up ''Einführung in die vergleichende Sprachwissenschaft'']</ref><ref name=Petersen>Walter Petersen (1930); [https://www.jstor.org/stable/409118?read-now=1&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents ''The Inflection of Indo-European Personal Pronouns'']</ref>, or even the result of the palatalization of apical consonants due phonetic height (i.e. ''*tū'' (PIA) ⇒ ''*tyū'' (?) ⇒ ''*tī'' (PA))<ref name=Melchert>Craig Melchert (1983); [https://linguistics.ucla.edu/people/Melchert/2ndsingularpronoun.pdf ''The Second Singular Personal Pronoun in Anatolian'']</ref>.
*The third-person singulars ''*aī́h<sub>0</sub>i'', ''*aī́h<sub>0</sub>'', and ''*aī́ts'' possess a shorter form when complemented by a noun (e.g. ''*aī́h<sub>0</sub>i'' "he" ⇒ ''*h<sub>0</sub>naír h<sub>0</sub>í'' "he, the man"). The reason for this is that in the Codex, pronouns used to be morphologically treated as affixes, and therefore couldn't stand by themselves except when linked to a root (e.g. ''ˈə-e̞ː'' "he/she/it", but not ''**e̞ː'').
*The third-person singulars ''*aī́h<sub>0</sub>i'', ''*aī́h<sub>0</sub>'', and ''*aī́ts'' possess a shorter form when complemented by a noun (e.g. ''*aī́h<sub>0</sub>i'' "he" ⇒ ''*h<sub>0</sub>naī́r h<sub>0</sub>i'' "he, the man"). The reason for this is that in the Codex, pronouns used to be morphologically treated as affixes, and therefore couldn't stand by themselves except when linked to a root (e.g. ''ˈə-e̞ː'' "he/she/it", but not ''**e̞ː'').
**As a result, the clitic counterparts gained a sense as proximal demonstratives in PIE, being evident in forms such as Latin ''is'' "he", ''ea'' "she", and ''id'' "it", whose anaphoric use prohibts them to stand by themselves.
**As a result, the clitic counterparts gained a sense as proximal demonstratives in PIE, being evident in forms such as Latin ''is'' "he", ''ea'' "she", and ''id'' "it", whose anaphoric use prohibts them to stand by themselves.
***e.g. ''*h<sub>0</sub>í'' "he" ⇒ ''*h<sub>1</sub>í'' "this/he"; ''*íh<sub>0</sub>'' "she" ⇒ ''*h<sub>1</sub>íh<sub>2</sub>'' "this/she"; ''*íts'' "it" ⇒ ''*h<sub>1</sub>íd'' "this/it".
***e.g. ''*h<sub>0</sub>í'' "he" ⇒ ''*h<sub>1</sub>í'' "this/he"; ''*íh<sub>0</sub>'' "she" ⇒ ''*h<sub>1</sub>íh<sub>2</sub>'' "this/she"; ''*íts'' "it" ⇒ ''*h<sub>1</sub>íd'' "this/it".
*Overall, the dual is formed by erasing sounds of the singular, then reduplicating it (e.g. ''*h<sub>5</sub>ih<sub>1</sub>ṓn'' ⇒ ''*ōi̯ṓn''; ''*tū́'' ⇒ ''*ūi̯ū́''; ''*aī́h<sub>0</sub>i'' ⇒ ''*aīaī́''), while the plural is formed by erasing the reduplication of the dual, then adding the serial particle ''*-s-'' (e.g. ''*ōi̯ṓn'' ⇒ ''*ṓns''; ''*ūi̯ū́'' ⇒ ''*ū́s''; ''*aīaī́'' ⇒ ''*aī́s''), and the collective simply does the latter but with the suffix ''*-a'' (e.g. ''*ōi̯ṓn'' ⇒ ''*ṓna''; ''*ūi̯ū́'' ⇒ ''*ū́a''; ''*aīaī́'' ⇒ ''*aī́a''''). Medial ''*i̯'' ~ ''*u̯'' is inserted to avoid diphthongs between reduplicated vowels, and ''*ts'' is applied in other cases when two bordering vowels are similar (except those involving schwas).
*Overall, the dual is formed by erasing sounds of the singular, then reduplicating it (e.g. ''*h<sub>5</sub>ih<sub>1</sub>ṓn'' ⇒ ''*ōi̯ṓn''; ''*tū́'' ⇒ ''*ūi̯ū́''; ''*aī́h<sub>0</sub>i'' ⇒ ''*aīaī́''), while the plural is formed by erasing the reduplication of the dual, then adding the serial particle ''*-s-'' (e.g. ''*ōi̯ṓn'' ⇒ ''*ṓns''; ''*ūi̯ū́'' ⇒ ''*ū́s''; ''*aīaī́'' ⇒ ''*aī́s''), and the collective simply does the latter but with the suffix ''*-a'' (e.g. ''*ōi̯ṓn'' ⇒ ''*ṓna''; ''*ūi̯ū́'' ⇒ ''*ū́a''; ''*aīaī́'' ⇒ ''*aī́a''''). Medial ''*i̯'' ~ ''*u̯'' is inserted to avoid diphthongs between reduplicated vowels, and ''*ts'' is applied in other cases when two bordering vowels are similar (except those involving schwas).
**The dual products of this process would eventually substitute the plural forms of the first and second-person in their nominative equivalents (i.e. ''*ṓns'' "we (plural)" ⇒ ∅, replaced by ''*ōi̯ṓn'' "we (dual)" (Aryan) ⇒ ''*wéy'' "we (plural)" (PIE); ''*ūs'' "you (plural)" ⇒ ∅, replaced by ''*ūi̯ū́'' "you (dual)" (Aryan) ⇒ ''*yū́'' "you (plural)" (PIE)), while their oblique inflections for example would assume the same spot in the dual of the Indo-European languages (i.e. ''*noh<sub>0</sub>(m)'' 1.DU.ACC. (Aryan) ⇒ ''*n̥h<sub>1</sub>wé'' ~ ''*nōh<sub>1</sub>'' 1.DU.ACC. (PIE); ''*i̯uh<sub>0</sub>(m)'' 2.DU.ACC. (Aryan) ⇒ ''*uh<sub>1</sub>wé'' ~ ''*wōh<sub>1</sub>'' 2.DU.ACC. (PIE)).
**Rather than the nominative of the first and second-person dual/plural in PIE being prehistorical combinations (i.e. ''*u'' 2.SG + ''*e'' 1.SG. +  = ''we'' 1.DU./PL.; ''*i'' 3.SG. + ''*u'' 2.SG = ''*yu'' 2.DU./PL.)<ref name=Seebold>Elmar Seebold (1984); [https://annas-archive.org/md5/e8ece7cab77fe9adeae0052312aa3d89 ''Das System der Personalpronomina in den frühgermanischen Sprachen: Sein Aufbau und seine Herkunft'']</ref>, the dual products of the Aryan patterns would eventually substitute the plural forms of the first and second-person in their nominative equivalents (i.e. ''*ṓns'' "we (plural)" ⇒ ∅, replaced by ''*ōi̯ṓn'' "we (dual)" (A) ⇒ ''*wéy'' "we (plural)" (PIE); ''*ūs'' "you (plural)" ⇒ ∅, replaced by ''*ūi̯ū́'' "you (dual)" (A) ⇒ ''*yū́'' "you (plural)" (PIE)), while their oblique inflections for example would assume other spots in the ancestor of Indo-European languages (i.e. ''*noh<sub>0</sub>(m)'' 1.DU.ACC. (A) ⇒ ''*n̥h<sub>1</sub>wé'' ~ ''*nōh<sub>1</sub>'' 1.DU.ACC. (PIE); ''*i̯uh<sub>0</sub>(m)'' 2.DU.ACC. (A) ⇒ ''*uh<sub>1</sub>wé'' ~ ''*wōh<sub>1</sub>'' 2.DU.ACC. (PIE)).
**The particle <''*m''> gains the property of the serial particle <''*s''> when the latter conflates with the particle ''*ts'' (e.g. third-person plural locative ''*itsim'' instead of ''*itsis''). This contamination was likely encouraged due the abundant presence of ''*m'' in the accusative, and produces an alternative explanation to the hypothesis that the oblique of the first-person plural was''*ms-'' before becoming ''*ns-''<ref name=Sihler>Andrew Sihler (1995); [https://archive.org/details/sihler-andrew-new-comparative-grammar-of-greek-and-latin/mode/2up ''New Comparative Grammar Of Greek And Latin'']</ref>. Later in PIE, not only plural forms (e.g. ''*nsai̯(m)'' 1.PL.DAT. (Aryan) ⇒ ''*n̥sméy'' 1.PL.DAT. (PIE))  would become contaminated, but also singular ones (e.g. ''*iai̯'' "to him" (Aryan) ⇒ ''*h<sub>1</sub>esmōy'' "to him" (PIE)); including verbal affixes (e.g.''*-nas'' 1.PL.VB. (Aryan) ⇒ ''*-mos'' 1.PL.VB. (PIE)).
**The particle <''*m''> gains the property of the serial particle <''*s''> when the latter conflates with the particle ''*ts'' (e.g. third-person plural locative ''*itsim'' instead of ''*itsis''). This contamination was likely encouraged due the abundant presence of ''*m'' in the accusative, and produces an alternative explanation to the hypothesis that the oblique of the first-person plural was''*ms-'' before becoming ''*ns-''<ref name=Sihler>Andrew Sihler (1995); [https://archive.org/details/sihler-andrew-new-comparative-grammar-of-greek-and-latin/mode/2up ''New Comparative Grammar Of Greek And Latin'']</ref>. Later in PIE, not only plural forms (e.g. ''*nsai̯(m)'' 1.PL.DAT. (A) ⇒ ''*n̥sméy'' 1.PL.DAT. (PIE))  would become contaminated, but also singular ones (e.g. ''*iai̯'' "to him" (A) ⇒ ''*h<sub>1</sub>esmōy'' "to him" (PIE)); including verbal affixes (e.g.''*-nas'' 1.PL.VB. (A) ⇒ ''*-mos'' 1.PL.VB. (PIE)).


====Possessive Pronouns====
====Possessive Pronouns====
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===Verb===
===Verb===
[...]
====Aspect====
The Origin of Aspect in the Indo-European Languages  Oswald Szemerényi
====?====


''*gaínōm'', ''*gígnmi'' "I generate"
''*gaínōm'', ''*gígnmi'' "I generate"
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perfect: I have run [action started and halted, not necessarily completed]
perfect: I have run [action started and halted, not necessarily completed]
 
 
 
 
 
 
perfective: I have run [action started and completed]
perfective: I have run [action started and completed]
 
 
 
 
 
 
*the syntax of a language is marked by its idiosyncratic constructions
*the syntax of a language is marked by its idiosyncratic constructions
 
 
il semblerait qu'ils se soient intensifiés
il semblerait qu'ils se soient intensifiés
 
 
parece (por hypóthese) que eles se intensificaram
parece (por hypóthese) que eles se intensificaram
 
 
movement verbs and cases: cubitum ire *as French and German treat it in the european sprachbund
movement verbs and cases: cubitum ire *as French and German treat it in the european sprachbund
eo domum
eo domum
end goal: accusative
end goal: accusative
*h2iyṓm dámam
*h2iyṓm dámam
 
 
 
 
[[w:Standard average european||europoid]]
[[w:Standard average european||europoid]]
 
 
 
 
какой-то сказал
какой-то сказал
 
 
Ja vot tut ...
in dem Anfang, hat Gott die Erde und den Himmel geschaffen
 
Männer, deren Kinder gestorben haben,
==Sample text==
der Schicksal dessen, der gelitten habt
 
der Schicksal derer, die gelitten haben
==References==
 
 
Ja vot tut ...
 
 
Bergaige, Abel; Du Rôle de la dérivation dans la déclinaison indo-européenne: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k57721099.texteImage#
==Sample text==
 
 
Bergaige, Abel; Essai sur la construction grammaticale considérée dans son développement historique, en sanscrit, en grec, en latin, dans les langues romanes et dans les langues germaniques: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5803410m/f6
==References==
 
 
>
Einleitung in die Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft (Pott)
 
 
Einleitung in die Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft (Pott)
hermann hirt Indogermanische Grammatik
 
Franz Bopp
 
Schleicher
 
Calvert Watkins
 
Jochem Schindler
 
Helmut Rix
 
Kuryłowicz
 
 
 
Boisacq : É. Boisacq, Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grecque. Heidelberg, 1916.
Brugmann, Griech. Gram?: Griechische Grammatik,
Chantraine, GH: Grammaire homérique.
Chantraine, Morphologie : Morphologie historique du grec. 1947. 2nd ed. 1961.
Chantraine, Formation ` La formation des noms en grec ancien
CIL : Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum.
Collitz-Bechtel, D: Sammlung griechischer Dialektinschriften. 1884— 1915
Egli, Heteroklisie im Griechischen: J. Egli, Heteroklisie im Griechischen, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Fälle von Gelenkheteroklisie. Dissert. Zürich
Ehrlich, Betonung ` Untersuchungen über die Natur der griechischen Betonung. 1912
Ernout-Meillet, Dictionnaire étym.: Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue latine
Evidence for Laryngeals : Evidence for Laryngeals — Work papers of a conference in Indo—European linguistics on May 7 and 8, 1959. Edited by Werner Winter. Austin, Texas, 1960
Frisk, GEW ` Griechisches etymologisches Wörterbuch. Heidelberg 1954
Kuryłowicz, A pophonie ` L'apophonie en indo-européen. 1956.
Kuryłowicz, Accentuation *: L'accentuation des langues indo—européennes. 2nd ed. 1958.
Leumann-Hofmann :M. Leumann-]. B. Hofmann, Lateinische Grammatik, 5th ed. 1926-8
Meillet, Zz£roduction 9: Introduction a l'étude comparative des langues indo-européennes. 8th ed. 1937
Pokorny : Pokorny, /wdogermanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch. 1948-
Wackernagel (-Debrunner), AzGr. : Altindische Grammatik
 
 
Bergaige, Abel; Du Rôle de la dérivation dans la déclinaison indo-européenne: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k57721099.texteImage#
 
Bergaige, Abel; Essai sur la construction grammaticale considérée dans son développement historique, en sanscrit, en grec, en latin, dans les langues romanes et dans les langues germaniques: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5803410m/f6
 
>
 
 




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