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==Particles== | ==Particles== | ||
The numerous particles in the Chlouvānem language have various uses, including coordinating conjunctions, semantic, and pragmatic particles. Most of them (except a few conjunctions) follow the word they modify. | The numerous particles in the Chlouvānem language have various uses, including coordinating conjunctions, semantic, and pragmatic particles. Most of them (except a few conjunctions) follow the word they modify. Here they are listed in Latin alphabetical order: | ||
* '''e''' translates "like"; it requires essive case with nouns (in formal speech; while bare essive most properly has the meaning "as X" instead of "like X", colloquially it is used both ways) and subjunctive mood with realis verbs (other moods are used for their meaning). | * '''e''' translates "like"; it requires essive case with nouns (in formal speech; while bare essive most properly has the meaning "as X" instead of "like X", colloquially it is used both ways) and subjunctive mood with realis verbs (other moods are used for their meaning). | ||
* ''' | * '''en''' usually requires accusative case and translates to English "than" in comparisons. | ||
* '''eri''' means "even", marking a positive emphasis and used with positive sentences (e.g. ''hūnakumi dældān eri dældire'' "(s)he even speaks Hūnakum<ref>Language of an ethnic minority (but titular ethnicity) in the diocese of Hūnakañjātia.</ref>i") | |||
* ''' | |||
* '''fras''' marks the antibenefactive argument outside of antibenefactive-trigger voice, or "to avoid X" with a subjunctive mood verb. | * '''fras''' marks the antibenefactive argument outside of antibenefactive-trigger voice, or "to avoid X" with a subjunctive mood verb. | ||
* '''ga''' is an adpositive particle, used to join nouns in noun phrases (usually titles; the only exceptions being honorifics), such as ''Līlasuṃghāṇa ga marta'' (Līlasuṃghāṇa city, or "city of Līlasuṃghāṇa") or ''Tāllahāria ga maita'' (Tāllahāria river). | |||
* '''gāri''' means "not even", being the opposite of ''eri'', marking a negative emphasis in negative sentences (e.g. ''chāra chlouvānumi dældān gāri gu dældire ša'' "(s)he doesn't even speak correct Chlouvānem") | |||
* '''golat''' translates "meanwhile" or "on the other hand". | * '''golat''' translates "meanwhile" or "on the other hand". | ||
* '''gu(n) — ša''' is a circumfix around verbs used to negate it, e.g. ''gu yuyųlsėça ša'' "(s)he doesn't want to eat"). | |||
* '''laha''' means "only, just", e.g. ''lārvājuṣui laha flonu'' "I'm only going to the temple". | |||
* '''leah''' translates "already", with a noun in essive case or a verb in the semantically correct mood. | |||
* '''mbu''' means "or"; placement with nouns is the same as ''no''/''çou'', and with verbs it's the same as ''sama''. | |||
* '''mei''' and '''go''' are the Chlouvānem words for "yes" and "no" respectively; their use is however different from English, as they are used according to the polarity of the question: ''mei'' answers "yes" to affirmative questions and "no" to negative questions; ''go'' answers "no" to affirmative questions and "yes" to negative questions. | |||
* '''menni''' translates "because, for". If there's a following main clause, then it's the last word in the subordinate of reason (this use is synonymous to the consequential secondary verbal mood of cause); if it's a lone sentence (an answer), then it is usually at the ''second'' place in the sentence, after the verbal trigger (e.g. ''tami menni yuyųlsėça'' "because (s)he wants to eat"). | * '''menni''' translates "because, for". If there's a following main clause, then it's the last word in the subordinate of reason (this use is synonymous to the consequential secondary verbal mood of cause); if it's a lone sentence (an answer), then it is usually at the ''second'' place in the sentence, after the verbal trigger (e.g. ''tami menni yuyųlsėça'' "because (s)he wants to eat"). | ||
* ''' | * '''mæn''' [[Chlouvānem#Use of the topic|marks the topic]] which otherwise has no role in the sentence (often used inside larger conversations, e.g. ''lili mæn yulte kåmbe'' (mine/as for me (echoing a previous sentence), [it is] in the bright yellow backpack; OR: as for me, [I keep it] in...)). | ||
* '''nali''', when used with a noun in direct case, marks the benefactive argument in any voice except benefactive-trigger. When used with a verb in subjunctive mood, it means "in order to", with a nuance of hope (when compared to the bare subjunctive, which already has that meaning). | |||
* '''nānim''' translates "almost", with a noun in essive case or a verb in the semantically correct mood. | |||
* '''natte''' translates "until", with a noun in translative case (or dative case for places, meaning "as far as")<ref>Compare ''ājvan natte'' "until dawn" and ''līlasuṃghāṇa kahėrimaila ga keikui natte'' "as far as Līlasuṃghāṇa Kahėrimaila Station".</ref> or a verb in the subjunctive. | |||
* '''ni''' translates "but" as a coordinating conjunction. | |||
* '''no''' translates English "and" when between nouns and when denoting a complete listing; for incomplete listings (e.g. "X and Y and so on") the particle '''çei''' is used. Both follow the noun they refer to, and in listings with more than two nouns they follow every noun except the first. | |||
* '''pa''' translates "on, of, about; concerning, on the subject of", and requires a noun direct case or a verb in subjunctive mood. | |||
* '''sama''' translates "and" as a coordinating conjunction between sentences. If the following word starts with a vowel, it is shortened to '''sam''''. | |||
* '''tora''' translates "also", "too", usually before the verb (e.g. ''tora uyųlaṃçait'' "I've eaten that too"); note that "also" as a conjunction between two sentences is usually translated with ''nanū'' (more). | * '''tora''' translates "also", "too", usually before the verb (e.g. ''tora uyųlaṃçait'' "I've eaten that too"); note that "also" as a conjunction between two sentences is usually translated with ''nanū'' (more). | ||
** '''tora gu''' is a particle-adjective locution translating "not even", and is put before the noun it refers to; | ** '''tora gu''' is a particle-adjective locution translating "not even", and is put before the noun it refers to; | ||
** '''tora no''', after the noun, translates "even" - e.g. ''tami tora no dadrāçait'' "even he has done it it"). | ** '''tora no''', after the noun, translates "even" - e.g. ''tami tora no dadrāçait'' "even he has done it it"). | ||
===Paired particles=== | ===Paired particles=== | ||
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* X '''jusęe''' Y '''mbu''' — translating "either X or Y". ''jusęe'' is a worn-down form of ''jususęe'', adverb form of ''jususas'', present participle of ''gyake'' (to be). e.g. ''jādāh jusęe lañekaica mbu drāliçait'' "either Jādāh or Lañekaica did it". | * X '''jusęe''' Y '''mbu''' — translating "either X or Y". ''jusęe'' is a worn-down form of ''jususęe'', adverb form of ''jususas'', present participle of ''gyake'' (to be). e.g. ''jādāh jusęe lañekaica mbu drāliçait'' "either Jādāh or Lañekaica did it". | ||
* X '''jusęe''' Y '''tora no''' — translating "both X and Y"; e.g. ''jādāh jusęe lañekaica tora no drāliçait'' "both Jādāh and Lañekaica did it". | * X '''jusęe''' Y '''tora no''' — translating "both X and Y"; e.g. ''jādāh jusęe lañekaica tora no drāliçait'' "both Jādāh and Lañekaica did it". | ||
===Emphatic particles=== | |||
A few particles are used (usually sentence-finally) in order to convey particular feelings of the speaker about the statement: | |||
* '''å''' expresses either surprise (at the beginning of a sentence) or that the fact is considered annoying (at the end), e.g. ''å viṣęe dadrāça'' "wow, (s)he's done it again!" / ''viṣęe dadrāça å'' "oh no, (s)he's done it again!" | |||
* '''e''' is a basic declarative particle when used word-finally, and is often used as an introduction (much like "you know, ...") or as a generic filler. | |||
* '''nane''' is a tag question, e.g. ''camiyūs vilьthā nane?'' "you're from Cami, aren't you?" | |||
* '''noihā''' is a tag question much like ''nane'', but is used when the speaker is in doubt and/or expects a contradictory answer, e.g. ''flære dryāvetçathā noihā?'' "did I do it yesterday, or...?" | |||
* '''sāṭ''' expresses the speaker's doubt about the honesty of the expressed action, e.g. ''tę taim draukæ sāṭ'' "(s)he did it for me, but I don't believe that's what (s)he really wanted" or "as if (s)he really did it for me!" | |||
* '''tau''' emphasizes that the fact expressed is considered obvious, and is fairly colloquial, e.g. ''lārvājuṣe mos tau'' "huh, I was at the temple, nothing else"; ''kitui vasau tau'' "I drove home [what else could I do?]" | |||
* '''tva''' puts strong emphasis on a declarative sentence; it is fairly colloquial and not polite, and thus avoided in formal speech, e.g. ''nenėyu daudiuça tati ukulaṃça tva!'' "damn, I said I want that, shut up!" | |||
==Derivational morphology - Kokampeithauseh maivāndarāmita== | ==Derivational morphology - Kokampeithauseh maivāndarāmita== | ||