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Hadda: Difference between revisions
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Each tense has an infinitive formed with the bare stem of that tense that declines as a noun - e.g. ''gaɓɓam'' "in order to habitually throw". The corresponding participles/adjectives are formed with the genitive - e.g. ''gaaⱳiya'' "throwing" ("of throwing"), ''lamooriya'' "about to be lead", and ''ħaɗɗiya'' "Hadda (''adj.'')" ("of being Hadda"). | Each tense has an infinitive formed with the bare stem of that tense that declines as a noun - e.g. ''gaɓɓam'' "in order to habitually throw". The corresponding participles/adjectives are formed with the genitive - e.g. ''gaaⱳiya'' "throwing" ("of throwing"), ''lamooriya'' "about to be lead", and ''ħaɗɗiya'' "Hadda (''adj.'')" ("of being Hadda"). | ||
The infinitive can also be used with person prefixes - e.g. ''migaaⱳa'' "my throwing". | |||
====Mood==== | ====Mood==== | ||
Affects | Affects ending. | ||
*Indicative: ''- | *Indicative: ''-an'' | ||
**Used in declarative sentences for a statement of fact - '' | **Used in declarative sentences for a statement of fact - ''ħaɗɗan'' "is Hadda" | ||
*Potential: ''- | *Potential: ''-en'' (palatalizes final velar) | ||
**Used for an event considered likely - e.g. '' | **Used for an event considered likely - e.g. ''ħaɗɗen'' "probably is Hadda" | ||
*Dubitative: ''- | *Dubitative: ''-on'' | ||
**Used for an event considered possible but unlikely - e.g. '' | **Used for an event considered possible but unlikely - e.g. ''ħaɗɗon'' "maybe is Hadda" | ||
*Conditional: ''- | *Conditional: ''-un'' | ||
**Used for an event whose occurrence is dependent on another condition - e.g. '' | **Used for an event whose occurrence is dependent on another condition - e.g. ''ħaɗɗun'' "would be Hadda" | ||
*Imperative: ''- | *Imperative: ''-in'' (palatalizes final velar) | ||
**Used for command, imploring, self-encouragement, etc - e.g. '' | **Used for command, imploring, self-encouragement, etc - e.g. ''ħaɗɗin'' "be Hadda!" | ||
====Tense + Aspect==== | ====Tense + Aspect==== | ||
Affects stem. | Affects stem. | ||
*Simple future: Used for an event in the future. | *Simple future: Used for an event in the future. | ||
**Initial velar: labialized - e.g. '' | **Initial velar: labialized - e.g. ''gwaaⱳan'' "will throw" | ||
**Other: stem vowel becomes ''o'' - e.g. '' | **Other: stem vowel becomes ''o'' - e.g. ''mooran'' "will lead", ''ħoɗɗan'' "will be/become hadda" | ||
*Present progressive: Used for an event currently occurring. | *Present progressive: Used for an event currently occurring. | ||
** | **Stem is identical to the present infinitive - e.g. ''gaaⱳan'' "is throwing, has been throwing", ''maaran'' "is leading, has been leading", ''ħaɗɗan'' "is hadda" | ||
*Present habitual: Used for an event that regularly occurs (habitual) or general truths (gnomic). | *Present habitual: Used for an event that regularly occurs (habitual) or general truths (gnomic). | ||
**'' | **''CaaC-'' verbs become ''CaCC-'' - e.g. ''gaɓɓan'' "throws", ''mallan'' "leads" | ||
**'' | **''CaCC-'' verbs become ''CaCaCC-'' - e.g. ''ħaɍaɗɗan'' "regularly becomes hadda" | ||
*Simple past: Used for a simple event in the past. | *Simple past: Used for a simple event in the past. | ||
**Initial velar: labialized + stem vowel becomes ''i'' - e.g. '' | **Initial velar: labialized + stem vowel becomes ''i'' - e.g. ''gwiiⱳan'' "threw" | ||
**Other: stem vowel becomes ''u'' - e.g. '' | **Other: stem vowel becomes ''u'' - e.g. ''muuran'' "lead (past)", ''ħuɗɗan'' "became hadda" | ||
*Past progressive: Used for an event that was occurring in the past. | *Past progressive: Used for an event that was occurring in the past. | ||
**Stem vowel becomes ''i'' (palatalizing initial velars) - e.g. '' | **Stem vowel becomes ''i'' (palatalizing initial velars) - e.g. ''jiiⱳan'' "was throwing", ''miiran'' "was leading", ''ħiɗɗan'' "was hadda" | ||
*Past habitual: Used for an event that regularly occurred in the past. | *Past habitual: Used for an event that regularly occurred in the past. | ||
**Like present habitual, but with stem vowel changing to ''i'' - e.g. '' | **Like present habitual, but with stem vowel changing to ''i'' - e.g. ''jiɓɓan'' "used to throw", ''millan'' "used to lead", ''ħiɍiɗɗan'' "used to become hadda" | ||
*A future habitual can be formed by reduplicating the final consonant of the simple future - e.g. '' | *A future habitual can be formed by reduplicating the final consonant of the simple future - e.g. ''gwaɓɓan'' "will throw regularly", ''mollan'' "will lead regularly", ''ħoɍoɗɗan'' "will regularly become hadda". Normally, this would be formed with a ''gaaran'' construction - e.g. ''gaɓɓa gwaaran'' "will throw regularly" (literally: will say throwing regularly) | ||
*The auxiliary verb '' | *The auxiliary verb ''gaaran'' "to say" is ubiquitous in Hadda verbal morphology. Its functions include: | ||
**Forming compound tenses, which can either form new tenses or disambiguate existing forms - e.g. ''gaaⱳa | **Forming compound tenses, which can either form new tenses or disambiguate existing forms - e.g. ''gaaⱳa gwaaran'' "will be throwing", ''gaaⱳa jiiran'' "was throwing" (equivalent to ''jiiⱳan''; might be used if another verb has the same past form), ''gwaaⱳa jiiran'' "was going to throw" | ||
**Deriving verbs from nouns, interjections, loanwords, etc - e.g. ''ħiʔ | **Deriving verbs from nouns, interjections, loanwords, etc - e.g. ''ħiʔ gaaran'' "to hiccup" (literally: to say ''ħiʔ''), ''telefoona gaaran'' "to telephone" (literally: to say telephone). | ||
<!-- Originally, there were two tenses (past and non-past), each with three aspects (perfective, progressive/stative, and habitual/gnomic). The future tense comes from the present perfective. --> | <!-- Originally, there were two tenses (past and non-past), each with three aspects (perfective, progressive/stative, and habitual/gnomic). The future tense comes from the present perfective. --> | ||
====Person + Number==== | ====Person + Number==== | ||
Indicated by prefixes attached to the verb stem. The initial consonant of the verb is not lenited, despite occurring between vowels. The prefix may be dropped if the subject is clear from context. | Indicated by prefixes attached to the verb stem. The initial consonant of the verb is not lenited, despite occurring between vowels. The prefix may be dropped if the subject is clear from context. | ||
*1S: ''na-'' e.g. '' | *1S: ''na-'' e.g. ''namiiran'' "I was leading" | ||
*1P: ''nawa-'' e.g. '' | *1P: ''nawa-'' e.g. ''nawagaaⱳan'' "we are throwing" | ||
*2S: ''ta-'' e.g. '' | *2S: ''ta-'' e.g. ''taħaɗɗin'' "be Hadda!" | ||
*2P: ''tawa-'' e.g. '' | *2P: ''tawa-'' e.g. ''tawajiiron'' "you (''pl.'') might have said" | ||
*3S: ''fa-'' e.g. '' | *3S: ''fa-'' e.g. ''famallan'' "he/she leads" | ||
*3P: ''fawa-'' e.g. '' | *3P: ''fawa-'' e.g. ''famooran'' "they will lead" | ||
====Voice==== | ====Voice==== | ||
Indicated by prefixes attached to the verb stem (after person prefixes). Unlike person prefixes, these do cause the initial consonant to lenite and lenite themselves when occurring after person or other voice prefixes. When multiple voice prefixes co-occur, the order is ''passive/reflexive/middle-inchoative/cessive-causative-intensive''. | Indicated by prefixes attached to the verb stem (after person prefixes). Unlike person prefixes, these do cause the initial consonant to lenite and lenite themselves when occurring after person or other voice prefixes. When multiple voice prefixes co-occur, the order is ''passive/reflexive/middle-inchoative/cessive-causative-intensive''. | ||
*Passive: ''-la-'' e.g. '' | *Passive: ''-la-'' e.g. ''laǥaɓɓan'' "is thrown" | ||
**Indicates that the action is performed on the subject. The patient takes the nominative and the agent takes the instrumental. | **Indicates that the action is performed on the subject. The patient takes the nominative and the agent takes the instrumental. | ||
*Reflexive: ''-sa-'' e.g. '' | *Reflexive: ''-sa-'' e.g. ''saǥaɓɓan'' "throws oneself" | ||
**Indicates that the subject performs an action on themselves. | **Indicates that the subject performs an action on themselves. | ||
*Middle: ''-ma-'' e.g. '' | *Middle: ''-ma-'' e.g. ''maǥaɓɓan'' "gets thrown" | ||
**Indicates that an action affects the subject, without indicating the cause of the change. | **Indicates that an action affects the subject, without indicating the cause of the change. | ||
*Intensive: Formed by reduplicating ''-Ca-'' or ''-CaCa-'' - e.g. '' | *Intensive: Formed by reduplicating ''-Ca-'' or ''-CaCa-'' - e.g. ''gaǥaaⱳan'', ''gaⱳaǥaaⱳan'' "is throwing repeatedly/intensely" | ||
*Causative: ''ŋa-'' e.g. '' | *Causative: ''ŋa-'' e.g. ''ŋaǥaaⱳan'' "is causing to throw" | ||
*Inchoative: ''ca-'' e.g. '' | *Inchoative: ''ca-'' e.g. ''caǥaaⱳan'' "is starting to throw" | ||
*Cessive: ''kwa-'' e.g. '' | *Cessive: ''kwa-'' e.g. ''kwaǥaaⱳan'' "is stopping throwing" | ||
====Negation==== | ====Negation==== | ||
Negation is accomplished | Negation is accomplished by dropping the final ''-n'' and adding the circumfix ''ka-ŋ'' - e.g. ''namiiran'' "I was leading" → ''kanamiiraŋ'' "I was not leading" | ||
==Syntax== | ==Syntax== | ||