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====Case==== | ====Case==== | ||
Nouns (and pronouns) are declined by case. Case markers (which can be analyzed as postpositions) go at the end of a nominal phrase. Verbs (including infinitives) are nominalized with the suffix ''-n'' before adding any case suffixes (these nominalized verbs are feminine). | Nouns (and pronouns) are declined by case. Case markers (which can be analyzed as postpositions) go at the end of a nominal phrase. Verbs (including infinitives) are nominalized with the suffix ''-n'' before adding any case suffixes (these nominalized verbs are feminine). | ||
*'''Absolutive''': Citation form, used for the direct object of a verb, the object of most adpositions, and predicative nouns. Personal pronouns have a distinct accusative form that is used for direct objects. | *'''Primary cases:''' | ||
*'''Nominative''': Used for the subject of a verb. Formed as follows: | **'''Absolutive''': Citation form, used for the direct object of a verb, the object of most adpositions, and predicative nouns. Personal pronouns have a distinct accusative form that is used for direct objects. | ||
**Masculine with absolutive ending in consonant, ''-a'', ''-o'', or ''-u'': ''-ú'' - e.g. ''nama'' "person" → ''namú'' | **'''Nominative''': Used for the subject of a verb. Formed as follows: | ||
**Feminine with absolutive ending in ''-o'' or ''-u'': ''-ú'' | ***Masculine with absolutive ending in consonant, ''-a'', ''-o'', or ''-u'': ''-ú'' - e.g. ''nama'' "person" → ''namú'' | ||
**Feminine with absolutive ending in consonant or ''-a'': ''-í'' - e.g. ''nafa'' "soul" → ''nafí'' | ***Feminine with absolutive ending in ''-o'' or ''-u'': ''-ú'' | ||
**Absolutive ending in ''-e'' or ''-i'': ''-í'' - e.g. ''shimmírti'' "bird (sing.)" → ''shimmirtí'' | ***Feminine with absolutive ending in consonant or ''-a'': ''-í'' - e.g. ''nafa'' "soul" → ''nafí'' | ||
**Absolutive ending in a long or high-tone vowel: ''-n'' | ***Absolutive ending in ''-e'' or ''-i'': ''-í'' - e.g. ''shimmírti'' "bird (sing.)" → ''shimmirtí'' | ||
*'''Genitive''': Used for possession ("of") and the object of some adpositions. | ***Absolutive ending in a long or high-tone vowel: ''-n'' | ||
**Absolutive ending in consonant or ''-a'': ''-́i'' - e.g. ''nama'' → ''námi'' | **'''Genitive''': Used for possession ("of") and the object of some adpositions. | ||
**Absolutive ending in other short non-high-tone vowel: penultimate high tone - e.g. ''qino'' → ''qíno'' | ***Absolutive ending in consonant or ''-a'': ''-́i'' - e.g. ''nama'' → ''námi'' | ||
**Absolutive ending long or high-tone vowel: ''-t'' | ***Absolutive ending in other short non-high-tone vowel: penultimate high tone - e.g. ''qino'' → ''qíno'' | ||
*'''Dative''': Used for recipient, benefactor, purpose, obligation ("to" or "for"). | ***Absolutive ending long or high-tone vowel: ''-t'' | ||
**Absolutive ending in consonant or ''-a'': ''-oó'' - e.g. ''nama'' → ''namoó'' | *'''Secondary cases:''' | ||
**Absolutive ending in other short non-high-tone vowel: lengthen final vowel + final high tone - e.g. ''shimmírti'' → ''shimmirtií'' | **'''Dative''': Used for recipient, benefactor, purpose, obligation ("to" or "for"). | ||
**Absolutive ending in long or high-tone vowel: ''-s'' | ***Absolutive ending in consonant or ''-a'': ''-oó'' - e.g. ''nama'' → ''namoó'' | ||
**Independent form: ''oó'' | ***Absolutive ending in other short non-high-tone vowel: lengthen final vowel + final high tone - e.g. ''shimmírti'' → ''shimmirtií'' | ||
*'''Ablative''': Used for source ("from"), comparison ("than"). | ***Absolutive ending in long or high-tone vowel: ''-s'' | ||
**Absolutive ending in consonant: ''-áh'' | ***Independent form: ''oó'' | ||
**Absolutive ending in vowel: ''-́h'' | **'''Ablative''': Used for source ("from"), comparison ("than"). | ||
**Independent form: ''áh'' | ***Absolutive ending in consonant: ''-áh'' | ||
*'''Instrumental''': Used for instrument, means, agent, cause, time. | ***Absolutive ending in vowel: ''-́h'' | ||
**Absolutive ending in consonant: ''-ás'' | ***Independent form: ''áh'' | ||
**Absolutive ending in vowel: ''-́s'' | **'''Instrumental''': Used for instrument, means, agent, cause, time. | ||
**Independent form: ''ás'' | ***Absolutive ending in consonant: ''-ás'' | ||
*'''Comitative''': Used for accompaniment ("in company with"). | ***Absolutive ending in vowel: ''-́s'' | ||
**Absolutive ending in consonant: ''-ál'' | ***Independent form: ''ás'' | ||
**Absolutive ending in vowel: ''-́l'' | **'''Comitative''': Used for accompaniment ("in company with"). | ||
**Independent form: ''ál'' | ***Absolutive ending in consonant: ''-ál'' | ||
*'''Locative''': Used for location. For more specific location, postpositions are used. | ***Absolutive ending in vowel: ''-́l'' | ||
**Absolutive ending in consonant: ''-ád'' | ***Independent form: ''ál'' | ||
**Absolutive ending in vowel: ''-́d'' | **'''Locative''': Used for location. For more specific location, postpositions are used. | ||
**Independent form: ''ád'' | ***Absolutive ending in consonant: ''-ád'' | ||
***Absolutive ending in vowel: ''-́d'' | |||
***Independent form: ''ád'' | |||
*'''Pseudo-cases:''' | |||
**'''Predicative''': Used for predicative nouns. This is not a true case but rather the absolutive fused to the copula. This fusing is optional. | |||
***Absolutive ending in consonant: ''-e'' (declines as adjective), ''-dha'' (invariant; present only) | |||
***Absolutive ending in short, non-high-tone vowel: ''-e'' (declines as adjective), ''-rha'' (invariant; present only) - e.g. ''nama'' → ''name, namarha'' | |||
***Absolutive ending in long or high-tone vowel: ''-rhe'' (declines as adjective), ''-rha'' (invariant; present only) | |||
***Independent forms of the copula: invariant ''dha'' (present only), ''e'' (adjective declension), ''dhe'' (= ''dha + e''; adjective declension) | |||
====Number==== | ====Number==== | ||