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Rówok (view source)

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[[File:Вечер на Помяненном камне.jpg|thumb|right|Sunset over desolate winters of the Urals.]]
{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|name = Rówok
|name = Rówok
|nativename = Rówok
|nativename = Rówok
|pronunciation = [ro:wok]
|pronunciation = ro:wok
|creator = [[User:Ioscius|Ioscius]]
|creator = [[User:Ioscius|Ioscius]]
|created = 1200
|created = 2017
|setting = Vaguely undefined pre-industrial period, thought to be around 1200 CE.
|setting = Vaguely undefined pre-industrial period, thought to be around 1250 CE.
|region = The western hills of the Ural mountain range
|region = The western hills of the Ural mountain range
|states =  
|states =  
|nation =  
|nation =  
|speakers = ~10,000
|speakers = ~10,000
|date =
|date = ~1250
|familycolor = #F2DC77
|familycolor = #F2DC77
|fam1 = Proto-Ruk
|fam1 = Proto-Ruk
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'''Rówok''' is an artlang created by [[User:Ioscius|Ioscius]].
'''Rówok''' is an [[Artistic language|artlang]] created by [[User:Ioscius|Ioscius]].


It is the only known daughter language of the as yet presumed language isolate [[Ruk]].   
It is the only known daughter language of the as yet presumed language isolate [[Ruk]].   
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==Introduction==
==Introduction==
===Setting===
===Setting===
[[File:Dogsled.jpg|thumb|right|A typical day for a Rówok speaker.]]
[[File:Dogsled, Four Mile Road.jpg|thumb|right|237px|A typical day for a Rówok speaker.]]


Spoken by a rather reclusive community that lived high in the preindustrial Ural range, Ruk was an extremely isolating language, with largely monosyllabic words and next to no inflection of any sort. Rówok on the other hand is morphologically complex. This is the result of the Ruk speakers, after centuries of living mostly on their own, having underwent a period of dispersion and travel through lands inhabited by Finnic and Slavic speakers. This resulted in both a cultural explosion and a rapid evolution of the language, as affected by analogy with speakers picking up the languages of the peoples they mingled with.
Spoken by a rather reclusive community that lived high in the preindustrial Ural range, Ruk was an extremely isolating language, with largely monosyllabic words and next to no inflection of any sort. Rówok on the other hand is morphologically complex. This is the result of the Ruk speakers, after centuries of living mostly on their own, having underwent a period of dispersion and travel through lands inhabited by Finnic and Slavic speakers. This resulted in both a cultural explosion and a rapid evolution of the language, as affected by analogy with speakers picking up the languages of the peoples they mingled with.
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The main motive behind creating Rówok was to explore [[#Agency|patient and agent]] relationships, and to employ and self-indulgently tweak and torture a complex and fully productive [[#Middle voice|middle voice]] system.
The main motive behind creating Rówok was to explore [[#Agency|patient and agent]] relationships, and to employ and self-indulgently tweak and torture a complex and fully productive [[#Middle voice|middle voice]] system.


Other motivating (syntactical) considerations were:
Other motivating considerations were:
* trying a set of uniform [[#Ratio casuum|case endings]] (barring vowel harmony and allophony) instead of the typical IE several declension patterns, so that all the case endings are recognizable throughout all grammatical [[#Number|numbers]]
* trying a set of uniform [[#Ratio casuum|case endings]] (barring vowel harmony and allophony) instead of the typical IE several declension patterns, so that all the case endings are recognizable throughout all grammatical [[#Number|numbers]]
* a vague attempt at trying [[#Vowel harmony|vowel harmony]] in a conlang
* a vague attempt at trying [[#Vowel harmony|vowel harmony]] in a conlang
* blurring the lines between [[#Adjectives|adjective]]/[[#Nouns|substantive]]/[[#Verbs|verb]], so the same [[#Roots and principle parts|root]] can easily be used in any of those categories, and implicitly an extensive [[#Participles|participial]] system
* blurring the lines between [[#Adjectives|adjective]]/[[#Nouns|substantive]]/[[#Verbs|verb]], so the same [[#Roots and principle parts|root]] can easily be used in any of those categories
**as an extension of the previous point an implicitly extensive [[#Participles|participial]] system
*using primarily consonantal [[#Roots and principal parts|roots]] (started out trying for triliterals, but quickly adapted to allow quadriliteral)
*having primarily imperfect/perfect [[#Aspect|aspect]] instead of [[#Tense|tense]], as reflected in the vowel structure of the aforementioned roots
* having a strict and productive [[#Dual|dual]] in all applicable grammatical categories
* having a strict and productive [[#Dual|dual]] in all applicable grammatical categories


===Inspiration===
===Inspiration===
Rówok’s creator placed the speech community where he did, wanting to steal liberally from both Finnic and Slavic semantics and grammar without having to justify himself to anyone.
[[File:Urals regions map.svg|thumb|right|239px|The rough territory in which Rówok speakers are mobile.]]
You could say the natlangs that had the greatest impact on the author’s aesthetics and inspirations were Latin, Ancient Greek, Pan-Slavic, Finnic and Sami, just a tiny bit of Basque, and enormous inspiration from the author’s absolute favorite, simply darling language that he’s never learned: Guarani.
 
 
Rówok’s creator placed the speech community where he did, wanting to steal liberally from both Uralic and Slavic semantics and grammar without having to justify himself to anyone. The community is surrounded by speakers (in order of clockwise north to west) of medieval forms of Nenets, Komi, Udmurt, Mari, Russian, Estonian, and Finnish.
 
You could say the natlangs that had the greatest impact on the author’s aesthetics and inspirations were Latin, Ancient Greek, Pan-Slavic, Finnish and Sami, just a tiny bit of Basque, and enormous inspiration from the author’s absolute favorite, simply darling language that he’s never learned, Guarani.


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
Rówok's phonology is fairly conservative, a result primarily of the author's desire to be able to actually speak it.
Rówok's phonology is fairly conservative, a result primarily of the author's desire to be able to actually speak it.


All of the sounds are found in English, save for /r̝/.
All of the sounds are found in English, save for /ɮ/ and /r̝/.


Notable absences from the phonology are /f/ and /h/, especially given that /p/, /b/, /v/, and /g/ and /k/ all exist.
Notable absences from the phonology are /f/ and /h/, especially given that /p/, /b/, /v/, and /g/ and /k/ all exist.


===Orthography===
===Orthography===
Rówok is written using largely the Latin alphabet as extended for South Slavic, with the addition of <ŧ> for the voiceless interdental fricative /θ/, and <đ> is used for the voiced interdental fricative /ð/, instead of for /dʑ/ in South Slavic.  
Rówok is written using largely the Latin alphabet as extended for South Slavic. There is also <ř> to indicate the same sound as in its inspiration in [[:w:Czech language|Czech]], namely /r̝/.
 
Four letters are used perhaps unconventionally, namely <ŧ> for the voiceless interdental fricative /θ/, and <đ> for the voiced interdental fricative /ð/, instead of for /dʒ/ as is usual in South Slavic. The sound /dʒ/ is represented rather by <ǧ>. Lastly, <ƚ> (honestly depending on the keyboard <ł> is sometimes used for the same phoneme) is used to represent /ɮ/.


There is also <ř> to indicate the same sound as in its inspiration in [[:w:Czech language|Czech]], namely /r̝/.


That gives us in Latin order:
That gives us in Latin order:


'''a b č d đ e g i k l m n o p r ř s š t ŧ u v w y z ž'''
'''a b č d đ e g ǧ i k l ƚ m n o p r ř s š t ŧ u v w y z ž'''


See the alphabet grouped by feature in the tables below.
See the alphabet grouped by feature in the tables below.
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! rowspan="2" style="width: 90px; "|
! rowspan="2" style="width: 90px; "|
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|labial}}
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|labial}}
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|interdental}}
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|labiovelar}}
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|dental}}
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|alveolar}}
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|alveolar}}
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|postalveolar}}
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|postalveolar}}
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|-
|-
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|unvoiced}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|voiced}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|unvoiced}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|unvoiced}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|voiced}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|voiced}}
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! style="" |{{sc|stops}}
! style="" |{{sc|stops}}
| '''p''' /p/
| '''p''' /p/
| '''b''' /b/
| '''b''' /b/  
|  
|
|  
|  
| '''t''' /t/
| '''t''' /t/
| '''d''' /d/
| '''d''' /d/
|
|
|
|
|
|
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|
|
| '''n''' /n/
| '''n''' /n/
|
|
|
|
|
|
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|-
|-
! style="" |{{sc|affricates}}
! style="" |{{sc|affricates}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|
| '''ǧ''' /dʒ/
|-
|-
! style="" |{{sc|fricatives}}
! style="" |{{sc|fricatives}}
|
|
| '''v''' /v/
| '''v''' /v/
|
| '''ƚ''' /ɮ/
| '''ŧ''' /θ/
| '''ŧ''' /θ/
| '''đ''' /ð/
| '''đ''' /ð/
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|
|
|-
|-
! style="" |{{sc|liquids}}
! style="" |{{sc|approximants}}
|
|
|
|
| '''w''' /w/
| '''w''' /w/
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|
|
| '''l''' /l/
| '''l''' /l/
| '''r''' /r/
|
|
|
| '''y''' /j/
| '''y''' /j/
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|
|
|
|
|
|
| '''r''' /r/
|
|
| '''ř''' /r̝/
| '''ř''' /r̝/
|
|
|
|
|
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|}
|}


===Word structure===
====Diphthongs====
[[#Roots and principal parts|Roots]] in Rówok are overwhelmingly triglyphs, with /a/ being the only vowel that can occur either initially in a root, or medially.
All roots have an underlying "theme vowel" for lack of a better term in the author's attempt at [[#Vowel harmony|vowel harmony]], either /a/ or /o/, which shift to /e/ and /u/ in perfect verbal stems and many nouns derived from verbal stems. Additionally words with /w/ in any position have some stems where /w/ is reduced to [u]. The rules are simple for the majority of stems, and are as follows:


:If /a/ appears in the root (by law only initially or medially), the theme vowel is automatically /a/. If the root is tri-consonantal and does not contain /w/, the theme vowel is also /a/. As a note, roots with medial /a/ are almost exclusively (specific) plants, and thus lack verbal roots, and thus have only two principal parts: nom/erg/voc, and oblique.


:If /w/ appears medially or finally in a root, the theme vowel is /o/.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
 
! rowspan="2" style="width: 90px; "|
Exceptions:
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|front}}
*There are some rare, quad-consonantal roots. These are always of the the form C*XCC, where C* can only be /b/, /p/, /d/, /t/, /g/, /k/, /z/ and /s/, and X can be /w/, /l/, or /r/; ones with /w/ have /o/ as the theme vowel, and those with /l/ or /r/ have /a/.
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|central}}
*Roots with initial /w/ are very old stems and anything goes as far as theme vowels; this is the only word type whose vowel structure isn’t deducible from the form of the root and just need to be learned.
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|back}}
|-
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|+y, /j/}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|+w, /w/}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|+y, /j/}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|+w, /w/}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|+y, /j/}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|+w, /w/}}
|-
! style="" |{{sc|close}}
| '''iy''' /ɪi̯/
| '''iw''' /ɪʊ̯/
|
|
| '''uy''' /uɪ̯/
| XX XX
|-
! style="" |{{sc|mid}}
| '''ey''' /eɪ̯/
| '''ew''' /eʊ̯/
|
|
| '''oy''' /oɪ̯/
| '''ow''' /oʊ̯/
|-
! style="" |{{sc|open}}
|
|
| '''ay''' /aɪ̯/
| '''aw''' /aʊ̯/
|
|
|}


====Phonotactics====
===Word structure===
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->
[[#Roots and principal parts|Roots]] in Rówok are predominantly triliteral and quadriliteral, with /a/ being the only vowel that can occur either initially in a root, or medially.


====Vowel harmony====
All roots have an underlying "theme vowel" for lack of a better term in the author's attempt at [[#Vowel harmony|vowel harmony]], either /a/ or /o/, which shift to /e/ and /u/ in perfect verbal stems and many nouns derived from verbal stems.  
:For more info cf. [[#Aspect|aspect]].


Nominals and verbals in Rówok show very simple vowel harmony with predictable ablaut. Simply said all nominals and verbals have exclusively one possible vowel (plus /i/, as explained below).
Roots with /w/ in any non-initial position have some stems where /w/ is reduced to [u]. Roots with /y/ in any non-final position also have some stems with a reflex of [i]. Nota bene: roots with initial /w/ are anything goes as far as theme vowels; this is the only word type whose vowel structure isn’t deducible from the form of the root and just need to be learned.


The principle rules for determining the vowel structure of a given root are as follows:
The rules are simple for the majority of other stems, and are as follows:
*If /a/ appears in the root (by law only initially or medially), the theme vowel is automatically /a/. If the root is tri- or quad-consonantal and does not contain /w/, the theme vowel is also /a/.
*If /w/ appears medially or finally in a root, the theme vowel is /o/.


As explained in the section on [[#Aspect|aspect]], words that have primary vowel structure based on /a/ show ablaut phenomena to /e/, while words based on /o/ ablaut to /u/.
====Triliteral roots====
#If /a/ appears in the root (by law only initially or medially), the theme vowel is automatically /a/.
#If the root is tri-consonantal and does not contain /w/, the theme vowel is also /a/.
##As a note, roots with medial /a/ are almost exclusively (specific) plants, and thus lack verbal roots, and thus have only two principal parts: nom/erg/voc, and oblique.
#If /w/ appears medially or finally in a root, the theme vowel is /o/.


Examples
#'''ayt-''', "(to) run"; '''ayt-, yát, yáta, ayáta, ayat-, yatá'''
:Participles
#'''tnk''', "(to) fly"; '''tank-, tank, tánka, tának, tanak-, tanká'''
*'''rokónok''' ("to speak", nominative, singular, passive, ''imperfect'' [[#Participles|particple]]) => '''rukúnuk''' (nom, sing, pass, ''perfect'' participle)
#'''rwk''', "tongue, to speak"; '''rowk-, rók, rúk, rówok, orwok-, rukú'''
*'''yáŧkay''' (nom, sing, middle, ''future'' participle) => '''yéŧkey''' (nom, sing, middle, ''future perfect'' participle)


===Prosody===
====Quadriliteral roots====
Prosody is not unlike something you'd hear in the South Slavic languages. It is not particularly singsongy, and a lot of consonant clusters perhaps give Rówok a a bit of a rough sound. Nonetheless, there is a lot of epenthesis, augment, and other interesting vocalic patterns that nonetheless give the language an aesthetic flow and lends itself to mellifluous constructions, even if they might not be a characteristic of common speech.
Quadriliteral roots are always consonantal and take 4 forms. In the examples below the parentheses indicate that the group remains a cluster in extended stems:
 
#'''(C*X)CC''', where C* can only be /b/, /p/, /d/, /t/, /g/, /k/, /z/ and /s/, and X can be /r/, /l/, or /w/
#'''C(XC)C''', where X can be /r/, /l/, /m/, /n/, /g/, /k/, /y/, or /w/
#'''C(CX)C''', where X can be /r/, /l/, /y/, or /w/
#'''CC(XC*)''', where C* can only be /b/, /p/, /d/, /t/, /g/, /k/, /z/ and /s/, and X can be /r/, /l/, /m/, /n/, /y/, or /w/
 
#'''pwzn-''', "non-potable water, to make sick", '''''pw''ozn-, ''pw''ózno, ''pú''zun, ''pw''ózon-, ''pw''ozn-, ''pu''znú'''
#'''wktr-''', "brawny, strong, strength, to fortify", '''wo''kt''r-, wó''kt''ro, wú''kt''ur, wó''kt''or, ow''kt''r-, wu''kt''rú'''
# '''ndry-''', "fox, to be clever/outfox", '''na''dr''y-, ná''dr''ay, an''dr''áya, na''dr''áya, an''dr''y-, na''dr''yá'''
#
 
Type 1 and 3, like in triliteral roots, easily reveal their theme vowel, while types 2 and 4 have some o-themed stems that do not have /w/ in them, mostly in roots where X is /n/ or /m/.
 
====Phonotactics====
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->
 
====Vowel harmony====
:For more info cf. [[#Aspect|aspect]].
 
Nominals and verbals in Rówok show very simple vowel harmony with predictable ablaut. As explained above, in short all nominals and verbals have exclusively one possible vowel of [a], [e], [o], or [u], plus perhaps [i].
 
As explained in the section on [[#Aspect|aspect]], words that have primary vowel structure based on /a/ show ablaut phenomena to /e/, while words based on /o/ ablaut to /u/.
 
Examples
:Participles
*'''rokónok''' ("to speak", nominative, singular, passive, ''imperfect'' [[#Participles|participle]]) => '''rukúnuk''' (nom, sing, pass, ''perfect'' participle)
*'''yáŧkay''' ("to run", nom, sing, middle, ''future'' participle) => '''yéŧkey''' (nom, sing, middle, ''future perfect'' participle)
 
====Consonant harmony====
There is also significant consonant harmony in Rówok, in which consonants on the borders of roots and morphemes for [[Derivational morphology|derivational morphology]] often affect one another in terms of voicing or (af)fricativization. See the section on [[#Morphophonology|morphophonology]] below.
 
===Prosody===
Prosody is not unlike something you'd hear in the South Slavic languages. It is not particularly singsongy, and a lot of consonant clusters perhaps give Rówok a a bit of a rough sound. Nonetheless, there is a lot of epenthesis, augment, and other interesting vocalic patterns that nonetheless give the language an aesthetic flow and lends itself to mellifluous constructions, even if they might not be a characteristic of common speech.


====Stress====
====Stress====
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==Roots and principal parts==
==Roots and principal parts==


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
Dictionary entries are listed with principal parts in the following order:
!colspan="9"|{{sc|o-stems}}
 
|-
*'''lemma''' - definition; '''finite verbal stem'''-, '''participial stem''' (de facto the nom/erg singular imperfect active participle), '''vocative stem'''+, '''ergative form''', '''oblique stem'''-, '''adverbial form'''
!colspan=1|
:+The similative and partitive cases are also based on the vocative stem, as well as adjectives.
!{{sc|root}}||{{sc|meaning}}||[[#Finite verbal stem|{{sc|verb}}]]||[[#Participial stem|{{sc|participial}}]]||[[#Vocative stem|{{sc|vocative}}]]||[[#Ergative form|{{sc|ergative}}]]||[[#Oblique stem|{{sc|oblique}}]]||[[#Adverbial form|{{sc|adverb}}]]
 
|-
As explained above in the [[#Phonology|phonology section]], verbal stems tend to group in (C)VCC and participial stems in (C)V(C)C; ergative stems tend to be CVCVC, and oblique nominal stems CCVC if allowed by [[#Phonotactics|phonotactics]]. Unstressed epenthetics are inserted where needed, giving possible ^VCC(C/V) instead of expected CC(C/V), or CVCVC instead of expected CCVC.
!colspan=1 rowspan=4|{{sc|medial -w-}}
 
| '''{{sc|pwt}}''' || "clear(ing)"  || '''powt-''' || '''pot''' || '''put''' || '''pówot''' || '''pwot-''' || '''putú'''
===Stems===
|-
Here is a presentation of the form and use of the 6 stems in Rówok, using the following two roots as illustration, ''drb-'', "fall", and ''rwk-'', "speech":
| '''{{sc|mwk}}''' || "dog"         || '''mowk-''' || '''mok''' || '''muk''' || '''mówok''' || '''mwok-''' || '''mukú'''
 
|-
:''darb-, dŕb, dŕba, dárab, drab-, darbá''
| '''{{sc|rwk}}''' || "tongue"      || '''rowk-''' || '''rok''' || '''ruk''' || '''rówok''' || '''orwok-''' || '''rukú'''
:''rowk-, rók, rúk, rówok, orwok-, rukú''
|-
 
|
====Finite verbal stem====
|-
:'''''darb-''', dŕb, dŕba, dárab, drab-, darbá''
!colspan=1 rowspan=4|{{sc|final -w}}
:'''''rowk-''', rók, rúk, rówok, orwok-, rukú''
| '''{{sc|}}''' || "tool"            || '''godw-''' || '''gdo''' || '''gódu/godw-'''  || '''gódow''' || '''gdow-''' || '''godú'''
 
|-
The finite verbal stem is characterized by consonant clusters grouped on the right side of the root's vowel structure.
| '''{{sc|}}''' || ""  || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || ''''''
 
|-
It is used, well, to form finite [[#Verbs|verbs]].
| '''{{sc|}}''' || ""  || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || ''''''
 
|-
====Participial stem====
|
:''darb-, '''dŕb''', dŕba, dárab, drab-, darbá''
:''rowk-, '''rók''', rúk, rówok, orwok-, rukú''
 
The participial stem is the de facto [[#Ergative|ergative]] [[#Number|singular]] [[#Aspect|imperfect]] [[#Voice|active]] form of the [[#Participles|participle]].
 
====Vocative stem====
:''darb-, dŕb, '''dŕba''', dárab, drab-, darbá''
:''rowk-, rók, '''rúk''', rówok, orwok-, rukú''
 
The vocative stem is perhaps a misnomer, as it is used to form not only the [[#Vocative|vocative]] case, but also the [[#Partitive|partitive]] and [[#Similative|similative]] cases, as well as to form many [[#Compound words|compounds]].
 
====Ergative form====
:''darb-, dŕb, dŕba, '''dárab''', drab-, darbá''
:''rowk-, rók, rúk, '''rówok''', orwok-, rukú''
 
The ergative form is characterized by a fully extended CVCVC or VCVC(V) structure.
 
It is used  to form the [[#Ergative|ergative]] case.
 
====Oblique stem====
:''darb-, dŕb, dŕba, dárab, '''drab-''', darbá''
:''rowk-, rók, rúk, rówok, '''orwok-''', rukú''
 
The oblique stem is usually monosyllabic, characterized by the grouping of consonant clusters to the left of the word's vowel structure. When [[#Phonotactics|phonotactics]] do not allow for an initial consonant cluster, vowels are added epenthetically either before the initial vowel in the case of liquids and nasals, or between the first two consonants in the case of all other sounds.
 
The oblique stem is used for the following:
*as the stem of which all the oblique [[#Ratio casuum|cases]] are formed, except the [[#Partitive|partitive]] and [[#Similative|similative]]
 
====Adverbial form====
:''darb-, dŕb, dŕba, dárab, drab-, '''darbá'''''
:''rowk-, rók, rúk, rówok, orwok-, '''rukú'''''
 
The adverbial form has no inflection. It us used in several different ways:
 
*as a simple adverb
*following an animate noun in the [[#Ergative|ergative]] or inanimate noun in the [[#Vocative|vocative]] it functions as an [[#Adjectives|adjective]]
*following a noun in the [[#Instrumental/(a)comitative|instrumental]] it functions like a Latin [[:w:Ablative absolute|ablative absolute]]
*governing a noun in the [[#Partitive|partitive]] to indicate something like a unit of measurement
 
For more cf. [[#Copula|copula]].
 
===Examples===
 
====A-stems====
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
!colspan="9"|{{sc|a-stems}}
|-
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=3|{{sc|initial liquid}}  
!colspan=1|
| '''{{sc|lsw}}''' || "rain"  || '''lósw-''' || '''ólso''' || '''lósu/losw-''' || '''lósow''' || '''olswó''' || '''losú'''
!{{sc|root}}||{{sc|meaning}}||[[#Finite verbal stem|{{sc|verb}}]]||[[#Participial stem|{{sc|participial}}]]||[[#Vocative stem|{{sc|vocative}}]]||[[#Ergative form|{{sc|ergative}}]]||[[#Oblique stem|{{sc|oblique}}]]||[[#Adverbial form|{{sc|adverb}}]]
|-
|-
| '''{{sc|}}''' || ""  || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || ''''''
!colspan=1 rowspan=4|{{sc|initial a-}}
| '''{{sc|azl}}''' || "life"  || '''azl-''' || '''zal''' || '''zála''' || '''azála''' || '''azala-''' || '''zalá'''
|-
| '''{{sc|ayt}}''' || "run"  || '''ayt-''' || '''yat''' || '''yáta''' || '''ayáta''' || '''ayata-''' || '''yatá'''
|-
| '''{{sc|akb}}''' || "count" || '''akb-''' || '''kab''' || '''kába''' || '''akába''' || '''akaba-''' || '''kabá'''
|-
|-
|
|
|-
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=3|{{sc|medial liquid}}  
!colspan=1 rowspan=4|{{sc|triconsonant}}  
| '''{{sc|}}''' || "" || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || ''''''
| '''{{sc|bgs}}''' || "negotiate" || '''bags-''' || '''bágs''' || '''bágsa''' || '''bágas''' || '''bagas-''' || '''bagsá'''
|-
| '''{{sc|zpt}}''' || "close"    || '''zapt-''' || '''zápt''' || '''zápta''' || '''zápat''' || '''zapat-''' || '''zaptá'''
|-
|-
| '''{{sc|}}''' || "" || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || ''''''
| '''{{sc|tnk}}''' || "fly"       || '''tank-''' || '''tánk''' || '''tánka''' || '''tának''' || '''tanak-''' || '''tanká'''
|-
|-
|
|
|-
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=3|{{sc|initial -y}}  
!colspan=1 rowspan=3|{{sc|initial liquid}}  
| '''{{sc|ybw}}''' || "(still) water" || '''yóbw-''' || '''íbow''' || '''íbu/ibw-'''   || '''yóbow''' || '''ibwó-''' || '''ibú'''
| '''{{sc|rnb}}''' || "waterfall" || '''ranb-''' || '''ránba''' || '''árnaba''' || '''ránab''' || '''arnba-''' || '''ranbá'''
|-
|-
| '''{{sc|}}''' || "" || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || ''''''
| '''{{sc|lsy}}''' || "pair"       || '''lasy-''' || '''lásya''' || '''álsi'''   || '''lásay''' || '''alsya-''' || '''lasyá'''
|-
|-
|
|
|-
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=3|{{sc|medial -y-}}  
!colspan=1 rowspan=3|{{sc|medial liquid}}  
| '''{{sc|}}''' || "" || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || ''''''
| '''{{sc|drb}}''' || "fall" || '''darb-''' || '''dŕb''' || '''dŕba''' || '''dárab''' || '''dráb-''' || '''darbá'''
|-
|-
| '''{{sc|}}''' || "" || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || ''''''
| '''{{sc|bls}}''' || "snow" || '''bals-''' || '''bĺs''' || '''bĺsa''' || '''bálas''' || '''blás-''' || '''balsá'''
|-
|-
|
|
|-
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=3|{{sc|reduplicated}}  
!colspan=1 rowspan=3|{{sc|final liquid}}  
| '''{{sc|wwk}}''' || "time"  || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || ''''''
| '''{{sc|knr}}''' || "tree"  || '''kanr-''' || '''kánra''' || '''knára''' || '''kanár''' || '''knar-''' || '''kanrá'''
|-
|-
| '''{{sc|wwl}}''' || "howl" || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || ''''''
| '''{{sc|stl}}''' || "ice"   || '''satl-''' || '''sátla''' || '''stála''' || '''sátal''' || '''stl-'''  || '''satlá'''
|-
| '''{{sc|Xww}}''' || "xxxx" || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || ''''''
|-
|-
|
|
|-
|-
|}
!colspan=1 rowspan=3|{{sc|initial y-}}
 
| '''{{sc|ygn}}''' || "care/adore"  || '''yagn-''' || '''ígan''' || '''igána''' || '''yágan''' || '''igna-''' || '''yagná'''
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
!colspan="9"|{{sc|a-stems}}  
|-
|-
!colspan=1|
| '''{{sc|ypr}}''' || "give"       || '''yapr-''' || '''ípar''' || '''ipára''' || '''yápar''' || '''ipra-''' || '''yaprá'''
!{{sc|root}}||{{sc|meaning}}||[[#Finite verbal stem|{{sc|verb}}]]||[[#Participial stem|{{sc|participial}}]]||[[#Vocative stem|{{sc|vocative}}]]||[[#Ergative form|{{sc|ergative}}]]||[[#Oblique stem|{{sc|oblique}}]]||[[#Adverbial form|{{sc|adverb}}]]
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=4|{{sc|initial a-}}
| '''{{sc|azl}}''' || "life"  || '''azl-''' || '''zal''' || '''zála''' || '''azála''' || '''azala-''' || '''zalá'''
|-
| '''{{sc|ayt}}''' || "run"  || '''ayt-''' || '''yat''' || '''yáta''' || '''ayáta''' || '''ayata-''' || '''yatá'''
|-
| '''{{sc|akb}}''' || "count" || '''akb-''' || '''kab''' || '''kába''' || '''akába''' || '''akaba-''' || '''kabá'''
|-
|-
|
|
|-
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=4|{{sc|triconsonant}}  
!colspan=1 rowspan=3|{{sc|medial -y-}}  
| '''{{sc|bgs}}''' || "negotiate" || '''bags-''' || '''bags''' || '''bágsa''' || '''bágas''' || '''bagas-''' || '''bagsá'''
| '''{{sc|dym}}''' || "shine" || '''daym-''' || '''dím''' || '''díma''' || '''dáyam''' || '''dyamá-''' || '''dimá'''
|-
| '''{{sc|zpt}}''' || "close"     || '''zapt-''' || '''zapt''' || '''zápta''' || '''zápat''' || '''zapat-''' || '''zaptá'''
|-
|-
| '''{{sc|tnk}}''' || "fly"       || '''tank-''' || '''tank''' || '''tánka''' || '''tának''' || '''tanak-''' || '''tanká'''
| '''{{sc|ryz}}''' || "seed"   || '''rayz-''' || '''ríz''' || '''ríza''' || '''ráyaz''' || '''ryazá-''' || '''rizá'''
|-
|-
|
|
|-
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=3|{{sc|initial liquid}}  
!colspan=1 rowspan=3|{{sc|final -y}}  
| '''{{sc|rnb}}''' || "waterfall" || '''ranb-''' || '''ranb''' || '''árnaba''' || '''ránab''' || '''arnb-''' || '''ranbá'''
| '''{{sc|gry}}''' || "youth"         || '''gary-''' || '''gári/y-''' || '''gári''' || '''gáraya''' || '''graya-''' || '''garyá'''
|-
|-
| '''{{sc|}}''' || "" || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || ''''''
| '''{{sc|ndy}}''' || "lynx/stealthy" || '''nady-''' || '''nádi/y-''' || '''ándi''' || '''ándaya''' || '''andya-''' || '''nadyá'''
|-
|-
|
|
|-
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=3|{{sc|medial liquid}}  
!colspan=1 rowspan=3|{{sc|reduplicated}}  
| '''{{sc|drb}}''' || "fall" || '''darb-''' || '''drb''' || '''dŕba''' || '''dárab''' || '''dráb-''' || '''darbá'''
| '''{{sc|ddz}}''' || "mischief" || '''dadz-''' || '''dádz''' || '''dádza''' || '''dádaz''' || '''đaz-''' || '''dadzá'''
|-
|-
| '''{{sc|bls}}''' || "snow" || '''bals-''' || '''bls''' || '''bĺsa''' || '''bálas''' || '''blás-''' || '''balsá'''
| '''{{sc|pps}}''' || "imitate" || '''paps-''' || '''páps''' || '''pápsa''' || '''pápas''' || '''pas-''' || '''papsá'''
|-
|-
|
|| '''{{sc|}}''' || ""  || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || ''''''
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=3|{{sc|final liquid}}
| '''{{sc|knr}}''' || "tree"  || '''kanr-''' || '''kanra''' || '''knára''' || '''kanár''' || '''kanr-''' || '''kanrá'''
|-
| '''{{sc|}}''' || ""  || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || ''''''
|-
|-
|
|
|-
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=3|{{sc|initial y-}}  
|}
| '''{{sc|ygn}}''' || "care/adore"  || '''yagn-''' || '''igan''' || '''igána''' || '''yágan''' || '''igna-''' || '''yagná'''
 
|-
Examples, starting with theme vowel [a]:
| '''{{sc|ypr}}''' || "give"  || '''yapr-''' || '''ipar''' || '''ipára''' || '''yápar''' || '''ipra-''' || '''yaprá'''
 
|-
medial /a/:
|
*'''pan''' - moss; pan, pna-
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=3|{{sc|medial -y-}}
| '''{{sc|dym}}''' || "shine"  || '''daym-''' || '''dim''' || '''díma''' || '''dáyam''' || '''dyamá-''' || '''dimá'''
|-
| '''{{sc|ryz}}''' || "seed"  || '''rayz-''' || '''riz''' || '''ríza''' || '''ráyaz''' || '''ryazá-''' || '''rizá'''
|-
|
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=3|{{sc|final -y}}
| '''{{sc|gry}}''' || "youth"      || '''gary-''' || '''gari/y-''' || '''gári''' || '''gáraya''' || '''graya-''' || '''garyá'''
|-
| '''{{sc|}}''' || "lynx/stealthy"  || '''nady-''' || '''nadi/y-''' || '''ándi''' || '''ándaya''' || '''andya-''' || '''nadyá'''
|-
|
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=3|{{sc|reduplicated}}
| '''{{sc|ddz}}''' || "mischief" || '''dadz-''' || '''dadz''' || '''dádza''' || '''dádaz''' || '''đaz-''' || '''dadzá'''
|-
| '''{{sc|pps}}''' || "imitate"  || '''paps-''' || '''paps''' || '''pápsa''' || '''pápas''' || '''pas-''' || '''papsá'''
|-
|
|-
|}




Triconsonantal roots with no /w/ and those with medial /w/ are the easiest. Both are very regular in their pattern.


Dictionary entries are listed with principal parts in the following order:
With medial liquid:  
*'''srn''' - claw; sarn-, srn, srna, sáran, srán-, sarná
*'''drb''' - fall/to fall/fallen; darb-, drb, drba, dárab, dráb-, darbá
*'''bls''' - snow; bals-, bls, blsa, bálas, blás-, balsá


*'''lemma''' - definition; '''finite verbal stem'''-, '''participial stem''' (de facto the nom/erg singular imperfect active participle), '''vocative stem'''+, '''ergative form''', '''oblique stem'''-, '''adverbial form'''
non-liquid medial:
:+The similative and partitive cases are also based on the vocative stem, as well as adjectives.
*'''bgs''' - bags-, bags, bágsa, bágas, bagás-+, bagsá
 
*'''zpt''' - zapt-, zapt, zápta, zápat, zpát-+, zaptá
As explained above in the [[#Phonology|phonology section]], verbal stems tend to group in (C)VCC and participial stems in (C)V(C)C; ergative stems tend to be CVCVC, and oblique nominal stems CCVC if allowed by [[#Phonotactics|phonotactics]]. Unstressed epenthetics are inserted where needed, giving possible ^VCC(C/V) instead of expected CC(C/V), or CVCVC instead of expected CCVC.
 
Examples, starting with theme vowel [a]:
 
medial /a/:
*'''pan''' - moss; pan, pna-
 
 
Triconsonantal roots with no /w/ and those with medial /w/ are the easiest. Both are very regular in their pattern.
 
With medial liquid:
*'''srn''' - claw; sarn-, srn, srna, sáran, srán-, sarná
*'''drb''' - fall/to fall/fallen; darb-, drb, drba, dárab, dráb-, darbá
*'''bls''' - snow; bals-, bls, blsa, bálas, blás-, balsá
 
non-liquid medial:
*'''bgs''' - bags-, bags, bágsa, bágas, bagás-+, bagsá
*'''zpt''' - zapt-, zapt, zápta, zápat, zpát-+, zaptá
:+If the cluster is not allowed initially, like [bg], epenthetic /a/ is inserted. Further, /zp/ is definitely going to be realized as [zb]
:+If the cluster is not allowed initially, like [bg], epenthetic /a/ is inserted. Further, /zp/ is definitely going to be realized as [zb]
*'''ddz''' - idle mischief/fiddling/to idle about; dadz-, dadz, dádza, dádaz, đaz-+, dadzá
*'''ddz''' - idle mischief/fiddling/to idle about; dadz-, dadz, dádza, dádaz, đaz-+, dadzá
Line 438: Line 520:
*'''akb''' - count; ákb-, kab, kába, akába, akabá-, kabá
*'''akb''' - count; ákb-, kab, kába, akába, akabá-, kabá


Now examples where /o/ is the theme vowel, starting with medial /w/:
====O-stems====
*'''pwt''' - clearing/to clear/deobstructed; powt-, pot, put, pówot, pwót-, putú
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
*'''rwk''' - tongue/speak/of or relating to tongue or speech/language; rowk-, rok, ruk, rówok, orwók-, rukú+
!colspan="9"|{{sc|o-stems}}
:+as a semantic tidbit, Rukú is how you would say "in Rowok", as opposed to rwógdo (tongue.inst) "(doing something) with your tongue", and Ruk is the name of Rowok's protolanguage.
|-
 
!colspan=1|
final /w/:
!{{sc|root}}||{{sc|meaning}}||[[#Finite verbal stem|{{sc|verb}}]]||[[#Participial stem|{{sc|participial}}]]||[[#Vocative stem|{{sc|vocative}}]]||[[#Ergative form|{{sc|ergative}}]]||[[#Oblique stem|{{sc|oblique}}]]||[[#Adverbial form|{{sc|adverb}}]]
*'''gdw''' - tool/to fashion/skillful; gódw-, gdo, gódu/gódw-+, gódow, gdów-, godú
|-
:+In roots with final /w/ the vocative is CóCu, while the similative and partitive are built off of CoCw
!colspan=1 rowspan=4|{{sc|medial -w-}}
*'''lsw''' - running water/flow/fluent; lósw-, ólso, lósu/losw-, lósow, olswó-+, losú
| '''{{sc|pwt}}''' || "clear(ing)" || '''powt-''' || '''pót''' || '''pút''' || '''pówot''' || '''pwot-'''  || '''putú'''
:+A similar variation as above when a final /w/ root begins with /y/:
|-
*'''ybw''' - still water; yóbw-, íbow, íbu, yóbow, ibwó-, ibú
| '''{{sc|mwk}}''' || "dog"        || '''mowk-''' || '''mók''' || '''múk''' || '''mówok''' || '''mwok-'''  || '''mukú'''
 
|-
Cw/r/lCC:
| '''{{sc|rwk}}''' || "tongue"    || '''rowk-''' || '''rók''' || '''rúk''' || '''rówok''' || '''orwok-''' || '''rukú'''
*'''p(w)zn''' - non potable water, to flow destructively, to pollute; powzn-, pozn, pwózno, powózon, pzón-, puznú
|-
*'''brds''' - to lie, fib, in the middle to bullshit; bards-, bards, brádsa, barádas-, brdás-, bradsá
|
 
|-
The occasional initial /w/, some a-stems, some o-stems, lots of /u/ even in imperfect stems and even in words that otherwise have /a/ as their theme vowel:
!colspan=1 rowspan=4|{{sc|final -w}}
*'''wst''' - sky; wásta-, wast, ústa, awásata, áwsat-, ustá
| '''{{sc|gdw}}''' || "tool"        || '''godw-''' || '''gódo''' || '''gódo/godw-''' || '''gódow''' || '''ogdw-'''  || '''gudú'''
*'''wkd''' - kill; úkdo-, úkod, úkud, wókod, úkod-, kudú
|-
 
| '''{{sc|nkw}}''' || "destination" || '''nokw-''' || '''nóko''' || '''nóko/nokw-''' || '''nókow''' || '''onkw-''' || '''nukú'''
====Finite verbal stem====
|-
The finite verbal stem is characterized by vowel clusters grouped on the right side of the root's vowel structure.
| '''{{sc|}}''' || ""  || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || ''''''
 
|-
It is used, well, to form finite [[#Verbs|verbs]].
|
 
|-
====Participial stem====
!colspan=1 rowspan=3|{{sc|initial liquid}}
The participial stem is the de facto [[#Ergative|ergative]] [[#Number|singular]] [[#Aspect|imperfect]] [[#Voice|active]] form of the [[#Participles|participle]].
| '''{{sc|lsw}}''' || "rain"  || '''lósw-''' || '''ólso''' || '''lóso/losw-''' || '''lósow''' || '''olsw-''' || '''lusú'''
 
|-
====Vocative stem====
| '''{{sc|}}''' || ""  || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || ''''''
The vocative stem is perhaps a misnomer, as it is used to form not only the [[#Vocative|vocative]] case, but also the [[#Partitive|partitive]] and [[#Similative|similative]] cases, as well as to form many [[#Compound words|compounds]].
|-
 
|
====Ergative form====
|-
The ergative form is characterized by a fully extended CVCVC or VCVC(V) structure.
!colspan=1 rowspan=3|{{sc|medial liquid}}
 
| '''{{sc|}}''' || ""  || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || ''''''
It is used  to form the [[#Ergative|ergative]] case.
|-
| '''{{sc|}}''' || ""  || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || ''''''
|-
|
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=3|{{sc|initial -y}}
| '''{{sc|ybw}}''' || "(still) water" || '''yóbw-''' || '''íbow''' || '''íbo/ibw-'''  || '''yóbow''' || '''ibwó-''' || '''ibú'''
|-
| '''{{sc|}}''' || ""  || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || '''''' || ''''''
|-
|
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=3|{{sc|medial -y-}}
| '''{{sc|zyw}}''' || "belly"  || '''zóyw-''' || '''ziw''' || '''zyó/ziw-''' || '''zóyow''' || '''zyowó-''' || '''ziwú'''
|-
| '''{{sc|lyw}}''' || "double"  || '''lóyw-''' || '''liw''' || '''ólyo/liw-''' || '''lóyow''' || '''olyowó-''' || '''liwú'''
|-
|
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=3|{{sc|reduplicated}}
| '''{{sc|wwk}}''' || "time"  || '''wok-''' || '''wók''' || '''wúk''' || '''wówok''' || '''owk-''' || '''wukú'''
|-
| '''{{sc|wwl}}''' || "howl"  || '''wol-''' || '''wól''' || '''wúl''' || '''wówol''' || '''owl-''' || '''wulú'''
|-
| '''{{sc|zww}}''' || "blood" || '''zow-''' || '''zów''' || '''zúw''' || '''zówow''' || '''zwo-''' || '''zuwú'''
|-
|
|-
|}


====Oblique stem====
Now examples where /o/ is the theme vowel, starting with medial /w/:
The oblique stem is usually monosyllabic, characterized by the grouping of consonant clusters to the left of the word's vowel structure. When [[#Phonotactics|phonotactics]] do not allow for an initial consonant cluster, vowels are added epenthetically either before the initiral vowel in the case of liquids and nasals, but between the first to consonants in the case of all other sounds.
*'''pwt''' - clearing/to clear/deobstructed; powt-, pot, put, pówot, pwót-, putú
*'''rwk''' - tongue/speak/of or relating to tongue or speech/language; rowk-, rok, ruk, rówok, orwók-, rukú+
:+as a semantic tidbit, Rukú is how you would say "in Rowok", as opposed to rwógdo (tongue.inst) "(doing something) with your tongue", and Ruk is the name of Rowok's protolanguage.  


The oblique stem is used for the following:
final /w/:
*as the stem of which all the oblique [[#Ratio casuum|cases]] are formed, except the [[#Partitive|partitive]] and [[#Similative|similative]]
*'''gdw''' - tool/to fashion/skillful; gódw-, gdo, gódu/gódw-+, gódow, gdów-, godú
:+In roots with final /w/ the vocative is CóCu, while the similative and partitive are built off of CoCw
*'''lsw''' - running water/flow/fluent; lósw-, ólso, lósu/losw-, lósow, olswó-+, losú
:+A similar variation as above when a final /w/ root begins with /y/:
*'''ybw''' - still water; yóbw-, íbow, íbu, yóbow, ibwó-, ibú


====Adverbial form====
Cw/r/lCC:
The adverbial form of a verb has a couple of meanings:
*'''p(w)zn''' - non potable water, to flow destructively, to pollute; powzn-, pozn, pwózno, powózon, pzón-, puznú
*as a simple adverb
*'''brds''' - to lie, fib, in the middle to bullshit; bards-, bards, brádsa, barádas-, brdás-, bradsá
*following an animate noun in the [[#Ergative|ergative]] or inanimate noun in the [[#Vocative|vocative]] it functions as an [[#Adjectives|adjective]]
*following a noun in the [[#Instrumental/(a)comitative|instrumental]] it functions like a Latin [[:w:Ablative absolute|ablative absolute]]


For more cf. [[#Copula|copula]].
The occasional initial /w/, some a-stems, some o-stems, lots of /u/ even in imperfect stems and even in words that otherwise have /a/ as their theme vowel:
*'''wst''' - sky; wásta-, wast, ústa, awásata, áwsat-, ustá
*'''wkd''' - kill; úkdo-, úkod, úkud, wókod, úkod-, kudú


==Nouns==
==Nouns==
Line 496: Line 612:
*number
*number


The case system is powerful and in and of itself conveys a lot of meanings expressed by prepositional phrases in other languages, but nonetheless nouns can be followed by a number of [[#Postpositions|postpositions]], each governing a given case, or two cases in cases of split [[#Telicity|telicity]].
The case system is powerful and in and of itself conveys a lot of meanings expressed by prepositional phrases in other languages, but nonetheless nouns can be followed by a number of [[#Postpositions|postpositions]], each governing a given case, or two cases in c
The event of split [[#Telicity|telicity]].


For more cf. [[#Participles|participles]].
For more cf. [[#Participles|participles]].


===Nominal number===
===Nominal number===
Nouns and [[#Participles|participes]] are declined in three numbers:
Nouns and [[#Participles|participles]] are declined in three numbers:


*singular
*singular
Line 516: Line 633:
It is probable, based on evidence from some archaisms, that the vocative stem was used in the phase of evolution in between Ruk and Rówok to form other cases as well, but the other cases that are in the language today are built off the [[#Oblique stem|oblique stem]].  
It is probable, based on evidence from some archaisms, that the vocative stem was used in the phase of evolution in between Ruk and Rówok to form other cases as well, but the other cases that are in the language today are built off the [[#Oblique stem|oblique stem]].  


The total number of cases is 9 or 11, depending on how you look at it, as two of the cases are semantic allophones of other ones (see [[#Instrumental/comitative|instrumental/comitative]] and [[#Locatives|locatives]]. The cases are grouped/listed in order to show the stems from which they are built. They are the following:
The total number of cases is 9 or 11, depending on how you look at it, as two of the cases are semantic allophones of other ones (see [[#Instrumental/comitative|instrumental/comitative]] and [[#Locatives|locatives]]). The cases are grouped/listed in order to show the stems from which they are built. They are the following:


#[[#Vocative|Vocative]], a '''principal part'''
#[[#Vocative|Vocative]], a '''principal part'''
Line 558: Line 675:
It is used in the following way:
It is used in the following way:
*as a pure similative
*as a pure similative
*as a [[#Comparison|comparative]] or as the referent in comparative and superlative constructions


=====Partitive=====
====Partitive====
:For more info cf. [[#Telicity|telicity]]
:For more info cf. [[#Telicity|telicity]]


Line 574: Line 692:
So in literary Rówok the partitive of '''''mówok''''' is '''''múksub''''', but the development in question would see '''''mwóklos'''''.
So in literary Rówok the partitive of '''''mówok''''' is '''''múksub''''', but the development in question would see '''''mwóklos'''''.


:Cf. [[#Colloquial Rówok|collquial Rówok]].
:Cf. [[#Colloquial Rówok|colloquial Rówok]].


====Genitive====
====Genitive====
:For more info cf. [[#Telicity|telicity]]
:For more info cf. [[#Telicity|telicity]]


The '''genetive case''' has the ending '''-rXz''' or '''-Xrz''', which [[#Ratio casuum|comes from]] the root '''ryz''', "seed".
The '''genitive case''' has the ending '''-rXz''' or '''-Xrz''', which [[#Ratio casuum|comes from]] the root '''ryz''', "seed".


It is used in the following ways:
It is used in the following ways:
Line 607: Line 725:


====Locatives====
====Locatives====
The '''locative case''' has the ending '''-bi''' or '''-pi''', which [[#Ratio casuum|comes from]] the root '''bwy''', "place".
There are two '''locative cases''', with the endings '''-bi''' and '''-pi''' respectively, both of which [[#Ratio casuum|comes from]] the root '''bwy''', "place".


It is used in the following way:
They are used in the following way:
*as a pure locative
*as pure locatives
*as [[#Postpositions|postpositionals]]


Like  the [[#Instrumental/(a)comitative|instrumental]], the locative features a semantic allophonic variant. Namely the voiced variant '''-bi''' is used for '''inessive''' or '''intrative''' meanings, while the unvoiced version '''-pi''' is used for '''superessive''' or '''adessive''' senses. The meanings, when needed, are complemented by certain [[#Postpositions|postpositions]].
Like  the [[#Instrumental/(a)comitative|instrumental]], the locative features a semantic allophonic variant. Namely the voiced variant '''-bi''' is used for '''inessive''' or '''intrative''' meanings, while the unvoiced version '''-pi''' is used for '''superessive''' or '''adessive''' senses. The meanings, when needed, are complemented by certain [[#Postpositions|postpositions]].
[[File:My little white dog Bella playing in the snow.jpg|thumb|right|247px|'''balá''žbi mówok''''' - the dog is in the snow]]
[[File:Dog park husky.jpg|thumb|right|247px|'''balá''špi mówok''''' - the dog is on the snow]]


Examples:
Examples:
Line 618: Line 740:
- root '''bls''', "snow":
- root '''bls''', "snow":


:1) '''balá''žbi'' álđawan'''
:1) '''balá''žbi'' álđyawan'''
:snow.'''INE''' play.3pl.imperf.mid
:snow.'''INE''' play.3pl.imperf.mid
:they are playing '''in''' the snow
:they are playing '''in''' the snow


:2) '''balá''špi'' áytawan'''
:2) '''balá''špi'' áytyawan'''
:snow.'''SUPE''' run.3pl.imperf.act
:snow.'''SUPE''' run.3pl.imperf.act
:they are running '''on/along''' the snow
:they are running '''on/along''' the snow


With other phonemes at the end, for instance:
Or:


- root '''mwk''', "dog", => plural: '''mowokín'''
- root '''mwk''', "dog", => plural: '''mowokín'''
Line 632: Line 754:
:3) '''mwokí''mbi'' korowín'''
:3) '''mwokí''mbi'' korowín'''
:dog.pl.'''INE''' worms
:dog.pl.'''INE''' worms
:there are worms '''in''' dogs (idiomatically, dogs have worms)
:there are worms '''in''' dogs (the dogs have worms)


:4) '''mwokí''npi'' sarabín'''
:4) '''mwokí''npi'' sarabín'''
:dog.pl.'''SUPE''' fleas
:dog.pl.'''SUPE''' fleas
:there are fleas '''on''' dogs (idiomatically the dogs have fleas)
:there are fleas '''on''' dogs (the dogs have fleas)


====Instrumental/(a)comitative====
====Instrumental/(a)comitative====
Line 643: Line 765:
It is used in the following ways:
It is used in the following ways:
*as a pure instrumental and comitative  
*as a pure instrumental and comitative  
*as a pure caritive and acomitative
*as a pure caritive and acomitative¹
*as what would seem logical as the direct object of some middle verbs, such as '''play'''
*as what would seem logical as the direct object of some middle verbs, such as '''play'''
*along with the [[#Adverbial form|adverb]] in the sense of a Latin [[:w:Ablative absolute|ablative absolute]]
*along with the [[#Adverbial form|adverb]] in the sense of a Latin [[:w:Ablative absolute|ablative absolute]]


Like  the [[#Locatives|locative]], the instrumental features a semantic allophonic variant. Namely the voiced variant '''-gdx/gXd''' has the meanings listed above, largely translated by '''with''' in English, while the unvoiced version '''-ktX/-kXt''' is used as a '''caritive''' or '''acomitative'''.
¹Like the [[#Locatives|locative cases]], the instrumental features a semantic allophonic variant. Namely the voiced variant '''-gdx/gXd''' has the meanings listed above, largely translated as '''with''' or "by means of" in English, while the unvoiced version '''-ktX/-kXt''' is used as a '''caritive''' or '''acomitative''', usually translated as "without" or "lacking".


===Adjectives===
===Nominal derivation===
Adjectives are not really a class in Rówok. The main ways of expressing adjectival thought are through:
There are many nominal endings used in '''word formation'''. Almost all nominal derivatives are attached to the end of the [[#Vocative|vocative]] stem. Derived words do not have a separate vocative or oblique stem.


#with the noun in the [[#Vocative|vocative case]] and the [[#Adverbial form|adverb]] in apposition, with the meaning "X-ful"
They can be broken up into [[#Productive derivatives|productive]] and [[#Non-productive derivatives|non-productive]] derivatives:
#the [[#Similative|similative case]], for the meaning "like X/X-ish"
#with [[#Participles|participles]]
#with [[#Stative|stative verbs]]


Examples:
====Productive derivatives====
[[File:Mist over the Eramosa River - Guelph, Ontario.jpg|thumb|left|''itolibóypi ražgáyža'', a mist over a confluence of two streams.]]


:1) '''''kanarín zalá''''', tree.voc.pl life.adv, "the woods are teeming with life/alive/lively"
*'''-bXy-''', used to indicate the '''place''' where something takes place
**'''''itóliboy''''', "the confluence of two rivers" (itó.li.boy, river(voc stem).dual marker.nominal derivative meaning "place of")
*'''-gXyzX-''', used primarily to mean the '''essence''' of something, but with many other extensions, including color and visual state, especially in the diminutive
**'''''ražgáyža''''', "a smoky haze" (the essence of the diminutive of the root '''arz-''', "smoke"), in the [[#Similative|similative]] it can mean "the color of smoke/grey", in the kitchen it can mean smoke flavor/liquid smoke; '''''sotogóyzo''''', "the essence of a lake, ergo tranquility", in the diminutive '''''soŧogóyžo''''', "reflectiveness, variable color"
*'''-i/yštX-''', (-i after consonants, -y after vowels) used to mean '''the study of''', (like Latin/Greek '''''-logia''''') or '''the life/practice of'''
**'''''mukíštu''''', "the training of dogs, cynology"; '''''zaláyšta''''', "biology" or "the walks of life", depending on context
*'''-i/ytyX-''', used to form abstracts like '''the concept of''' or '''the state of''', like Latin '''''-entia''''' or '''''-ia''''', or English '''''-ness'''''
**'''''robóytyo''''', "pompousness"; '''''grsítya''''', "decency"
*'''-yXndX-''', used to indicate an '''event''' or '''happening''', even '''festival'''
**'''''uwlunyúndu''''', "the moon festival"; '''''mukyúndu''''', "the annual dog mating"; '''''yatnačyánda''''', "a big race"
*'''-zXyb-''', used to mean a '''thing or object''' related to the root, a very vague stem, akin to "-amajig"
**'''''lalábzayb''''', "a thing used for sleep (could be a pillow, blanket, stuffed animal, Valium, whatever)"


==Verbs==
====Non-productive derivatives====
:''See [[#Conjugation tables|here]] for '''conjugation tables'''''.
*'''-dXwg-''', used as an '''agent''' suffix
**'''''kíldawg''''', "a climber"
*'''-sXld-''', used to mean '''tracks, traces''' of an ''animal or force of nature''
**'''''nuyúlsuld''''', "bear tracks, evidence of bears"
*'''-klXš-''', used to mean '''tracks, traces''' of ''humans or human-made'' objects
**'''''zírklaš''''', "a human-made firepit, ashes from a fire", cf. with the above suffix '''''zírsald''''', which would mean "evidence of a natural fire, i.e. from lightning, etc."


===Verbal number===
<!--
Verbs are conjugated and [[#Participles|participes]] are declined in three numbers:
*'''--''', used ''''''
**'''''''''', ""
*'''--''', used ''''''
**'''''''''', ""
*'''--''', used ''''''
**'''''''''', ""
*'''--''', used ''''''
**'''''''''', ""
*'''--''', used ""
**'''''''''', ""
*'''--''', used ""
**'''''''''', ""
-->


*singular
==Pronouns==
*dual
Pronouns are one of the few unstable categories in Rówok. The chart below shows colloquial developments in gendered pronouns, under influence of neighboring Slavic tribes. Traditionalists and older speakers do not use the forms in parentheses, basically meaning Rówok has an animate and an inanimate, instead of actual gender, though, as stated, especially younger speakers might use the optional gendered forms.
*plural


===Aspect===
Learners may feel free to use both forms, though they might be cautioned about register: the forms in parentheses are not used in academic or philosophical discourse, nor in most styles of poetry.
There are two primary aspects in Rówok, namely [[#Imperfective|imperfective]] and [[#Perfective|perfective]].


These aspects are shown by ablaut of the verb's (or [[#Participles|participle]]'s or even [[#Nouns|noun]]'s) vowel structure as shown below.
Rówok is otherwise largely a '''pro-drop language''', so nominative forms are regularly omitted.  


From imperfective to perfective:
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
*'''a''' => '''e'''
!colspan="5"|{{sc|pronouns}}
*'''o''' => '''u'''
|-
!colspan=1|
!{{sc|number}}||{{sc|"masculine"}}||{{sc|"feminine"}}||{{sc|inanimate}}
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=4|{{sc|singular}}
| '''{{sc|1 pers}}''' || '''tó'''  || '''(tá)'''  ||    n/a
|-
| '''{{sc|2 pers}}''' || '''(pó)'''|| '''pá'''    || '''pwú'''
|-
| '''{{sc|3 pers}}''' || '''sús''' || '''(swás)''' || '''sú'''
|-
|
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=4|{{sc|dual}}
| '''{{sc|1 pers}}''' || '''lóyŧ'''   || '''(láyŧa)'''  ||    n/a
|-
| '''{{sc|2 pers}}''' || '''(lóyp)''' || '''láypa'''    || '''pwúlu'''
|-
| '''{{sc|3 pers}}''' || '''líy'''    || '''(líya)'''    || '''lóy'''
|-
|
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=3|{{sc|plural}}
| '''{{sc|1 pers}}''' || '''íwon'''    || '''(íwan)''' || n/a
|-
| '''{{sc|2 pers}}''' || '''(póywon)''' || '''páywan''' || '''píwun'''
|-
| '''{{sc|3 pers}}''' || '''swón'''    || '''(swán)''' || '''súynu'''
|-
|}


The sense of the primary aspects is complemented further mainly by [[#Derivational morphology|derivational infixes]] and the like.
==Adjectives==
Adjectives are not really a class in Rówok. The main ways of expressing adjectival thought are through:


===Voice===
#with the noun in the [[#Vocative|vocative]] or [[#Nominative|nominative case]] and the [[#Adverbial form|adverb]] in apposition, with the meaning "X-ful"
There are three possible voices in Rówok:
#the [[#Similative|similative case]], for the meaning "like X/X-ish"
*'''active'''
#with [[#Participles|participles]]
*'''middle'''
#with [[#Stative|stative verbs]]
*'''passive'''


====Active voice====
Examples:
 
#'''''kanarín zalá''''', tree.voc.pl life.adv, "the woods are teeming with life/alive/lively"
#'''''kanarín zálam''''', tree.voc.pl animal.sim.SG, "the woods are animal-like"
#'''''kanarín, zál, ...''''', tree.voc.pl alive, "the woods, alive (as it were), ..."
#'''''(zálŧya) kanarín (zálŧya)''''', tree.voc.pl live.3sg.mid.imperf, "the forest is alive" (in a permanent sense, in context could be understood even as "is healthy")
 
===Comparatives and superlatives===
 
==Verbs==
:''See [[#Conjugation tables|here]] for '''conjugation tables'''''.
 
Verbs in Rówok are highly synthetic and can get quite large with all their various [[#Derivational morphology|prefixes, infixes, and suffixes]].
 
In all they are conjugated to show:
#[[#Verbal number|number]]
#[[#Person|person]] (including [[#Inclusivity|inclusivity]] in the dual and plural
#[[#Voice|agency or voice]]
#[[#Aspect|aspect]] (imperfective/perfective, as well as inchoative and frequentative), and optionally for [[#Aspect and tense|tense]]
#[[#Irrealis stem|mood]]
#[[#Participles|participial action]]
 
===Basics===
====Verbal number====
Verbs are conjugated and [[#Participles|participles]] are declined in three numbers:
 
*singular
*'''dual''', marked by the suffix '''-l''', or '''l-''' as a prefix in the 1st person inclusive
*'''plural''', marked by the suffix '''(X)wXn''', or '''n-''' as a prefix in the 1st person inclusive
 
====Person====
The '''persons''' in Rówok are the very normal 1, 2 , and 3 person scheme common to IE, though there is [[#Inclusivity|inclusivity]].
 
=====Inclusivity=====
The [[#Dual|dual]] and [[#Plural|plural]] both are conjugated for inslusivity in the first [[#Person|person]].
 
====Voice====
There are three possible voices in Rówok:
*'''active'''
*'''middle'''
*'''passive'''
 
=====Active voice=====
The active voice is used for the following:
The active voice is used for the following:
*when the subject is the agent of a transitive action
*when the subject is the agent of a transitive action


Subjects of verbs in the active voice are in the [[#Ergative|ergative]].
Subjects of verbs in the active voice are in the [[#Ergative|ergative]]. This is largely reserved for animate nouns, though inanimate nouns can be elevated to ergative agents if, e.g., they cause damage or some other large change.


====Middle voice====
=====Middle voice=====
The middle voice is extremely widespread and productive. Its marker is '''-ŧ-''' with allophonic '''-đ-''' and accompanying [[#Morphophonology|morphophonological effects]].
The middle voice is extremely widespread and productive. Its marker is '''-ŧy-''' with allophonic '''-đy-''' and accompanying [[#Morphophonology|morphophonological effects]]. The <y> is often realized as /i/ in various environments, notably in the plural before /w/, and if a middle verb is extended by [[#Aspect and tense|frequentative or inchoative]] infixes.


It is used for the following:
It is used for the following:
Line 701: Line 918:
#when the subject is in a mutual relationship of non transitive action with someone (e.g. loving, talking on the phone, bonding)
#when the subject is in a mutual relationship of non transitive action with someone (e.g. loving, talking on the phone, bonding)
#for some verbs (otherwise active in meaning) done for the subject's own benefit
#for some verbs (otherwise active in meaning) done for the subject's own benefit
#for inanimate subjects of several verbs that would otherwise be active ('''he/she runs''' = '''''áyta'''''; '''it''' (a stream, for instance) '''runs''' = '''''áyŧa''''')
#for inanimate subjects of several verbs that would otherwise be active ('''he/she runs''' = '''''áyta'''''; '''it''' (a stream, for instance) '''runs''' = '''''áyŧya''''')
#for several idiomatic verbs where it is unclear who the actor is and who the acted upon; this includes verbs like '''follow''' (not leading, not being led), '''hunt''' (conceived as following the animal's movements as opposed to transitively killing it), '''play''', etc.   
#for several idiomatic verbs where it is unclear who the actor is and who the acted upon; this includes verbs like '''follow''' (not leading, not being led), '''hunt''' (conceived as following the animal's movements as opposed to transitively killing it), '''play''', etc.   
#to completely alter the overlying semantic of some roots, such as '''see''' => '''understand'''
#to completely alter the overlying semantic of some roots, such as '''see''' => '''understand'''
Line 708: Line 925:
Subjects of verbs in the middle voice from examples 1-6 are in the [[#Ergative|ergative]], while subjects in example 7 are in the [[#Telic|telic]].
Subjects of verbs in the middle voice from examples 1-6 are in the [[#Ergative|ergative]], while subjects in example 7 are in the [[#Telic|telic]].


====Passive voice====
=====Passive voice=====
The passive voice is used for the following:
The passive voice is used for the following:
*when the subject is the patient of a transitive action
*when the subject is the patient of a transitive action


Subjects of verbs in the passive voice are in the [[#Telic|telic]] with agents in the [[#Instrumental|instrumental]].
Subjects of verbs in the passive voice are in the [[#Telic|telic]] with agents in the [[#Instrumental|instrumental]]. Agents can be both literal (I was carried by Brian), or with transferred epithet (I was carried by stretcher).


===Irrealis stem===
====Aspect====
The irrealis stem is formed through reduplication of the initial syllable (or /a/) of the root. Historically the reduplication feature evoled after the fusion of the intensifying particle '''''[[#Ya|ya]]''''', which then metathesized into /ay/, affecting the quality of the rightmost consonant of the reduplicated pair. Thus /t/ reduplicates into /ŧ / and so on as follows:
There are two primary aspects in Rówok, namely [[#Imperfective|imperfective]] and [[#Perfective|perfective]].


*'''arn- > ayarn-'''
These aspects are shown by ablaut of the verb's (or [[#Participles|participle]]'s or even [[#Nouns|noun]]'s) vowel structure as shown below.


*'''barn- > bavarn-'''
From imperfective to perfective:
*'''parn- > payparn-'''
*'''a''' => '''e'''
*'''o''' => '''u'''


*'''darn- > dađarn-'''
The sense of the primary aspects is complemented further mainly by [[#Derivational morphology|derivational infixes]] and the like.
*'''tarn- > taŧarn-'''


*'''garn- > gažarn-'''
===Irrealis stem===
*'''karn- > kačarn-'''
The irrealis stem is formed through reduplication of the initial syllable (or /a/) of the root. Historically the reduplication feature evolved after the fusion of the intensifying particle '''''[[#Ya|ya]]''''', which then metathesized into /ay/, affecting the quality of the rightmost consonant of the reduplicated pair. Thus /t/ reduplicates into /ŧ / and so on as follows:
*'''zarn- > zažarn-'''
*'''sarn- > sašarn-'''


*'''larn- > laylarn-'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
*'''rarn- > rayrarn-'''
! rowspan="2" style="width: 90px; "|
*'''marn- > maymarn-'''
! colspan="1" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|vowel}}
*'''narn- > naynarn-'''
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|labial}}
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|alveolar}}
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|postalveolar}}
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|velar}}


*'''yarn- > yayarn-'''
|-
*'''warn- > wavarn-'''
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|vowel}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|unvoiced}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|voiced}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|unvoiced}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|voiced}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|unvoiced}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|voiced}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|unvoiced}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|voiced}}
 
|-
! style="" |{{sc|vowel}}
|'''arn- > ayarn-'''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="" |{{sc|stops}}
|
| '''parn- > payparn-'''
| '''barn- > bavarn-'''
| '''tarn- > taŧarn-'''
| '''darn- > dađarn-'''
|
|
| '''karn- > kačarn-'''
| '''garn- > gaǧarn-'''
|-
! style="" |{{sc|nasals}}
|
|
| '''marn- > maymarn-'''
|
| '''narn- > naynarn-'''
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="" |{{sc|fricatives}}
|
|
|
| '''sarn- > sašarn-'''
| '''zarn- > zažarn-'''
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="" |{{sc|approximants}}
|
|
| '''warn- > wavarn-'''
| '''larn- > laƚarn-'''
| '''rarn- > rařarn-'''
|
| '''yarn- > yayarn-'''
|
|
|}


The irrealis stem in conjunction with other verbal infixes and adverbs is used to form:
#the [[#Desiderative|desiderative]]
#the [[#Precative|precative]]
#the [[#Hortatory/Iussive|hortatory/iussive]]
#the [[#Optative|optative]]
#the [[#Subjunctive|subjunctive]] in [[#Reported speech|reported speech]] in contrary to fact [[#Conditionals|conditionals]]
====Desiderative====
====Precative====
====Hortatory/Iussive====
The '''hortatory''' and '''iussive''' are formed using the [[#Irrealis stem|irrealis stem]] and the [[#Inchoative|inchoative]] infix.
{{Gloss
|phrase = 1) loroyrówkŧspot
|IPA = /lorɔɪroʊk:θspət/
| morphemes = lo-roy-rówk-ŧ-sp-o-t
| gloss = INCL/DU.IRR-talk-MID.INCH.IMPF.1
| translation = let's talk, you and me
}}
{{Gloss
|phrase = 2) knarímbi oweš pyáyŧspawan
|IPA = /knarim:bi oweʃ pjaɪθ:spəwən/
| morphemes = knar-in-bi oweš p-y-ayt-ŧ-sp-a-wan
| gloss = :tree.pl.ine along 2-IRR-run-MID-INCH.IMPERF-PL
| translation = y'all should run along the forest
}}
{{Gloss
|phrase = 3) mówok razánka kačárpspa
|IPA = /mo:wok razan:ka kaʧarp:spə/
| morphemes = mowok-Ø-Ø razan-Ø-ka ka-čárp-sp-Ø-a
| gloss = dog-SG-ERG bear-SG-TEL IRR-fight-INCH-ACT-IMPF/3SG
| translation = let the dogs fight the bear, the dogs should fight the bear
}}


<!--
The irrealis stem in conjunction with other verbal infixes and adverbs is used to form the following [[#Mood|moods]]:


{{Gloss
#the [[#Potential/Precative|potential/precative]]
|phrase = )
#the [[#Desiderative|desiderative]]
|IPA = //
#the [[#Hortatory/Iussive|hortatory/iussive]]
| morphemes =
#the [[#Optative|optative]]
| gloss =
| translation =
}}


{{Gloss
which are then used to form the
|phrase = )
*the [[#Subjunctive|subjunctive]] in [[#Reported speech|reported speech]] in contrary to fact [[#Conditionals|conditionals]]
|IPA = //
| morphemes =
| gloss =
| translation =
}}
-->


====Optative====
====Moods====
=====Potential/Precative=====
The '''potential''' and '''precative''' are formed using the '''irrealis''' stem in either [[#Aspect and tense|aspect]] along with the [[#Future|future marker]] '''-kXy-/-gXy-'''. Very often these two moods express thoughts that are handled in English with the infinitive, such as "being allowed ''to go''", etc.


The '''optative''' is formed using the  [[#Irrealis stem|irrealis stem]] and the [[#Inchoative|inchoative]] and [[#Aspect and tense|future]] infixes.
The '''potential''' has two main functions:


:1) bálas meymérzbgeye
#Similar to the [[#Participles|future active participle]], the potential can be used to express a state of conditional readiness.
:snow.sg.erg irr.thaw.inch.3sg.act.perf
#The result of expressions denoting semantics similar to "so that", "in order to", personal sacrifice (I gave him my shows ''to wear''), often translated into English with "might", e.g. "he did everything, ''so he might go''", etc.
:the snow should thaw, let the snow thaw, if only the snow would thaw


====Subjunctive====
The '''precative''' also has one main function:


===Participles===
#As the result of either a request, e.g. "would you ''go with me''", or "am I allowed ''to go with yo''", or a command, e.g. "please/I'm asking you  ''(to) go with me''", or "I command you ''to go with me''".
:''See [[#Participials|here]] for '''participial morphology'''.''  


Participles in Rówok are a bloody mess, as they exist for every [[#Verbal number|number]], [[#Voice|voice]], and [[#Aspect|aspect]].
=====Desiderative=====


In that order:
=====Hortatory/Iussive=====
*'''singular, dual, plural'''
The '''hortatory''' and '''iussive''' are formed using the [[#Irrealis stem|irrealis stem]] and the [[#Inchoative|inchoative]] infix.
*'''active, middle, passive'''
*'''imperfect, perfect, future, future perfect'''


*The '''imperfect''' is used in the sense of the English imperfect: '''doing (actively or statively) and being done'''.
It's main use is:
*The '''perfect''' is used in the sense of the English periphrastic perfect participle: '''having done or having been done'''.
#To give commands, both to others and to groups including the speaker.  
*The future is used with the sense of the Latin future active participle: '''about to do or be done''' (or in the South we might say '''fixin'/fittin' to (be) do(ne) ;)''')
*The '''future perfect''' has two functions:
**In the '''[[#Active voice|active]]''' and some '''[[#Middle voice|middle]]''' voice constructions it is used as in English: '''having done'''.
**In the '''passive''' and some '''middle''' voice constructions it is used as in the Latin gerundive: '''needing to do or be done''' ('''''Karthago delenda est!''''' = '''''Kárŧag ukudúnkuy!''''').


Some of these forms are rare just due to situational circumstances (for instance how often would you need to talk about '''''yetenkéyli''''' or '''two things needing to have been run'''?), but theoretically all verbal roots can exist in all of these forms.
{{Gloss
|phrase = 1) lorořówkŧspot
|IPA =
| morphemes = lo-ro-řówk-ŧ-sp-o-t
| gloss = INCL/DU.IRR-talk-MID.INCH.IMPF.1
| translation = let's talk, you and me
}}


==Morphology and morphophonology==
{{Gloss
|phrase = 2) knarímbi oweš pyáyŧspawan
|IPA =  
| morphemes = knar-in-bi oweš p-y-ayt-ŧ-sp-a-wan
| gloss = :tree.pl.ine along 2-IRR-run-MID-INCH.IMPERF-PL
| translation = y'all should run along the forest
}}


===Nominals===
{{Gloss
|phrase = 3) mówok razánka kačárpspa
|IPA =
| morphemes = mowok-Ø-Ø razan-Ø-ka ka-čárp-sp-Ø-a
| gloss = dog-SG-ERG bear-SG-TEL IRR-fight-INCH-ACT-IMPF/3SG
| translation = let the dogs fight the bear, the dogs should fight the bear
}}
<!--


=====Case morphophonology=====
{{Gloss
[[#Ratio casuum|Case endings]] can affect the final consonant of a [[#Roots and principle parts|root]], and the final consonant of a root can affect case endings, especially in the [[#Number|singular]].
|phrase = )
 
|IPA =
This happens in the following way:
| morphemes =  
| gloss =  
| translation =
}}


*[[#Partitive|partitive]]: following '''/b/''', '''/d/''', '''/g/''', or '''/z/''' the ending '''''-sXb''''' => '''''-zXb'''''
{{Gloss
*[[#Genitive|genitive]]: following '''/l/''' the ending '''''-rXz''''' goes to '''''-lXz'''''
|phrase = )
*[[#Benefactive|benefactive]]: the ending '''''-prX''''' swallows final '''/b/''' and '''/p/''', and in the case of the former the ending turnss to '''''-brX'''''
|IPA = //
*[[#Telic|telic]]: the ending '''''-nkX''''' swallows final '''/k/''' and '''/g/''', and in the case of the latter the ending turns to '''''-ngX'''''
| morphemes =
*[[#Locatives|inessive]]: without a vowel in between the ending '''''-bi''''' forces the final consonant to voice, if possible, and furthermore swallows final '''/b/''' and '''/p/'''
| gloss =
*[[#Locatives|superessive]]: without a vowel in between the ending '''''-pi''''' forces the final consonant to devoice, if possible, and furthermore swallows final '''/b/''' and '''/p/'''
| translation =
*[[#Instrumental/comitative|instrumental]]: without a vowel in between the ending '''''-gdX''''' forces the final consonant to voice, if possible, and furthermore swallows final '''/g/''' and '''/k/'''
}}
*[[#Instrumental/comitative|caritive]]: without a vowel in between the ending '''''-ktX''''' forces the final consonant to devoice, if possible, and furthermore swallows final '''/g/''' and '''/k/'''
-->
 
=====Optative=====


This process is further complicated by the gradation effected by the [[#Diminutive morphophonology|diminutives]].
The '''optative''' is formed using the [[#Irrealis stem|irrealis stem]] and '''both''' the [[#Inchoative|inchoative]] and [[#Aspect and tense|future]] infixes.


====Declension tables====
{{Gloss
|phrase = 1) bálas meymérzbgeye
|IPA =
| morphemes = bál-as-Ø mey-mérz-b-gey-e-Ø
| gloss = snow-ERG-S IRR-thaw-INCH.FUT-PERF-3S
| translation = the snow should thaw, let the snow thaw, if only the snow would thaw
}}


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
====Subjunctive====
!colspan="7"|{{sc|declensions}}
 
|-
===Conditionals===
!colspan=2|
Rówok expresses '''conditionals''' through a complex system of sequence of [[#Moods|moods]], depending on tense and degree of likelihood of the protasis. In [[#Colloquial Rówok|colloquial Rówok]] the [[#Instrumental|instrumentally]] formed [[#Participles|absolute]] is used more often than conditionals, but they are common in literary registers.
!{{sc|ending}}||{{sc|mwk, "dog"}}||{{sc|gdw, "gift"}}||{{sc|bls, "snow"}}||{{sc|azl, "life"}}
 
The chart below gives an outline, where:
 
*{{sc|ind}} means '''indicative'''
*{{sc|irr}} means '''[[#Irrealis stem|irrealis]]'''
*{{sc|pot}} means '''[[#Potential/Precative|potential]]
*{{sc|opt}} means '''[[#Optative|optative]]
 
The hard line in the chart indicates the level where there is verb conjugated with the [[#Irrealis stem|irrealis stem]] in both the protasis and the apodosis.
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
!colspan="5"|{{sc|conditionals}}
|-
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=12|{{sc|singular}}  
!colspan=2|
| {{sc|vocative}} || ''''''                || '''muk'''    || '''gódu'''    || '''bĺs'''    || '''zála''' 
!{{sc|past}}||{{sc|present}}||{{sc|future}}
|-
|-
| {{sc|ergative}} || ''''''                || '''mówok'''  || '''gódow'''    || '''bálas'''  || '''ázala'''
!colspan=1 rowspan=4|{{sc|fo' sho'}}  
| {{sc|formula}}    || {{sc|rí ind+rX, ind+rX}}                || {{sc|rí ind, ind}}                  || {{sc|rí ind+k/gXy, ind+kXy}}
|-
|-
| {{sc|similative}} || '''-Xm'''           || '''múkum'''   || '''gódum'''    || '''bĺsam'''  || '''zálam'''
| {{sc|example}}     || '''rí bálsŧari, kwogoŧlínok gárbđarat''' || '''rí bálsŧa, kwogoŧlínok gárbđat''' || '''rí balsŧákaya, kwogoŧlínok gárbđagayt'''     
|-
|-
| {{sc|partitive}} || '''-sXb'''           || '''múksub'''  || '''gódusub'''  || '''bĺsab'''  || '''zálasab'''
| {{sc|translation}} || if it snowed, I took my skis           || If it snows, I take my skis        || If it snows (in the future), I'll take my skis   
|-
|-
| {{sc|genitive}} || '''-rXz / -rz'''      || '''mwókroz''' || '''gdóworz'''  || '''blásraz''' || '''ázalarz'''
|
|-
|-
| {{sc|benefactive}} || '''-prX / -pXr'''  || '''mwókpro''' || '''gdówopor''' || '''bláspra''' || '''azálapar'''
!colspan=1 rowspan=4|{{sc|pretty likely}}  
| {{sc|formula}}    || {{sc|rí ind+rX, IRR+rX}}                  || {{sc|rí ind, IRR}}                    || {{sc|rí ind+k/gXy, POT}}
|-
|-
| {{sc|telic}} || '''-nkX / -nXk'''         || '''mwónko''' || '''gdowónko''' || '''blásnak''' || '''azálanak'''  
| {{sc|example}}     || '''rí bálsŧari, kwogoŧlínok gažárbđarat''' || '''rí bálsŧa, kwogoŧlínok gažárbđat''' || '''rí balsŧákaya, kwogoŧlínok gažárbđagayt'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|inessive}} || '''-bi'''              || '''mwógbi'''  || '''gdówobi'''  || '''blázbi'''  || '''azálabi'''
| {{sc|translation}} || If it snowed, I probably took my skis      || if it snows, I generally take my skis || If it should snow, I'll likely take my skis   
|-
|-
| {{sc|superessive}} || '''-pi'''          || '''mwókpi'''  || '''gdówopi'''  || '''bláspi'''  || '''azálapi'''
|
|-
| {{sc|instr./comit.}} || '''-gdX / -gXd''' || '''mwógdo'''  || '''gdówogod''' || '''blázgad''' || '''azálagad'''
|-
| {{sc|caritive}} || '''-ktX / -kXt'''      || '''mwókto'''  || '''gdówokot''' || '''bláskat''' || '''azálakat'''
|-
|-
|
|
|-
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=12|{{sc|dual}}  
!colspan=1 rowspan=4|{{sc|not very likely}}  
| {{sc|vocative}} || '''-li'''                    || '''múkli'''     || '''góduli''' || '''bĺs''' || '''zálali'''
| {{sc|formula}}    || {{sc|rí IRR+rX, IRR+rX}}                   || {{sc|rí IRR, POT}}                       || {{sc|rí POT, OPT}}
|-
| {{sc|ergative}} || '''-li'''                    || '''mowókli'''  || '''godówli'''    || '''balásli''' || '''azálali'''
|-
| {{sc|similative}} || '''-li-''' + '''-m'''      || '''múklim'''    || '''gódulim'''    || '''bĺslim'''    || '''zálalim'''
|-
| {{sc|partitive}} || '''-li-''' + '''-sXb'''    || '''múklisub'''  || '''godúlisub'''  || '''bĺsab'''    || '''zalálisab'''
|-
| {{sc|genitive}} || '''-li-''' + '''-rz'''      || '''mwóklirz'''  || '''gdówolirz'''  || '''bláslirz'''  || '''azálalirz'''
|-
| {{sc|benefactive}} || '''-lí-''' + '''-pXr'''  || '''mwoklípor''' || '''gdowolípor''' || '''blaslípar''' || '''azalalípor'''
|-
| {{sc|telic}} || '''-lí-''' + '''-nXk'''        || '''mwoklínok''' || '''gdowolínok''' || '''blaslínak''' || '''azalalínok'''
|-
| {{sc|inessive}} || '''-lí-''' + '''-bi'''      || '''mwoklíbi'''  || '''gdowolíbi'''  || '''blaslíbi'''  || '''azalalíbi'''
|-
| {{sc|superessive}} || '''-lí-''' + '''-pi'''    || '''mwoklípi'''  || '''gdowolípi'''  || '''blaslípi'''  || '''azalalípi'''
|-
|-
| {{sc|instr./comit.}} || '''-lí-''' + '''-gXd''' || '''mwoklígod''' || '''gdowolígod''' || '''blaslígad''' || '''azalalígad'''  
| {{sc|example}}     || '''rí baválsŧara, kwogoŧlínok gažárbđarat''' || '''rí baválsŧa, kwogoŧlínok gažárbđagayt'''   || '''rí bavalsŧákaya, kwogoŧlínok gažarbđázbgayt'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|caritive}} || '''-lí-''' + '''-kXt'''      || '''mwoklíkot''' || '''gdowolíkot''' || '''blaslíkat''' || '''azalalíkat'''
| {{sc|translation}} || If it ever snowed, I surely took my skis    || If it ever snows (maybe we're in a dry spell), I'll take my skis || If it were ever to snow (maybe I live in a desert), I suppose I'd take my skis   
|-
|-
|
|
|-
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=12|{{sc|plural}}  
!colspan=1 rowspan=3|{{sc|bloody freaking impossible}}  
| {{sc|vocative}} || '''-ín'''                            || '''mukín'''    || '''godúyn'''      || '''blsín''' || '''zaláyn'''
| {{sc|formula}}     || {{sc|rí OPT+rX, POT+rX}}                          || {{sc|rí POT, POT}}                                || {{sc|rí OPT, OPT}}
|-
|-
| {{sc|ergative}} || '''-ín'''                             || '''mowokín'''  || '''godowín'''    || '''balasín''' || '''azaláyn'''
| {{sc|example}}     || '''rí bavalsŧáspara, kwogoŧlínok gažarbđagáyrat''' || '''rí bavalsŧákaya, kwogoŧlínok gažárbđagayt'''  || '''rí bavalsŧáspa, kwogoŧlínok gažarbđázbgayt'''     
|-
|-
| {{sc|similative}} || '''-ín-''' + '''-Xm'''              || '''mukínum'''  || '''godúynum'''    || '''blsínam''' || '''zaláynam'''
| {{sc|translation}} || If it had snowed, I'd have taken my skis          || If it were snowing, I'd take my skis            || If it snowed (in a place where it is impossible for snow to fall based on the laws of (astro and geo)physics), I'd take my skis (but don't bloody count on it)
|-
|-
| {{sc|partitive}} || '''-ín- / -yn-''' + '''-sXb'''      || '''mukínsub'''  || '''gudúynsub'''  || '''blsínsab''' || '''zaláynsab'''
|}
|-
 
| {{sc|genitive}} || '''-ín / -yn-''' + '''-rXz'''        || '''mwokínroz''' || '''gdowóynraz''' || '''blasínraz''' || '''azaláynraz'''
Notes:
|-
 
| {{sc|benefactive}} || '''-ín- / -yn-''' + '''-prX'''    || '''mwokínpro''' || '''gdowóynpro''' || '''blasínpra''' || '''azaláynpra'''
*There's also the so-called mixed conditional, combining the protasis of the past bloody freaking impossible condition and the apodosis of the present not very likely, so:
|-
:'''''rí bavalsŧáspara, kwogoŧlínok gažárbđagayt'''''
| {{sc|telic}} || '''-ín- / -yn-''' + '''-(n)kX'''        || '''mwokínko'''  || '''gdowóynko'''  || '''blasínka''' || '''azaláynka'''  
:"If it had snowed sometime in the past, I'd take my skis with me right now."
|-
| {{sc|inessive}} || '''-ím- / -ym-''' + '''-bi'''        || '''mwokímbi'''  || '''gdowóymbi'''  || '''blasímbi''' || '''azaláymbi'''
|-
| {{sc|superessive}} || '''-ín- / -yn-''' + '''-pi'''      || '''mwokínpi'''  || '''gdowóynpi'''  || '''blasínpi''' || '''azaláynpi''' 
|-
| {{sc|instr./comit.}} || '''-ím- / -ym-''' + '''-(g)dX''' || '''mwokímdo'''  || '''gdowóymdo'''  || '''blasímda''' || '''azaláymda'''
|-
| {{sc|caritive}} || '''-ín- / -yn-''' + '''-(k)tX'''      || '''mwokínto'''  || '''gdowóynto'''  || '''blasínta''' || '''azaláynta'''
|}


===Verbals===
*The future bloody freaking impossible condition may seem of spurious use, but imagine a scenario like winning the lottery: not only are my mathematical chances of winning a big lottery something like 1/160,000,000, but I also do not in fact play the lottery, making my practical chances of winning the lottery about nil. This condition is perfect to express, then: "if I ever won the lottery (but I surely won't), I would buy a hippopotamus" (that part's true, I really would buy a hippo).


======Middle voice morphophonology======
===Participles===
:''See [[#Participials|here]] for '''participial morphology'''.''


====Conjugation tables====
Participles in Rówok are a bloody mess, as they exist for every [[#Verbal number|number]], [[#Voice|voice]], and [[#Aspect|aspect]].


:A-stems:
In that order:
*'''singular, dual, plural'''
*'''active, middle, passive'''
*'''imperfect, perfect, future, future perfect'''


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
*The '''imperfect''' is used in the sense of the English imperfect: '''doing (actively or statively) and being done'''.
!colspan="2"|
*The '''perfect''' is used in the sense of the English periphrastic perfect participle: '''having done or having been done'''.
!colspan="2"|{{sc|ayt, "to run"}}
*The future is used with the sense of the Latin future active participle: '''about to do or be done''' (or in the South we might say '''fixin'/fittin' to (be) do(ne) ;)''')
!colspan="2"|{{sc|drb, "to fall"}}
*The '''future perfect''' has two functions:
|-
**In the '''[[#Active voice|active]]''' and some '''[[#Middle voice|middle]]''' voice constructions it is used as in English: '''having done'''.
!colspan=2|
**In the '''passive''' and some '''middle''' voice constructions it is used as in the Latin gerundive: '''needing to do or be done''' ('''''Karthago delenda est!''''' = '''''Kárŧag ukudúnkuy!''''').
!{{sc|imperf}}||{{sc|perf}}||{{sc|imperf}}||{{sc|perf}}
 
|-
Some of these forms are rare just due to situational circumstances (for instance how often would you need to talk about '''''yetenkéyli''''' or '''two things needing to have been run'''?), but theoretically all verbal roots can exist in all of these forms.
!colspan=1 rowspan=12|{{sc|active}}
 
| {{sc|1 sg}}        || áyt'''at'''         || éyt'''et'''         || dárb'''at'''           || dérb'''et'''  
==Morphology and morphophonology==
|-
 
| {{sc|2 sg}}        || áyt'''ap'''         || éyt'''ep'''         || dárb'''ap'''           || dérb'''ep'''  
===Nominals===
|-
 
| {{sc|3 sg}}        || áyt'''a'''           || éyt'''e'''           || dárb'''a'''           || dérb'''e'''  
=====Case morphophonology=====
|-
[[#Ratio casuum|Case endings]] can affect the final consonant of a [[#Roots and principle parts|root]], and the final consonant of a root can affect case endings, especially in the [[#Number|singular]].
| {{sc|1 du inc}}    || '''l'''áyt'''at'''   || '''l'''éyt'''et'''   || '''la'''dárb'''at'''   || '''le'''dérb'''et'''  
 
|-
This happens in the following way:
| {{sc|1 du noninc}} || '''l'''áyt'''al'''   || '''l'''éyt'''el'''   || '''la'''dárb'''al'''   || '''le'''dérb'''el'''  
 
|-
*[[#Partitive|partitive]]: following '''/b/''', '''/d/''', '''/g/''', or '''/z/''' the ending '''''-sXb''''' => '''''-zXb'''''
| {{sc|2 du}}        || '''p'''áyt'''al'''   || '''p'''éyt'''el'''   || '''pa'''dárb'''al'''   || '''pe'''dérb'''el'''  
*[[#Genitive|genitive]]: following '''/l/''' the ending '''''-rXz''''' goes to '''''-lXz'''''
|-
*[[#Benefactive|benefactive]]: the ending '''''-prX''''' swallows final '''/b/''' and '''/p/''', and in the case of the former the ending turnss to '''''-brX'''''
| {{sc|3 du}}        || áyt'''al'''         || éyt'''el'''         || dárb'''al'''           || dérb'''el'''  
*[[#Telic|telic]]: the ending '''''-nkX''''' swallows final '''/k/''' and '''/g/''', and in the case of the latter the ending turns to '''''-ngX'''''
*[[#Locatives|inessive]]: without a vowel in between the ending '''''-bi''''' forces the final consonant to voice, if possible, and furthermore swallows final '''/b/''' and '''/p/'''
*[[#Locatives|superessive]]: without a vowel in between the ending '''''-pi''''' forces the final consonant to devoice, if possible, and furthermore swallows final '''/b/''' and '''/p/'''
*[[#Instrumental/comitative|instrumental]]: without a vowel in between the ending '''''-gdX''''' forces the final consonant to voice, if possible, and furthermore swallows final '''/g/''' and '''/k/'''
*[[#Instrumental/comitative|caritive]]: without a vowel in between the ending '''''-ktX''''' forces the final consonant to devoice, if possible, and furthermore swallows final '''/g/''' and '''/k/'''
 
This process is further complicated by the gradation effected by the [[#Diminutive morphophonology|diminutives]].
 
====Declension tables====
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
!colspan="7"|{{sc|declensions}}
|-
|-
| {{sc|1 pl inc}}   || '''n'''áyt'''awat''' || '''n'''éyt'''ewet''' || '''na'''dárb'''awat''' || '''ne'''dérb'''ewet'''
!colspan=2|
!{{sc|ending}}||{{sc|mwk, "dog"}}||{{sc|gdw, "gift"}}||{{sc|bls, "snow"}}||{{sc|azl, "life"}}
|-
|-
| {{sc|1 pl noninc}} || '''n'''áyt'''awan''' || '''n'''éyt'''ewen''' || '''na'''dárb'''awan''' || '''ne'''dérb'''ewen'''  
!colspan=1 rowspan=12|{{sc|singular}}
| {{sc|vocative}} || ''''''                 || '''muk'''     || '''gódo'''     || '''bĺs'''     || '''zála'''
|-
|-
| {{sc|2 pl}}       || '''p'''áyt'''awan''' || '''p'''éyt'''ewen''' || '''pa'''dárb'''awan''' || '''pe'''dérb'''ewen'''  
| {{sc|ergative}} || ''''''                 || '''mówok'''   || '''gódow'''   || '''bálas'''   || '''ázala'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|3 pl}}       || áyt'''awan'''       || éyt'''ewen'''       || dárb'''awan'''         || dérb'''ewen'''  
| {{sc|similative}} || '''-Xm'''           || '''múkum'''   || '''gódom'''   || '''bĺsam'''  || '''zálam'''  
|-
|-
|
| {{sc|partitive}} || '''-sXb'''            || '''múksub'''  || '''gódosob'''  || '''bĺsab'''  || '''zálasab'''
|-
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=12|{{sc|middle}}  
| {{sc|genitive}} || '''-rXz / -rz'''      || '''mwókroz''' || '''ógdworz''' || '''blásraz''' || '''ázalarz'''  
| {{sc|1 sg}}        || áy'''ŧat'''         || éy'''ŧet'''         || dárb'''đat'''           || dérb'''đet'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|2 sg}}       || áy'''ŧap'''         || éy'''ŧep'''         || dárb'''đap'''           || dérb'''đep'''  
| {{sc|benefactive}} || '''-prX / -pXr'''   || '''mwókpro''' || '''ógdwopor''' || '''bláspra''' || '''azálapar'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|3 sg}}       || áy'''ŧa'''           || éy'''ŧe'''           || dárb'''đa'''           || dérb'''đe'''  
| {{sc|telic}} || '''-nkX / -nXk'''         || '''mwónko''' || '''ogdwónko''' || '''blásnak''' || '''azálanak'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|1 du inc}}   || '''l'''áy'''ŧat'''   || '''l'''éy'''ŧet'''  || '''la'''dárb'''đat'''  || '''le'''dérb'''đet'''  
| {{sc|inessive}} || '''-bi'''             || '''mwógbi''' || '''ógdwobi''' || '''blázbi''' || '''azálabi'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|1 du noninc}} || '''l'''áy'''ŧal'''   || '''l'''éy'''ŧel'''  || '''la'''dárb'''đal'''  || '''le'''dérb'''đel'''  
| {{sc|superessive}} || '''-pi'''           || '''mwókpi''' || '''ógdwopi''' || '''bláspi''' || '''azálapi'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|2 du}}       || '''p'''áy'''ŧal'''   || '''p'''éy'''ŧel'''  || '''pa'''dárb'''đal'''  || '''pe'''dérb'''đel'''  
| {{sc|instr./comit.}} || '''-gdX / -gXd''' || '''mwógdo''' || '''ógdwogod''' || '''blázgad''' || '''azálagad'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|3 du}}       || áy'''ŧal'''         || éy'''ŧel'''         || dárb'''đal'''           || dérb'''đel'''  
| {{sc|caritive}} || '''-ktX / -kXt'''     || '''mwókto''' || '''ógdwokot''' || '''bláskat''' || '''azálakat'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|1 pl inc}}    || '''n'''áy'''ŧawat''' || '''n'''éy'''ŧewet''' || '''na'''dárb'''đawen''' || '''ne'''dérb'''đewet'''
|
|-
|-
| {{sc|1 pl noninc}} || '''n'''áy'''ŧawan''' || '''n'''éy'''ŧewen''' || '''na'''dárb'''đawen''' || '''ne'''dérb'''đewen'''  
!colspan=1 rowspan=12|{{sc|dual}}
| {{sc|vocative}} || '''-li'''                   || '''múkli'''     || '''gódoli''' || '''bĺs''' || '''zálali'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|2 pl}}       || '''p'''áy'''ŧawan''' || '''p'''éy'''ŧewen''' || '''pa'''dárb'''đawen''' || '''pe'''dérb'''đewen'''  
| {{sc|ergative}} || '''-li'''                   || '''mowókli'''  || '''godówli'''    || '''balásli''' || '''azálali'''
|-
| {{sc|similative}} || '''-li-''' + '''-m'''      || '''múklim'''    || '''gódolim'''    || '''bĺslim'''    || '''zálalim'''
|-
| {{sc|partitive}} || '''-li-''' + '''-sXb'''    || '''múklisub'''  || '''godólisub'''  || '''bĺsab'''    || '''zalálisab'''
|-
| {{sc|genitive}} || '''-li-''' + '''-rz'''      || '''mwóklirz''' || '''ógdwolirz''' || '''bláslirz''' || '''azálalirz'''  
|-
| {{sc|benefactive}} || '''-lí-''' + '''-pXr'''  || '''mwoklípor''' || '''ogdwolípor''' || '''blaslípar''' || '''azalalípor'''
|-
| {{sc|telic}} || '''-lí-''' + '''-nXk'''        || '''mwoklínok''' || '''ogdwolínok''' || '''blaslínak''' || '''azalalínok'''
|-
| {{sc|inessive}} || '''-lí-''' + '''-bi'''      || '''mwoklíbi'''  || '''ogdwolíbi'''  || '''blaslíbi'''  || '''azalalíbi'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|3 pl}}       || áy'''ŧawan'''       || éy'''ŧewen'''       || dárb'''đawen'''         || dérb'''đewen'''  
| {{sc|superessive}} || '''-lí-''' + '''-pi'''    || '''mwoklípi'''  || '''ogdwolípi''' || '''blaslípi''' || '''azalalípi'''  
|-
|-
|  
| {{sc|instr./comit.}} || '''-lí-''' + '''-gXd''' || '''mwoklígod''' || '''ogdwolígod''' || '''blaslígad''' || '''azalalígad'''
|-
| {{sc|caritive}} || '''-lí-''' + '''-kXt'''      || '''mwoklíkot''' || '''ogdwolíkot''' || '''blaslíkat''' || '''azalalíkat'''
|-
|
|-
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=11|{{sc|passive}}  
!colspan=1 rowspan=12|{{sc|plural}}  
| {{sc|1 sg}}       || ayt'''ánkat'''         || eyt'''énket'''         || darb'''ánkat'''         || derb'''énket'''  
| {{sc|vocative}} || '''-ín'''                             || '''mukín'''     || '''godóyn'''     || '''blsín''' || '''zaláyn'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|2 sg}}       || ayt'''ánkap'''         || eyt'''énkep'''         || darb'''ánkap'''         || derb'''énke'''  
| {{sc|ergative}} || '''-ín'''                             || '''mowokín'''   || '''godowín'''   || '''balasín''' || '''azaláyn'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|3 sg}}       || ayt'''ánka'''         || eyt'''énke'''         || darb'''ánka'''           || derb'''énke'''  
| {{sc|similative}} || '''-ín-''' + '''-Xm'''              || '''mukínum'''  || '''godóynom'''   || '''blsínam''' || '''zaláynam'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|1 du inc}}   || '''l'''ayt'''ánkat''' || '''l'''eyt'''énket'''  || '''la'''darb'''ánkat''' || '''le'''derb'''énket'''  
| {{sc|partitive}} || '''-ín- / -yn-''' + '''-sXb'''       || '''mukínsub'''  || '''godóynsob'''   || '''blsínsab''' || '''zaláynsab'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|1 du noninc}} || '''l'''ayt'''ánkal''' || '''l'''eyt'''énkel''' || '''la'''darb'''ánkal''' || '''le'''derb'''énkel'''  
| {{sc|genitive}} || '''-ín / -yn-''' + '''-rXz'''         || '''mwokínroz''' || '''ogdwóynroz''' || '''blasínraz''' || '''azaláynraz'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|2 du}}       || '''p'''ayt'''ánkal''' || '''p'''eyt'''énkel''' || '''pa'''darb'''ánkal''' || '''pe'''derb'''énkel'''  
| {{sc|benefactive}} || '''-ín- / -yn-''' + '''-prX'''     || '''mwokínpro''' || '''ogdwóynpro''' || '''blasínpra''' || '''azaláynpra'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|3 du}}       || ayt'''ánkal'''        || eyt'''énkel'''         || darb'''ánkal'''         || derb'''énkel'''  
| {{sc|telic}} || '''-ín- / -yn-''' + '''-(n)kX'''        || '''mwokínko''' || '''ogdwóynko'''  || '''blasínka''' || '''azaláynka'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|1 pl inc}}   || '''n'''ayt'''ánkwat''' || '''n'''eyt'''énkwet''' || '''na'''darb'''ánkwat''' || '''ne'''derb'''énkwet'''  
| {{sc|inessive}} || '''-ím- / -ym-''' + '''-bi'''         || '''mwokímbi''' || '''ogdwóymbi''' || '''blasímbi''' || '''azaláymbi'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|1 pl noninc}} || '''n'''ayt'''ánkwan''' || '''n'''eyt'''énkwen''' || '''na'''darb'''ánkwan''' || '''ne'''derb'''énkwen'''  
| {{sc|superessive}} || '''-ín- / -yn-''' + '''-pi'''     || '''mwokínpi''' || '''ogdwóynpi''' || '''blasínpi''' || '''azaláynpi'''
|-
|-
| {{sc|2 pl}}       || '''p'''ayt'''ánkwan''' || '''p'''eyt'''énkwen''' || '''pa'''darb'''ánkwan''' || '''e'''derb'''énkwen'''  
| {{sc|instr./comit.}} || '''-ím- / -ym-''' + '''-(g)dX''' || '''mwokímdo''' || '''ogdwóymdo''' || '''blasímda''' || '''azaláymda'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|3 pl}}       || ayt'''ánkwan'''       || eyt'''énkwen'''       || darb'''ánkwan'''         || derb'''énkwen'''  
| {{sc|caritive}} || '''-ín- / -yn-''' + '''-(k)tX'''      || '''mwokínto'''  || '''ogdwóynto''' || '''blasínta''' || '''azaláynta'''  
|}
|}


===Verbals===


:O-stems:
======Middle voice morphophonology======
 
====Conjugation tables====
 
:A-stems:


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
!colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|{{sc|rwk, "to speak"}}  
!colspan="2"|{{sc|ayt, "to run"}}  
!colspan="2"|{{sc|gdw, "to give"}}  
!colspan="2"|{{sc|drb, "to fall"}}  
|-
|-
!colspan=2|
!colspan=2|
!{{sc|imperf}}||{{sc|perf}}||{{sc|imperf}}||{{sc|perf}}
!{{sc|imperf}}||{{sc|perf}}||{{sc|imperf}}||{{sc|perf}}
|-
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=12|{{sc|active}}
!colspan=1 rowspan=12|{{sc|active}}  
| {{sc|1 sg}}        || rówk'''ot'''           || rúwk'''ut'''           || gódw'''ot'''         || gúdw'''ut'''  
| {{sc|1 sg}}        || áyt'''at'''         || éyt'''et'''         || dárb'''at'''           || dérb'''et'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|2 sg}}        || rówk'''op'''           || rúwk'''up'''           || gódw'''op'''         || gúdw'''up'''  
| {{sc|2 sg}}        || áyt'''ap'''         || éyt'''ep'''         || dárb'''ap'''           || dérb'''ep'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|3 sg}}        || rówk'''o'''           || rúwk'''u'''           || gódw'''o'''         || gúdw'''u'''
| {{sc|3 sg}}        || áyt'''a'''           || éyt'''e'''           || dárb'''a'''           || dérb'''e'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|1 du inc}}    || '''lo'''rówk'''ot'''  || '''lu'''rúwk'''ut'''  || '''lo'''gódw'''ot''' || '''lu'''gúdw'''ut'''  
| {{sc|1 du inc}}    || '''l'''áyt'''at'''  || '''l'''éyt'''et'''  || '''la'''dárb'''at'''   || '''le'''dérb'''et'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|1 du noninc}} || '''lo'''rówk'''ol'''  || '''lu'''rúwk'''ul'''  || '''lo'''gódw'''ol''' || '''lu'''gúdw'''ul'''  
| {{sc|1 du noninc}} || '''l'''áyt'''al'''  || '''l'''éyt'''el'''  || '''la'''dárb'''al'''   || '''le'''dérb'''el'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|2 du}}        || '''po'''rówk'''ol'''  || '''pu'''rúwk'''ul'''  || '''po'''gódw'''ol''' || '''pu'''gúdw'''ul'''  
| {{sc|2 du}}        || '''p'''áyt'''al'''  || '''p'''éyt'''el'''  || '''pa'''dárb'''al'''   || '''pe'''dérb'''el'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|3 du}}        || rówk'''ol'''          || rúwk'''ul'''           || gódw'''ol'''         || gúdw'''ul'''  
| {{sc|3 du}}        || áyt'''al'''          || éyt'''el'''         || dárb'''al'''           || dérb'''el'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|1 pl inc}}    || '''no'''rówk'''owot''' || '''nu'''rúwk'''uwut''' || '''no'''gódw'''ot''' || '''nu'''gúdw'''ut'''  
| {{sc|1 pl inc}}    || '''n'''áyt'''awat''' || '''n'''éyt'''ewet''' || '''na'''dárb'''awat''' || '''ne'''dérb'''ewet'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|1 pl noninc}} || '''no'''rówk'''owon''' || '''nu'''rúwk'''uwun''' || '''no'''gódw'''on''' || '''nu'''gúdw'''un'''
| {{sc|1 pl noninc}} || '''n'''áyt'''awan''' || '''n'''éyt'''ewen''' || '''na'''dárb'''awan''' || '''ne'''dérb'''ewen'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|2 pl}}        || '''po'''rówk'''owon''' || '''pu'''rúwk'''uwun''' || '''po'''gódw'''on''' || '''po'''gúdw'''un'''  
| {{sc|2 pl}}        || '''p'''áyt'''awan''' || '''p'''éyt'''ewen''' || '''pa'''dárb'''awan''' || '''pe'''dérb'''ewen'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|3 pl}}        || rówk'''owon'''         || rúwk'''uwun'''         || gódw'''on'''        || gúdw'''un'''  
| {{sc|3 pl}}        || áyt'''awan'''       || éyt'''ewen'''       || dárb'''awan'''        || dérb'''ewen'''  
|-
|-
|
|
|-
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=12|{{sc|middle}}  
!colspan=1 rowspan=12|{{sc|middle}}  
| {{sc|1 sg}}        || rówk'''ŧot'''           || rúwk'''ŧut'''           || go'''đ'''w'''ot'''        || gu'''đ'''w'''ut'''  
| {{sc|1 sg}}        || áy'''ŧyat'''         || éy'''ŧyet'''         || dárb'''đyat'''           || dérb'''đyet'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|2 sg}}        || rówk'''ŧop'''           || rúwk'''ŧup'''           || go'''đ'''w'''op'''        || gu'''đ'''w'''up'''  
| {{sc|2 sg}}        || áy'''ŧyap'''         || éy'''ŧyep'''         || dárb'''đyap'''           || dérb'''đyep'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|3 sg}}        || rówk'''ŧo'''           || rúwk'''ŧu'''           || go'''đ'''w'''o'''          || gu'''đ'''w'''u'''  
| {{sc|3 sg}}        || áy'''ŧya'''           || éy'''ŧye'''           || dárb'''đya'''           || dérb'''đye'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|1 du inc}}    || '''lo'''rówk'''ŧot'''  || '''lu'''rúwk'''ŧut'''  || '''lo'''go'''đ'''w'''ot''' || '''lu'''gu'''đ'''w'''ut'''  
| {{sc|1 du inc}}    || '''l'''áy'''ŧyat'''  || '''l'''éy'''ŧyet'''  || '''la'''dárb'''đyat'''   || '''le'''dérb'''đyet'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|1 du noninc}} || '''lo'''rówk'''ŧol'''  || '''lu'''rúwk'''ŧul'''  || '''lo'''go'''đ'''w'''ol''' || '''lu'''gu'''đ'''w'''ul'''  
| {{sc|1 du noninc}} || '''l'''áy'''ŧyal'''  || '''l'''éy'''ŧyel'''  || '''la'''dárb'''đyal'''   || '''le'''dérb'''đyel'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|2 du}}        || '''po'''rówk'''ŧol'''  || '''pu'''rúwk'''ŧul'''  || '''po'''go'''đ'''w'''ol''' || '''pu'''gu'''đ'''w'''ul'''  
| {{sc|2 du}}        || '''p'''áy'''ŧyal'''  || '''p'''éy'''ŧyel'''  || '''pa'''dárb'''đyal'''   || '''pe'''dérb'''đyel'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|3 du}}        || rówk'''ŧol'''           || rúwk'''ŧul'''           || go'''đ'''w'''ol'''        || gu'''đ'''w'''ul'''  
| {{sc|3 du}}        || áy'''ŧyal'''         || éy'''ŧyel'''         || dárb'''đyal'''           || dérb'''đyel'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|1 pl inc}}    || '''no'''rówk'''ŧowot''' || '''no'''rúwk'''ŧuwut''' || '''no'''go'''đ'''w'''ot''' || '''nu'''gu'''đ'''w'''ut'''  
| {{sc|1 pl inc}}    || '''n'''áy'''ŧiwat''' || '''n'''éy'''ŧiwet''' || '''na'''dárb'''điwan''' || '''ne'''dérb'''đyewet'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|1 pl noninc}} || '''no'''rówk'''ŧowon''' || '''no'''rúwk'''ŧuwun''' || '''no'''go'''đ'''w'''on''' || '''nu'''gu'''đ'''w'''un'''
| {{sc|1 pl noninc}} || '''n'''áy'''ŧiwan''' || '''n'''éy'''ŧiwen''' || '''na'''dárb'''điwan''' || '''ne'''dérb'''đyewen'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|2 pl}}        || '''po'''rówk'''ŧowon''' || '''no'''rúwk'''ŧuwun''' || '''po'''go'''đ'''w'''on''' || '''pu'''gu'''đ'''w'''un'''  
| {{sc|2 pl}}        || '''p'''áy'''ŧiwan''' || '''p'''éy'''ŧiwen''' || '''pa'''dárb'''điwan''' || '''pe'''dérb'''đyewen'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|3 pl}}        || rówk'''ŧowon'''         || rúwk'''ŧuwun'''         || go'''đ'''w'''on'''        || gu'''đ'''w'''un'''
| {{sc|3 pl}}        || áy'''ŧiwan'''       || éy'''ŧiwen'''       || dárb'''điwan'''        || dérb'''điwen'''  
|-
|-
|
|  
|-
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=11|{{sc|passive}}  
!colspan=1 rowspan=11|{{sc|passive}}  
| {{sc|1 sg}}        || rowk'''ónkot'''         || ruk'''únkut'''         || godw'''ónkot'''          || gudw'''únkut'''  
| {{sc|1 sg}}        || ayt'''ánkat'''         || eyt'''énket'''         || darb'''ánkat'''          || derb'''énket'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|2 sg}}        || rowk'''onkop'''         || ruk'''únkup'''         || godw'''ónkop'''           || gudw'''únkup'''  
| {{sc|2 sg}}        || ayt'''ánkap'''         || eyt'''énkep'''         || darb'''ánkap'''         || derb'''énke'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|3 sg}}        || rowk'''ónko'''           || ruk'''únku'''           || godw'''ónko'''          || gudw'''únku'''  
| {{sc|3 sg}}        || ayt'''ánka'''         || eyt'''énke'''         || darb'''ánka'''          || derb'''énke'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|1 du inc}}    || '''lo'''rowk'''ónkot'''  || '''lu'''ruk'''únkut'''  || '''lo'''godw'''ónkot'''  || '''lu'''gudw'''únkut'''  
| {{sc|1 du inc}}    || '''l'''ayt'''ánkat'''  || '''l'''eyt'''énket'''  || '''la'''darb'''ánkat'''  || '''le'''derb'''énket'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|1 du noninc}} || '''lo'''rowk'''ónkol'''  || '''lu'''ruk'''únkul'''  || '''lo'''godw'''ónkol'''  || '''lu'''gudw'''únkul'''  
| {{sc|1 du noninc}} || '''l'''ayt'''ánkal'''  || '''l'''eyt'''énkel'''  || '''la'''darb'''ánkal'''  || '''le'''derb'''énkel'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|2 du}}        || '''po'''rowk'''ónkol'''  || '''pu'''ruk'''únkul'''  || '''po'''godw'''ónkol'''  || '''pu'''gudw'''únkul'''  
| {{sc|2 du}}        || '''p'''ayt'''ánkal'''  || '''p'''eyt'''énkel'''  || '''pa'''darb'''ánkal'''  || '''pe'''derb'''énkel'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|3 du}}        || rowk'''ónkol'''         || ruk'''únkul'''         || godw'''ónkol'''          || gudw'''únkul'''  
| {{sc|3 du}}        || ayt'''ánkal'''         || eyt'''énkel'''         || darb'''ánkal'''          || derb'''énkel'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|1 pl inc}}    || '''no'''rowk'''ónkwot''' || '''nu'''ruk'''únkwut''' || '''no'''godw'''ónkwot''' || '''nu'''gudw'''únkwut'''  
| {{sc|1 pl inc}}    || '''n'''ayt'''ánkwat''' || '''n'''eyt'''énkwet''' || '''na'''darb'''ánkwat''' || '''ne'''derb'''énkwet'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|1 pl noninc}} || '''no'''rowk'''ónkwon''' || '''nu'''ruk'''únkwun''' || '''no'''godw'''ónkwon''' || '''nu'''gudw'''únkwun'''
| {{sc|1 pl noninc}} || '''n'''ayt'''ánkwan''' || '''n'''eyt'''énkwen''' || '''na'''darb'''ánkwan''' || '''ne'''derb'''énkwen'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|2 pl}}        || '''po'''rowk'''ónkwon''' || '''pu'''ruk'''únkwun''' || '''po'''godw'''ónkwon''' || '''pu'''gudw'''únkwun'''  
| {{sc|2 pl}}        || '''p'''ayt'''ánkwan''' || '''p'''eyt'''énkwen''' || '''pa'''darb'''ánkwan''' || '''e'''derb'''énkwen'''  
|-
|-
| {{sc|3 pl}}        || rowk'''ónkwon'''         || ruk'''únkwun'''         || godw'''ónkwon'''        || gudw'''únkwun'''
| {{sc|3 pl}}        || ayt'''ánkwan'''       || eyt'''énkwen'''       || darb'''ánkwan'''        || derb'''énkwen'''  
|}
|}


====Participials====
 
Here is an example of the possible participial forms a verb can have before [[#Derivational morphology|various forms of pre- and infixation]].
:O-stems:


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
!colspan="7"|{{sc|ayt, "to run"}}  
!colspan="2"|
!colspan="2"|{{sc|rwk, "to speak"}}
!colspan="2"|{{sc|gdw, "to give"}}  
|-
|-
!colspan=2|
!colspan=2|
!{{sc|imperfective}}||{{sc|perfective}}||{{sc|future}}||{{sc|future perfect}}
!{{sc|imperf}}||{{sc|perf}}||{{sc|imperf}}||{{sc|perf}}
|-
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=4|{{sc|singular}}  
!colspan=1 rowspan=12|{{sc|active}}
| {{sc|act}} || yát || yét || yátkay || yétkey
| {{sc|1 sg}}       || rówk'''ot'''          || rúwk'''ut'''          || gódw'''ot'''        || gúdw'''ut'''
|-
|-
| {{sc|med}} || yáŧ || yéŧ || yáŧkay || yéŧkey
| {{sc|2 sg}}       || rówk'''op'''          || rúwk'''up'''          || gódw'''op'''        || gúdw'''up'''
|-
|-
| {{sc|pass}} || yatának || yetének || yatánkay || yeténkey
| {{sc|3 sg}}       || rówk'''o'''            || rúwk'''u'''            || gódw'''o'''          || gúdw'''u'''
|-
|-
|
| {{sc|1 du inc}}    || '''lo'''rówk'''ot'''  || '''lu'''rúwk'''ut'''  || '''lo'''gódw'''ot''' || '''lu'''gúdw'''ut'''
|-
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=4|{{sc|dual}}
| {{sc|1 du noninc}} || '''lo'''rówk'''ol'''  || '''lu'''rúwk'''ul'''  || '''lo'''gódw'''ol''' || '''lu'''gúdw'''ul'''
| {{sc|act}} || yátli || yétli || yatkáyli || yetkéyli
|-
|-
| {{sc|med}} || yáŧli || yéŧli || yaŧkáyli || yeŧkéyli
| {{sc|2 du}}       || '''po'''rówk'''ol'''  || '''pu'''rúwk'''ul'''  || '''po'''gódw'''ol''' || '''pu'''gúdw'''ul'''
|-
|-
| {{sc|pass}} || yatánkli || yeténkli || yatankáyli || yetenkéyli
| {{sc|3 du}}       || rówk'''ol'''          || rúwk'''ul'''          || gódw'''ol'''        || gúdw'''ul'''
|-
|-
|
| {{sc|1 pl inc}}    || '''no'''rówk'''owot''' || '''nu'''rúwk'''uwut''' || '''no'''gódw'''ot''' || '''nu'''gúdw'''ut'''
|-
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=3|{{sc|plural}}
| {{sc|1 pl noninc}} || '''no'''rówk'''owon''' || '''nu'''rúwk'''uwun''' || '''no'''gódw'''on''' || '''nu'''gúdw'''un'''
| {{sc|act}} || yatín || yetín || yatkayín || yetkeyín
|-
|-
| {{sc|med}} || yaŧín || yeŧín || yaŧkayín || yeŧkeyín
| {{sc|2 pl}}       || '''po'''rówk'''owon''' || '''pu'''rúwk'''uwun''' || '''po'''gódw'''on''' || '''po'''gúdw'''un'''
|-
| {{sc|3 pl}}        || rówk'''owon'''        || rúwk'''uwun'''        || gódw'''on'''        || gúdw'''un'''
|-
|
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=12|{{sc|middle}}
| {{sc|1 sg}}        || rówk'''ŧyot'''          || rúwk'''ŧyut'''          || gó'''đi'''w'''ot'''        || gú'''đi'''w'''ut'''
|-
| {{sc|2 sg}}        || rówk'''ŧyop'''          || rúwk'''ŧyup'''          || gó'''đi'''w'''op'''        || gú'''đi'''w'''up'''
|-
| {{sc|3 sg}}        || rówk'''ŧyo'''            || rúwk'''ŧyu'''            || gó'''đi'''w'''o'''          || gú'''đi'''w'''u'''
|-
| {{sc|1 du inc}}    || '''lo'''rówk'''ŧyot'''  || '''lu'''rúwk'''ŧyut'''  || '''lo'''gó'''đi'''w'''ot''' || '''lu'''gú'''đi'''w'''ut'''
|-
| {{sc|1 du noninc}} || '''lo'''rówk'''ŧyol'''  || '''lu'''rúwk'''ŧyul'''  || '''lo'''gó'''đi'''w'''ol''' || '''lu'''gú'''đi'''w'''ul'''
|-
| {{sc|2 du}}        || '''po'''rówk'''ŧyol'''  || '''pu'''rúwk'''ŧyul'''  || '''po'''gó'''đi'''w'''ol''' || '''pu'''gú'''đi'''w'''ul'''
|-
| {{sc|3 du}}        || rówk'''ŧyol'''          || rúwk'''ŧyul'''          || gó'''đi'''w'''ol'''        || gú'''đi'''w'''ul'''
|-
| {{sc|1 pl inc}}    || '''no'''rówk'''ŧiwot''' || '''no'''rúwk'''ŧiwut''' || '''no'''gó'''đi'''w'''ot''' || '''nu'''gú'''đi'''w'''ut'''
|-
| {{sc|1 pl noninc}} || '''no'''rówk'''ŧiwon''' || '''no'''rúwk'''ŧiwun''' || '''no'''gó'''đi'''w'''on''' || '''nu'''gú'''đi'''w'''un'''
|-
|-
| {{sc|pass}} ||yatnakín || yetnekín || yatnakayín || yetnekeyín
| {{sc|2 pl}}       || '''po'''rówk'''ŧiwon''' || '''no'''rúwk'''ŧiwun''' || '''po'''gó'''đi'''w'''on''' || '''pu'''gú'''đi'''w'''un'''
|}
|-
 
| {{sc|3 pl}}        || rówk'''ŧiwon'''        || rúwk'''ŧiwun'''        || gó'''đi'''w'''on'''        || gú'''đi'''w'''un'''
==Derivational morphology==
|-
Rówok has quite a bit of derivational morphology.
|
 
|-
===Aspect and tense===
!colspan=1 rowspan=11|{{sc|passive}}
Primary aspect (as covered in the section on [[#Aspect|verbal aspect]]) is shown through ablaut of the root's vowel structure in the following way:
| {{sc|1 sg}}        || rowk'''ónkot'''          || ruk'''únkut'''          || godw'''ónkot'''          || gudw'''únkut'''
 
|-
From imperfective to perfective:
| {{sc|2 sg}}        || rowk'''onkop'''          || ruk'''únkup'''          || godw'''ónkop'''          || gudw'''únkup'''
*'''a => e'''
|-
*'''o => u'''  
| {{sc|3 sg}}        || rowk'''ónko'''          || ruk'''únku'''          || godw'''ónko'''          || gudw'''únku'''
 
|-
Further are 2 aspectual infixes and two tense infixes. In the following X represents a dummy vowel in infixes, determined by the vowel quality of the word.
| {{sc|1 du inc}}    || '''lo'''rowk'''ónkot'''  || '''lu'''ruk'''únkut'''  || '''lo'''godw'''ónkot'''  || '''lu'''gudw'''únkut'''
|-
| {{sc|1 du noninc}} || '''lo'''rowk'''ónkol'''  || '''lu'''ruk'''únkul'''  || '''lo'''godw'''ónkol'''  || '''lu'''gudw'''únkul'''
|-
| {{sc|2 du}}        || '''po'''rowk'''ónkol'''  || '''pu'''ruk'''únkul'''  || '''po'''godw'''ónkol'''  || '''pu'''gudw'''únkul'''  
|-
| {{sc|3 du}}        || rowk'''ónkol'''          || ruk'''únkul'''          || godw'''ónkol'''          || gudw'''únkul'''
|-
| {{sc|1 pl inc}}    || '''no'''rowk'''ónkwot''' || '''nu'''ruk'''únkwut''' || '''no'''godw'''ónkwot''' || '''nu'''gudw'''únkwut'''  
|-
| {{sc|1 pl noninc}} || '''no'''rowk'''ónkwon''' || '''nu'''ruk'''únkwun''' || '''no'''godw'''ónkwon''' || '''nu'''gudw'''únkwun'''
|-
| {{sc|2 pl}}        || '''po'''rowk'''ónkwon''' || '''pu'''ruk'''únkwun''' || '''po'''godw'''ónkwon''' || '''pu'''gudw'''únkwun'''
|-
| {{sc|3 pl}}        || rowk'''ónkwon'''        || ruk'''únkwun'''        || godw'''ónkwon'''        || gudw'''únkwun'''
|}


*The aspectual infixes are [[#Inchoative|inchoative]] '''-sp-/-zb-''' and [[#Frequentative|frequentative]] '''-ts-/-dz-''', depending on the voicing of the final consonant of the root. 
====Participials====
*The tense infixes are [[#Past|past]] '''-rX-''' and [[#Future|future]] '''-kXy-/-gXy-'''.
Here is an example of the possible participial forms a verb can have before [[#Derivational morphology|various forms of pre- and infixation]].


All of these can theoretically all together be infixed onto a verb, or participle. Grouping the tense aspects gives a special meaning, depending on which comes
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
 
!colspan="7"|{{sc|ayt-, "to run"}}
So an example with the imperfect active participle of the root '''ayt-''' (to run) '''"yát"''', meaning a '''running thing''' when used in apposition, or a '''runner''' when used alone:
|-
 
!colspan=2|
*'''yát''' - a runner
!{{sc|imperfective}}||{{sc|perfective}}||{{sc|future}}||{{sc|future perfect}}
*'''yátasp''' - a beginning runner (double entendre: could be a beginner to the sport, or someone taking off running: '''''yataspín''''' would be runners starting at their mark)
|-
*'''yáts''' - a frequent runner ('''yát'''+'''ts'''=>'''yáts''')
!colspan=1 rowspan=4|{{sc|singular}}
*'''yátra''' - a former runner
| {{sc|act}} || yát || yét || yátkay || yétkey
*'''yátkay''' - a future runner
|-
 
| {{sc|med}} || yáŧ || yéŧ || yáŧkay || yéŧkey
now combining:
|-
 
| {{sc|pass}} || yatának || yetének || yatánkay || yeténkey
*'''yátsasp''' - a beginning frequent runner
|-
*'''yatrákay''' - an ex future runner (someone who showed talent, perhaps, but never lived up to potential)
|
*'''yatkáyra''' - a future ex runner (someone who will take it up and quit)
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=4|{{sc|dual}}
| {{sc|act}} || yátli || yétli || yatkáyli || yetkéyli
|-
| {{sc|med}} || yáŧli || yéŧli || yaŧkáyli || yeŧkéyli
|-
| {{sc|pass}} || yatánkli || yeténkli || yatankáyli || yetenkéyli
|-
|
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=3|{{sc|plural}}
| {{sc|act}} || yatín || yetín || yatkayín || yetkeyín
|-
| {{sc|med}} || yaŧín || yeŧín || yaŧkayín || yeŧkeyín
|-
| {{sc|pass}} ||yatnakín || yetnekín || yatnakayín || yetnekeyín
|}


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
!colspan="7"|{{sc|drb-, "to fall"}}
|-
!colspan=2|
!{{sc|imperfective}}||{{sc|perfective}}||{{sc|future}}||{{sc|future perfect}}
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=4|{{sc|singular}}
| {{sc|act}} || dŕb || dréb || dŕbkay || dŕbkey
|-
| {{sc|med}} || dŕbađ || dŕbeđ || dŕbđkay || dŕbđkey
|-
| {{sc|pass}} || drbának || drbének || drbánkay || drbénkey
|-
|
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=4|{{sc|dual}}
| {{sc|act}} || dŕbli || drébli || dŕbkáyli || drbkéyli
|-
| {{sc|med}} || dŕbđli || drébđli || dŕbđkáyli || drbđkéyli
|-
| {{sc|pass}} || drbánkli || drbénkli || drbankáyli || drbenkéyli
|-
|
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=3|{{sc|plural}}
| {{sc|act}} || drbín || drebín || drbkayín || drbkeyín
|-
| {{sc|med}} || drbđín || drbđín || drbđkayín || drbđkeyín
|-
| {{sc|pass}} ||drbnakín || drbnekín || drbnakayín || drbnekeyín
|}


most perverse:
==Derivational morphology==
 
Rówok has quite a bit of derivational morphology.
*'''yatsasparákay''' - a person who began to run frequently and then stopped
*'''yatsaspakáyra''' - a person who will begin to frequently run but then stop
 
The case endings are added to the ends of these forms, just as the verb endings would be added to the end as well, cf:


*'''áytawan''' - they run, are running
===Aspect and tense===
*'''aytáspawan''' - they begin running
Primary aspect (as covered in the section on [[#Aspect|verbal aspect]]) is shown through ablaut of the root's vowel structure in the following way:
*'''áytsawan''' - they frequently run
*'''áytrawan''' - they were running in the past
*'''aytkáyawan''' - they will be running in the future


and of course the possible but ungodly:
From imperfective to perfective:
*'''aytsasprakáyawan''' - they were beginning to be about to be running frequently but then didn't
*'''a => e'''
*'''o => u'''  


====Frequentative====
Further are 2 aspectual infixes and two tense infixes. In the following X represents a dummy vowel in infixes, determined by the vowel quality of the word.


====Inchoative====
*The aspectual infixes are [[#Inchoative|inchoative]] '''-sp-/-zb-''' and [[#Frequentative|frequentative]] '''-ts-/-dz-''', depending on the voicing of the final consonant of the root. 
*The tense infixes are [[#Past|past]] '''-rX-''' and [[#Future|future]] '''-kXy-/-gXy-'''.


====Future====
All of these can theoretically all together be infixed onto a verb, or participle. Grouping the tense aspects gives a special meaning, depending on which comes


====Past====
So an example with the imperfect active participle of the root '''ayt-''' (to run) '''"yát"''', meaning a '''running thing''' when used in apposition, or a '''runner''' when used alone:


===Diminutives and augmentatives===
*'''yát''' - a runner
Diminutives and augmentatives (one of which functions as the comparative as well) are formed through root mutation and suffixation, respectively. As with most all derivational morphology they can be applied to almost all lexical categories.
*'''yátasp''' - a beginning runner (double entendre: could be a beginner to the sport, or someone taking off running: '''''yataspín''''' would be runners starting at their mark)
*'''yáts''' - a frequent runner ('''yát'''+'''ts'''=>'''yáts''')
*'''yátra''' - a former runner
*'''yátkay''' - a future runner


====Diminutives====
now combining:
Diminutives are formed by changing the root’s rightmost possible consonant into its corresponding fricative or affricate according to the chart below. '''X''' indicates that the phoneme does not have a possible fricativized variant, e.g. '''p'''=>'''X''', since '''/f/''' is lacking in Rówok. In this event the next rightmost consonant is fricativized.


As roots themselves do not feature phonemic fricatives or affricates, the base letters/sounds in the chart below are missing some of the normal [[#Consonants|consonant inventory]], including the entire row for trills and affricates, as the only trill in is found as a gradient of '''/r/''' => '''/r̝/''', and the only affricate as a gradient of '''/k/''' => '''/tʃ/''', as well as the entire column of interdentals.
*'''yátsasp''' - a beginning frequent runner
*'''yatrákay''' - an ex future runner (someone who showed talent, perhaps, but never lived up to potential)
*'''yatkáyra''' - a future ex runner (someone who will take it up and quit)


Note also that '''/l/''' grades to '''/r/''', though this sensu stricto is not an (af)fricativizing process.


most perverse:


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
*'''yatsasparákay''' - a person who began to run frequently and then stopped
! rowspan="2" style="width: 90px; "|
*'''yatsaspakáyra''' - a person who will begin to frequently run but then stop
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|labial}}
 
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|alveolar}}
The case endings are added to the ends of these forms, just as the verb endings would be added to the end as well, cf:
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|postalveolar}}
 
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|velar}}
*'''áytawan''' - they run, are running
 
*'''aytáspawan''' - they begin running
|-
*'''áytsawan''' - they frequently run
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|unvoiced}}
*'''áytrawan''' - they were running in the past
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|voiced}}
*'''aytkáyawan''' - they will be running in the future
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|unvoiced}}
 
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|voiced}}
and of course the possible but ungodly:
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|unvoiced}}
*'''aytsasprakáyawan''' - they were beginning to be about to be running frequently but then didn't
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|voiced}}
 
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|unvoiced}}
====Frequentative====
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|voiced}}
|-
! style="" |{{sc|stops}}
| p => X
| '''b''' => '''v'''  
| '''t''' => '''ŧ'''
| '''d''' => '''đ'''
|
|
| '''k''' => '''č'''
| '''g''' => '''ž'''
|-
! style="" |{{sc|nasals}}
|
| m=> X
|
| n=> X
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="" |{{sc|fricatives}}
|
|
| '''s''' => '''š'''
| '''z''' => '''ž'''
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="" |{{sc|liquids}}
|
| '''w''' => '''v'''
| '''l''' => '''r'''
| '''r''' => '''ř'''
|
| y => X
|
|
|}


====Inchoative====
====Future====
====Past====
===Diminutives and augmentatives===
Diminutives and augmentatives (one of which functions as the comparative as well) are formed through root mutation and suffixation, respectively. As with most all derivational morphology they can be applied to almost all lexical categories.
====Diminutives====
The '''diminutive''' is a root-level mutation, not a suffix, and as a result the diminutive can be found in all parts of speech. In fact Rówok scholars believe that the diminutive was first used in verbs, as opposed to nominals. Evidence for this is based on some archaic phrases, in which diminutivized verbs are much more common than nouns.
Diminutives are formed morphologically by '''changing the root’s rightmost possible consonant into its corresponding fricative or affricate''' according to the chart below. '''X''' indicates that the phoneme does not have a possible fricativized variant, e.g. '''p'''=>'''X''', since '''/f/''' is lacking in Rówok. In this event the '''next rightmost consonant is fricativized'''.
Additionally more than one consonant  can be fricativized, for a sort of '''double diminutive''' effect, which indicates either extreme smallness or lends a cutesy feel. Cf. root '''bls-''', '''bálas''' (snow) => '''bálaš''' (snowflake) => '''barašín'''+ (a cute, tiny snowflake), '''varašín''' (the finest snowflakes you ever saw; powder); or root '''mwk-''', '''mówok''' (dog) => '''mówoč''' (small dog, or young adult dog) => '''móvoč''' (cute little puppy dog).
:+'''''barašín''''' might be avoided unless the context is perfectly clear, as it could cause confusion looking like the diminutive of '''''brs-''''', "foot, kick".
:++'''''móvoč''''' is also used as an insult, saying that they act like a coward, weakling, inexperienced whelp.


Shown a different way, as the mutations themselves, with the phonemes that can gradate to them:
As a last note it is important to realize that some diminutivized roots have been lexicalized, and have their own definition separate (at least synchrinically/at first glance) from the meaning of the root whence they were derived.


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
! rowspan="2" style="width: 90px; "|
! rowspan="2" style="width: 90px; "|
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|labial}}
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|labial}}
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|interdental}}
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|alveolar}}
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|alveolar}}
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|postalveolar}}
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|postalveolar}}
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|velar}}


|-
|-
Line 1,281: Line 1,623:
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|unvoiced}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|unvoiced}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|voiced}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|voiced}}
|-
|-
! style="" |{{sc|affricates}}
! style="" |{{sc|stops}}
|
| p => X
| '''b''' => '''v'''
| '''t''' => '''ŧ'''
| '''d''' => '''đ'''
|
|
|
|
| '''k''' => '''č'''
| '''g''' => '''ǧ'''
|-
! style="" |{{sc|nasals}}
|
| m=> X
|
| n=> X
|
|
|
|
|
|
| '''č''' <= '''k'''
|
|
|-
|-
! style="" |{{sc|fricatives}}
! style="" |{{sc|fricatives}}
|
|
| '''v''' <= '''b''', '''w'''
|
| '''ŧ''' <= '''t'''
| '''s''' => '''š'''
| '''đ''' <= '''d'''
| '''z''' => '''ž'''
|
|
|
|
|
|
| '''š''' <= '''s'''
| '''ž''' <= '''z''', '''g'''
|-
|-
! style="" |{{sc|liquids}}
! style="" |{{sc|approximants}}
|
|
|  
| '''w''' => '''v'''
| '''l''' => '''ƚ'''
|
|
|
|
| y => X
|
|
| '''r''' <= '''l'''
|
|
|
|-
|-
! style="" |{{sc|trills}}
! style="" |{{sc|trills}}
Line 1,317: Line 1,668:
|
|
|
|
| '''r''' => '''ř'''
|
|
|
|
|
|
| '''ř''' <= '''r'''
|
|
|}
|}




Additionally more than one consonant  can be fricativized, for a sort of double diminutive effect, which indicates either extreme smallness or lends a cutesy feel. Cf. root '''bls-''', '''bálas''' (snow) => '''bálaš''' (snowflake) => '''barašín'''+ (a cute, tiny snowflake), '''varašín''' (the finest snowflakes you ever saw; powder); or root '''mwk-''', '''mówok''' (dog) => '''mówoč''' (small dog, or young adult dog) => '''móvoč''' (cute little puppy dog).
Shown a different way, as the mutations themselves, with the phonemes that can gradate to them:


:+'''''barašín''''' might be avoided unless the context is perfectly clear, as it could cause confusion looking like the diminutive of '''''brs-''''', "foot, kick".
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
:++'''''móvoč''''' is also used as an insult, saying that they act like a coward, weakling, inexperienced whelp.
! rowspan="2" style="width: 90px; "|
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|labial}}
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|labiovelar}}
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|dental}}
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|alveolar}}
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|postalveolar}}
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|velar}}


=====Diminutive nouns=====
|-
The gradation of the final consonant (and even in instances where the diminutive gradation is expressed by a non-final consonant as explained above) also affects
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|unvoiced}}
 
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|voiced}}
This happens in the following ways, starting with [[#Ratio casuum|cases]]:
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|unvoiced}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|voiced}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|unvoiced}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|voiced}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|unvoiced}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|voiced}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|unvoiced}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|voiced}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|unvoiced}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|voiced}}


*[[#Partitive|partitive]]: the ending '''''-sXb''''' => '''''-šXv'''''
*[[#Genitive|genitive]]: the ending '''''-r(X)z''''' goes to '''''-r(X)ž ''''' (the ending '''''-ř(X)ž''''' never took hold on account of its difficulty in pronunciation; for a while the diminutive genitive ending was '''''-řXz''''', but over time has settled to '''''-r(X)ž'''''
*[[#Benefactive|benefactive]]: the ending '''''-p(X)r(X)''''' => '''''-p(X)ř(X)'''''
*[[#Telic|telic]]: the ending '''''-n(X)k(X)''''' => '''''-n(X)č'''''
*[[#Locatives|inessive]]: the ending '''''-bi''''' => '''''-vi'''''
*[[#Locatives|superessive]]: the ending '''''-pi''''' as an exception to all other endings '''''stays the same'''''
*[[#Instrumental/comitative|instrumental]]: the ending '''''-g(X)d(X)''''' => '''''-ž(X)đ(X)'''''
*[[#Instrumental/comitative|caritive]]: the ending '''''-k(X)t(X)''''' => '''''č(X)ŧ(X)'''''
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
!colspan="7"|{{sc|diminutive declensions}}
|-
|-
!colspan=2|
! style="" |{{sc|affricates}}
!{{sc|ending}}||{{sc|mwk, "dog"}}||{{sc|gdw, "gift"}}||{{sc|bls, "snow"}}||{{sc|azl, "life"}}
|
|-
|
!colspan=1 rowspan=12|{{sc|singular}}
|
| {{sc|vocative}} || ''''''                || '''muč'''    || '''góđu'''    || '''bĺš'''    || '''zára''' 
|
|-
|
| {{sc|ergative}} || ''''''                || '''mówoč'''  || '''góđov'''    || '''bálaš'''  || '''ázara'''
|
|-
|
| {{sc|similative}} || '''-Xm'''            || '''múčum'''  || '''góđum'''    || '''bĺšam'''  || '''záram'''
|
|-
|
| {{sc|partitive}} || '''-šXv'''            || '''múčšuv'''  || '''gódušuv'''  || '''bĺšav'''  || '''zárašav'''
|
|-
| '''č''' <= '''k'''
| {{sc|genitive}} || '''-rXž / -rž'''       || '''mwóčrož''' || '''gdóvorž'''  || '''blášraž''' || '''ázararž'''
| '''ǧ''' <= '''g'''
|-
| {{sc|benefactive}} || '''-přX / -pXř'''   || '''mwóčpřo''' || '''gdóvopoř''' || '''blášpřa''' || '''azárapař'''
|-
| {{sc|telic}} || '''-nčX / -nXč'''        || '''mwónčo'''  || '''gdovónčo''' || '''blášnač''' || '''azáranač'''
|-
| {{sc|inessive}} || '''-vi'''              || '''mwóžvi'''  || '''gdóvovi'''  || '''blážvi'''  || '''azáravi'''
|-
| {{sc|superessive}} || '''-pi'''          || '''mwóčpi'''  || '''gdóvopi'''  || '''blášpi'''  || '''azárapi'''
|-
| {{sc|instr./comit.}} || '''-žđX / -žXđ''' || '''mwóžđo'''  || '''gdóvožođ''' || '''blážgađ''' || '''azáražađ'''
|-
| {{sc|caritive}} || '''-čŧX / -čXŧ'''      || '''mwóčŧo'''  || '''gdóvočoŧ''' || '''bláščaŧ''' || '''azáračaŧ'''  
|-
|-
! style="" |{{sc|fricatives}}
|
| '''v''' <= '''b''', '''w'''
|
| '''ƚ''' <= '''l'''
| '''ŧ''' <= '''t'''
| '''đ''' <= '''d'''
|
|
| '''š''' <= '''s'''
| '''ž''' <= '''z'''
|
|
|
|-
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=12|{{sc|dual}}  
! style="" |{{sc|trills}}
| {{sc|vocative}} || '''-ri'''                    || '''múčri'''    || '''góđuri''' || '''bĺš''' || '''zárari'''
|
|-
|
| {{sc|ergative}} || '''-ri'''                    || '''mowóčri'''  || '''godóvli'''    || '''balášri''' || '''azárari'''
|
|-
|
| {{sc|similative}} || '''-ri-''' + '''-m'''      || '''múčrim'''    || '''góđurim'''    || '''bĺšrim''' || '''zárarim'''
|
|-
|
| {{sc|partitive}} || '''-ri-''' + '''-šXv'''    || '''múčrisub'''  || '''gođúrišuv'''  || '''bĺsab''' || '''zarárišav'''
|
|-
|
| {{sc|genitive}} || '''-ri-''' + '''-rž'''      || '''mwóčrirž'''  || '''gdóvolirž'''  || '''blášrirž''' || '''azárarirž'''
| '''ř''' <= '''r'''
|-
|
| {{sc|benefactive}} || '''-rí-''' + '''-pXř'''  || '''mwočrípoř''' || '''gdovorípoř'''  || '''blašrípoř''' || '''azararípoř'''
|
|-
| {{sc|telic}} || '''-rí-''' + '''-nXč'''        || '''mwočrínoč''' || '''gdovorínoč''' || '''blašrínač''' || '''azararínač'''
|-
| {{sc|inessive}} || '''-rí-''' + '''-vi'''      || '''mwočrívi'''  || '''gdovorívi'''  || '''blasríbi''' || '''azararívi'''
|-
| {{sc|superessive}} || '''-rí-''' + '''-pi'''    || '''mwočrípi'''  || '''gdovorípi'''  || '''blasrípi''' || '''azararípi'''
|-
| {{sc|instr./comit.}} || '''-rí-''' + '''-žXđ''' || '''mwočrížođ''' || '''gdovorížođ''' || '''blasrígad''' || '''azararížađ'''
|-
| {{sc|caritive}} || '''-rí-''' + '''-čXŧ'''      || '''mwočríčoŧ''' || '''gdovoríčoŧ''' || '''blasríkaŧ''' || '''azararíčaŧ'''
|-
|
|
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=12|{{sc|plural}}
| {{sc|vocative}} || '''-ín'''                            || '''mučín'''    || '''gođúyn'''      || '''blšín''' || '''zaráyn'''
|-
| {{sc|ergative}} || '''-ín'''                            || '''mowočín'''  || '''godovín'''    || '''balašín''' || '''azaráyn'''
|-
| {{sc|similative}} || '''-ín-''' + '''-Xm'''              || '''mučínum'''  || '''gođúynum'''    || '''blšínam''' || '''zaráynam'''
|-
| {{sc|partitive}} || '''-ín- / -yn-''' + '''-šXv'''      || '''mučínšuv'''  || '''gođúynšuv'''  || '''blšínšav''' || '''zaráynšav'''
|-
| {{sc|genitive}} || '''-ín / -yn-''' + '''-rXž'''        || '''mwočínrož''' || '''gdovóynraž''' || '''blašínraž''' || '''azaráynraž'''
|-
| {{sc|benefactive}} || '''-ín- / -yn-''' + '''-přX'''    || '''mwočínpřo''' || '''gdovóynpřo''' || '''blašínpra''' || '''azaráynpřa'''
|-
| {{sc|telic}} || '''-ín- / -yn-''' + '''-čX'''            || '''mwočínčo'''  || '''gdovóynčo'''  || '''blašínča''' || '''azaráynča'''
|-
| {{sc|inessive}} || '''-ín- / -yn-''' + '''-vi'''        || '''mwočímvi'''  || '''gdovóynvi'''  || '''blašínvi''' || '''azaráynvi'''
|-
| {{sc|superessive}} || '''-ín- / -yn-''' + '''-pi'''      || '''mwočínpi'''  || '''gdovóynpi'''  || '''blašínpi''' || '''azaláynpi''' 
|-
| {{sc|instr./comit.}} || '''-ím- / -ym-''' + '''-đX'''    || '''mwočímđo'''  || '''gdovóymđo'''  || '''blašímđa''' || '''azaláymđa'''
|-
| {{sc|caritive}} || '''-ín- / -yn-''' + '''-ŧX'''        || '''mwočínŧo'''  || '''gdovóynŧo'''  || '''blašínŧa''' || '''azaláynŧa'''
|}
|}


As roots themselves do not feature phonemic fricatives or affricates, the base letters/sounds in the chart below are missing some of the normal [[#Consonants|consonant inventory]], including the entire row for trills and affricates, as the only trill in is found as a gradient of '''/r/''' => '''/r̝/''', and the only affricate as a gradient of '''/k/''' => '''/tʃ/''', as well as the entire column of interdentals.


=====Diminutive verbs=====
Note also that '''/l/''' grades to '''/r/''', though this sensu stricto is not an (af)fricativizing process.


====Augmentatives====
Augmentatives are formed through infixes between the root and the case or conjugation endings. In the following /X/ is a dummy vowel determined by the quality of the verb.


The most common are:
=====Diminutive nouns=====
* '''-yXš-''' = great, grand, noble, relatively large (also functions as a [[#Comparatives|comparative]])
The gradation of the final consonant (and even in instances where the diminutive gradation is expressed by a non-final consonant as explained above) also affects
* '''-nXč-''' = the biggest, greatest


Examples:
This happens in the following ways, starting with [[#Ratio casuum|cases]]:
* '''-yXš-'''
** root '''mwk''', "dog" => '''mwókyoš''', "a big dog"
** root '''ayt''', "run" => '''ayátyaš''', "a long run"


* '''-nXč-'''
*[[#Partitive|partitive]]: the ending '''''-sXb''''' => '''''-šXv'''''
** root '''mwk''', "dog" => '''múknuč''', "the greatest dog you ever had"
*[[#Genitive|genitive]]: the ending '''''-r(X)z''''' goes to '''''-r(X)ž ''''' (the ending '''''-ř(X)ž''''' never took hold on account of its difficulty in pronunciation; for a while the diminutive genitive ending was '''''-řXz''''', but over time has settled to '''''-r(X)ž'''''
** root '''ayt''', "run" => '''áytnač''', "a marathon"
*[[#Benefactive|benefactive]]: the ending '''''-p(X)r(X)''''' => '''''-p(X)ř(X)'''''
*[[#Telic|telic]]: the ending '''''-n(X)k(X)''''' => '''''-n(X)č'''''
*[[#Locatives|inessive]]: the ending '''''-bi''''' => '''''-vi'''''
*[[#Locatives|superessive]]: the ending '''''-pi''''' as an exception to all other endings '''''stays the same'''''
*[[#Instrumental/comitative|instrumental]]: the ending '''''-g(X)d(X)''''' => '''''-ž(X)đ(X)'''''
*[[#Instrumental/comitative|caritive]]: the ending '''''-k(X)t(X)''''' => '''''č(X)ŧ(X)'''''


=====Augmented nouns=====
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
 
!colspan="7"|{{sc|diminutive declensions}}
=====Augmented verbs=====
|-
 
!colspan=2|
==Syntax==
!{{sc|ending}}||{{sc|mwk, "dog"}}||{{sc|gdw, "gift"}}||{{sc|bls, "snow"}}||{{sc|azl, "life"}}
 
|-
===Basics===
!colspan=1 rowspan=12|{{sc|singular}}
 
| {{sc|vocative}} || ''''''                || '''muč'''    || '''góđu'''    || '''bĺš'''    || '''zára''' 
====Number====
|-
There are three numbers in Rówok:
| {{sc|ergative}} || ''''''                || '''mówoč'''  || '''góđov'''    || '''bálaš'''  || '''ázara'''
 
|-
*'''singular'''
| {{sc|similative}} || '''-Xm'''            || '''múčum'''  || '''góđom'''    || '''bĺšam'''  || '''záram'''
*'''dual'''
|-
*'''plural'''
| {{sc|partitive}} || '''-šXv'''            || '''múčšuv'''  || '''gódošov'''  || '''bĺšav'''  || '''zárašav'''
 
|-
[[#Verbs|Verbs]] are conjugated for all three numbers, as are [[#Participles|participles]], [[#Nouns|nouns]], and [[#Adjectives|adjectives]] declined.
| {{sc|genitive}} || '''-rXž / -rž'''      || '''mwóčrož''' || '''ógdvorž'''  || '''blášraž''' || '''ázararž'''
 
|-
====Gender====
| {{sc|benefactive}} || '''-přX / -pXř'''  || '''mwóčpřo''' || '''ógdvopoř''' || '''blášpřa''' || '''azárapař'''  
Gender in Rówok is complicated; there are indeed two types of vowel structure in a word (either '''-a/-e''' or '''-o/-u''', but there is no semantic association to either category, and adjectives do not change to agree with their head nouns in any way but [[#Number|number]] and [[#Nouns|case]].
|-
 
| {{sc|telic}} || '''-nčX / -nXč'''        || '''mwónčo'''  || '''ogdvónčo''' || '''blášnač''' || '''azáranač'''  
The protolanguage [[Ruk]] did not have gender, and what little bits of gender there are in Rówok are new inventions picked up from contact with IE speakers. Even then, the language's internal vowel structure doesn't allow for the inherited endings to show in both vowel types. So '''-o''' can be added to an o-vowel word do emphasize a things masculinity, and '''-a''' can be added to an a-vowel word to emphasize its femininity, but there is no way to explicitly show the feminine in an o-vowel word and no way to show the masculine in an a-vowel word.
|-
 
| {{sc|inessive}} || '''-vi'''              || '''mwóžvi'''  || '''ógdvovi'''  || '''blážvi'''  || '''azáravi'''  
====Person====
|-
There are the standard three persons in all [[#Number|numbers]], as well as an inclusive 1st person dual and plural. For more see [[#Pronouns|pronouns]].
| {{sc|superessive}} || '''-pi'''          || '''mwóčpi'''  || '''ógdvopi'''  || '''blášpi'''  || '''azárapi'''
 
|-
===Alignment===
| {{sc|instr./comit.}} || '''-žđX / -žXđ''' || '''mwóžđo'''  || '''ógdvožođ''' || '''blážgađ''' || '''azáražađ'''
Verbs show a partial tripartite alignment, partial fluid-s alignment.
|-
 
| {{sc|caritive}} || '''-čŧX / -čXŧ'''      || '''mwóčŧo'''  || '''ógdvočoŧ''' || '''bláščaŧ''' || '''azáračaŧ'''
Namely as shown below in the section on [[#Agency|agency]], inanimate subjects show tripartite alignment, with subjects expressed in the [[#Vocative|vocative]], [[#Ergative|ergative]], and [[#Telic|cases]], and animate subjects expressed in the ergative and telic.
|-
 
|
===Agency and Animacy===
|-
There are thus 7 levels of agency in Rówok:
!colspan=1 rowspan=12|{{sc|dual}}
| {{sc|vocative}} || '''-ri'''                    || '''múčri'''    || '''góđori''' || '''bĺš''' || '''zárari'''
|-
| {{sc|ergative}} || '''-ri'''                    || '''mowóčri'''  || '''godóvli'''    || '''balášri''' || '''azárari'''
|-
| {{sc|similative}} || '''-ri-''' + '''-m'''      || '''múčrim'''    || '''góđorim'''    || '''bĺšrim''' || '''zárarim'''
|-
| {{sc|partitive}} || '''-ri-''' + '''-šXv'''    || '''múčrisub'''  || '''gođórišov'''  || '''bĺsab''' || '''zarárišav'''
|-
| {{sc|genitive}} || '''-ri-''' + '''-rž'''      || '''mwóčrirž'''  || '''ógdvolirž'''  || '''blášrirž''' || '''azárarirž'''
|-
| {{sc|benefactive}} || '''-rí-''' + '''-pXř'''  || '''mwočrípoř''' || '''ogdvorípoř'''  || '''blašrípoř''' || '''azararípoř'''
|-
| {{sc|telic}} || '''-rí-''' + '''-nXč'''        || '''mwočrínoč''' || '''ogdvorínoč''' || '''blašrínač''' || '''azararínač'''  
|-
| {{sc|inessive}} || '''-rí-''' + '''-vi'''      || '''mwočrívi'''  || '''ogdvorívi'''  || '''blasríbi''' || '''azararívi'''
|-
| {{sc|superessive}} || '''-rí-''' + '''-pi'''    || '''mwočrípi'''  || '''ogdvorípi'''  || '''blasrípi''' || '''azararípi'''  
|-
| {{sc|instr./comit.}} || '''-rí-''' + '''-žXđ''' || '''mwočrížođ''' || '''ogdvorížođ''' || '''blasrígad''' || '''azararížađ'''  
|-
| {{sc|caritive}} || '''-rí-''' + '''-čXŧ'''      || '''mwočríčoŧ''' || '''ogdvoríčoŧ''' || '''blasríkaŧ''' || '''azararíčaŧ'''
|-
|
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=12|{{sc|plural}}
| {{sc|vocative}} || '''-ín'''                            || '''mučín'''    || '''gođúyn'''      || '''blšín''' || '''zaráyn'''
|-
| {{sc|ergative}} || '''-ín'''                            || '''mowočín'''  || '''godovín'''    || '''balašín''' || '''azaráyn'''
|-
| {{sc|similative}} || '''-ín-''' + '''-Xm'''              || '''mučínum'''  || '''gođóynom'''    || '''blšínam''' || '''zaráynam'''
|-
| {{sc|partitive}} || '''-ín- / -yn-''' + '''-šXv'''      || '''mučínšuv'''  || '''gođóynšov'''  || '''blšínšav''' || '''zaráynšav'''
|-
| {{sc|genitive}} || '''-ín / -yn-''' + '''-rXž'''        || '''mwočínrož''' || '''ogdvóynraž''' || '''blašínraž''' || '''azaráynraž'''
|-
| {{sc|benefactive}} || '''-ín- / -yn-''' + '''-přX'''    || '''mwočínpřo''' || '''ogdvóynpřo''' || '''blašínpřa''' || '''azaráynpřa'''
|-
| {{sc|telic}} || '''-ín- / -yn-''' + '''-čX'''            || '''mwočínčo'''  || '''ogdvóynčo'''  || '''blašínča''' || '''azaráynča'''
|-
| {{sc|inessive}} || '''-ín- / -yn-''' + '''-vi'''        || '''mwočímvi'''  || '''ogdvóynvi'''  || '''blašínvi''' || '''azaráynvi'''
|-
| {{sc|superessive}} || '''-ín- / -yn-''' + '''-pi'''      || '''mwočínpi'''  || '''ogdvóynpi'''  || '''blašínpi''' || '''azaláynpi''' 
|-
| {{sc|instr./comit.}} || '''-ím- / -ym-''' + '''-đX'''    || '''mwočímđo'''  || '''ogdvóymđo'''  || '''blašímđa''' || '''azaláymđa'''
|-
| {{sc|caritive}} || '''-ín- / -yn-''' + '''-ŧX'''        || '''mwočínŧo'''  || '''ogdvóynŧo'''  || '''blašínŧa''' || '''azaláynŧa'''
|}


#active agent both animate and when inanimate agents cause an effect (i.e. movement, chemical change, destruction of an object, etc.) - subject in the [[#Ergative|ergative]]
=====Diminutive verbs=====
#inactive agent animate - subject in the ergative
#middle agent animate - subject in the ergative
#middle agent inanimate - subject in the [[#Vocative|vocative]]
#middle patient/agent animate - subject in the [[#Telic|telic]]
#middle patient animate - the only subject not shown obliquely with the logical subject in the benefactive with an agentless causative verb in the middle (slip, trip, etc.)
#passive patient both (in)animate - subject in the [[#Telic|telic]]


If the subject of the middle verb is the agent but not (necessarily) the patient, it is marked ergatively/actively; if it is both the agent and patient it is marked in the telic. Also the subject of a passive verb is in the telic.  
====Augmentatives====
Augmentatives are formed through infixes between the root and the case or conjugation endings. In the following /X/ is a dummy vowel determined by the quality of the verb.


Examples:  
The most common are:
* '''-yXš-''' = great, grand, noble, relatively large (also functions as a [[#Comparatives|comparative]])
* '''-nXč-''' = the biggest, greatest


The first of each set of the following 6 sentences shows the middle voice and how agency differs between the alignment of the verbal structure depending on the semantic of the verb. Then follow examples with the same grammatical subject and main verb provided in the [[#Active voice|active]] and [[#Passive|passive]] for comparison.
Examples:
* '''-yXš-'''
** root '''mwk''', "dog" => '''mwókyoš''', "a big dog"
** root '''ayt''', "run" => '''ayátyaš''', "a long run"


- root '''krp''', "to fight"
* '''-nXč-'''
** root '''mwk''', "dog" => '''múknuč''', "the greatest dog you ever had"
** root '''ayt''', "run" => '''áytnač''', "a marathon"


:1) '''mowokín kárpŧawan '''
=====Augmented nouns=====
:dog.pl.'''erg''' fight.3.pl.'''MID'''
:the dogs are fighting (each other/amongst themselves)
:+The key being that the dogs are the agents of fighting in a mutual exercise, but not patients, due to the semantics of 'fight'.


:2) '''mowokín razánka kárpawan'''
=====Augmented verbs=====
:dog.pl.'''erg''' bear.tel fight.3.pl.'''ACT'''
:the dogs are fighting a bear


:3) '''mwokíngod razánka kárpanak'''
==Syntax==
:dog.pl.'''inst''' bear.tel fight.3.sg.'''PAS'''
:the bear is being fought by the dogs


===Basics===


- root '''wkd''', "to kill"
====Number====
There are three numbers in Rówok:


:4) '''mwokínok wokóđowon'''
*'''singular'''
:dog.pl.'''tel''' kill.3.pl.'''MID'''
*'''dual'''
:The dogs are killing each other
*'''plural'''
:+Here the dogs are both agents and patients, doing the killing action, of which they are also patients*


:5) '''mowokín saráynka wokódowon'''
[[#Verbs|Verbs]] are conjugated for all three numbers, as are [[#Participles|participles]], [[#Nouns|nouns]], and [[#Adjectives|adjectives]] declined.
:dog.pl.'''erg''' rabbit.tel fight.3.pl.'''ACT'''
:the dogs are killing a rabbit


:6) '''mwokíngod saráynka wokódonok'''
====Gender====
:dog.pl.'''inst''' rabbit.tel fight.3.sg.'''PAS'''
Gender in Rówok is complicated; there are indeed two types of vowel structure in a word (either '''-a/-e''' or '''-o/-u''', but there is no semantic association to either category, and adjectives do not change to agree with their head nouns in any way but [[#Number|number]] and [[#Nouns|case]].
:the rabbit is being killed by the dogs


===Telicity===
The protolanguage [[Ruk]] did not have gender, and what little bits of gender there are in Rówok are new inventions picked up from contact with IE speakers. Even then, the language's internal vowel structure doesn't allow for the inherited endings to show in both vowel types. So '''-o''' can be added to an o-vowel word do emphasize a things masculinity, and '''-a''' can be added to an a-vowel word to emphasize its femininity, but there is no way to explicitly show the feminine in an o-vowel word and no way to show the masculine in an a-vowel word.
Rówok has a tripartite telicity system.


*Fully telic: for actions completed and followed through to the end; expressed with the [[#Telic|telic case]]
====Person====
*Non-telic: for uncompleted actions, for actions only done in part (shutting the door a little bit); expressed with the [[#Genitive|genitive case]]
There are the standard three persons in all [[#Number|numbers]], as well as an inclusive 1st person dual and plural. For more see [[#Pronouns|pronouns]].
*Remotely telic: for actions not even attempted or begun, or for actions given the bare minimum of effort, sometimes with a pejorative sense, i.e. when the speaker wouldn't deign or dare to do something; expressed with the [[#Partitive|partitive case]]


In the [[#Negation|negative]] the telicity system is bipartitie, i.e. just non-telic and remotely telic. Furthermore, in [[#Colloquial Rówok|colloquial Rówok]] some affirmative actions with negative senses (stopping as no longer doing, forgetting as no longer remembering, etc.) can show non-telic objects by analogy.
===Alignment===
Verbs show a partial tripartite alignment, partial fluid-s alignment.


===Constituent phrases===
Namely as shown below in the section on [[#Agency|agency]], inanimate subjects show tripartite alignment, with subjects expressed in the [[#Vocative|vocative]], [[#Ergative|ergative]], and [[#Telic|cases]], and animate subjects expressed in the ergative and telic.
Word order in Rówok tends in normal circumstances toward SOV, but it's really whatevs.


[[#Postpositions|postpositions]] and [[#Wh- words|wh- words]] have the most rigid word order, and most other constituents have pretty free word order, not dissimilar to Latin. Convention has led to some other fixed word orders in some situations, the majority of which will be described below.
===Agency and Animacy===
There are thus 7 levels of agency in Rówok:


====Copula====
#active agent both animate and when inanimate agents cause an effect (i.e. movement, chemical change, destruction of an object, etc.) - subject in the [[#Ergative|ergative]]
There is no copula in Rówok.
#inactive agent animate - subject in the ergative
#middle agent animate - subject in the ergative
#middle agent inanimate - subject in the [[#Vocative|vocative]]
#middle patient/agent animate - subject in the [[#Telic|telic]]
#middle patient animate - the only subject not shown obliquely with the logical subject in the benefactive with an agentless causative verb in the middle (slip, trip, etc.)
#passive patient both (in)animate - subject in the [[#Telic|telic]]


Instead the sense of the copula is expressed in one of the following ways:
If the subject of the middle verb is the agent but not (necessarily) the patient, it is marked ergatively/actively; if it is both the agent and patient it is marked in the telic. Also the subject of a passive verb is in the telic.


#with [[#Nouns|nouns]] in apposition; [[#Animacy|animate]] subjects are in the [[#Ergative|ergative]] case and inanimate ones in the [[#Vocative|vocative]]
Examples:
#a noun followed by an [[#Adverbs|adverb]] to express the '''''estar''''' sense of the [[#Adjectives|adjective]]
#a noun in conjunction with a [[#Middle voice|middle voice stative verb]] to express the '''''ser''''' sense of the adjective


Examples:
The first of each set of the following 6 sentences shows the middle voice and how agency differs between the alignment of the verbal structure depending on the semantic of the verb. Then follow examples with the same grammatical subject and main verb provided in the [[#Active voice|active]] and [[#Passive|passive]] for comparison.


:1) '''kanarín zál'''
[[File:Wild brother; strangest of true stories from the north woods (1921) (14597964778).jpg|thumb|right|A bear and a dog playing nice, and not fighting. ]]
:tree.voc.pl animal.voc.sing
:the forest is a living thing (literally "an animal")


:2) '''kanarín zalá'''
- root '''krp''', "to fight"
:tree.voc.pl life.adv
:the forest is alive right now (in context understood as "lively, teeming with life, very active maybe with animals scurrying too and fro and lush forest growth")


:3) '''(zálŧa) kanarín (zálŧa)'''
:1) '''mowokín kárpŧyawan '''
:tree.voc.pl live.3s.mid.imperf
:dog.pl.'''erg''' fight.3.pl.'''MID'''
:the forest is alive/lives (in a permanent sense, in context could be understood even as "is healthy")
:the dogs are fighting (each other/amongst themselves)
:+The key being that the dogs are the agents of fighting in a mutual exercise, but not patients, due to the semantics of 'fight'.


====Noun phrase====
:2) '''mowokín razánka kárpawan'''
:dog.pl.'''erg''' bear.tel fight.3.pl.'''ACT'''
:the dogs are fighting a bear


====Postpositions====
:3) '''mwokíngod razánka kárpanak'''
Nouns can be followed and case can be governed by any number of '''postpositions''', which act as unstressed clitics in normal discourse, but the ultimate syllable in disyllabic and the penult in tri- and more-syllabic postpositons can be stressed for emphasis.
:dog.pl.'''inst''' bear.tel fight.3.sg.'''PAS'''
:the bear is being fought by the dogs


Examples:
:1) '''kanarínpra tošu'''
:tree.ben.pl near
:near the forest


:2) '''kanarínpra tošú'''
- root '''wkd''', "to kill"
:tree.ben.pl right near
:right by the (edge of the) forest


:3) '''kanarínraz pašu'''
:4) '''mwokínok wokóđyowon'''
:tree.gen.pl far
:dog.pl.'''tel''' kill.3.pl.'''MID'''
:far from the woods
:The dogs are killing each other
:+Here the dogs are both agents and patients, doing the killing action, of which they are also patients*


:4) '''kanarínraz pašú'''
:5) '''mowokín saráynka wokódowon'''
:tree.gen.pl far
:dog.pl.'''erg''' rabbit.tel fight.3.pl.'''ACT'''
:nowhere remotely near the woods
:the dogs are killing a rabbit


=====List of postpositions=====
:6) '''mwokíngod saráynka wokódonok'''
The chart below shows postpositions by alphabetical order of their English equivalents and by the [[#Ratio casuum|case]] that they govern.
:dog.pl.'''inst''' rabbit.tel fight.3.sg.'''PAS'''
:the rabbit is being killed by the dogs
 
===Telicity===
Rówok has a tripartite telicity system.


Note 1) that some postpositions with similar semantics differ only by ablaut, and 2) many positions govern more than one case, sometimes between a locative or the telic, and sometimes with other less expected matches, e.g. '''''kawta''''', which means "according to/via" when governing the instrumental and "throughout when governing the inessive.
#'''Fully telic''': for actions completed and followed through to the end; expressed with the [[#Telic|telic case]]
#'''Non-telic''': for uncompleted actions, for actions only done in part (shutting the door a little bit); expressed with the [[#Genitive|genitive case]]
#'''Remotely telic''': for actions not even attempted or begun, or for actions given the bare minimum of effort, sometimes with a pejorative sense, i.e. when the speaker wouldn't deign or dare to do something; also used for expressing very small amounts of a direct object; expressed with the [[#Partitive|partitive case]]


As a further note all postpositions beginning with a vowel insert an initial '''''y-''''' if the noun it follows ends in a vowel.
In the [[#Negation|negative]] the telicity system is bipartitie, i.e. just non-telic and remotely telic. Furthermore, in [[#Colloquial Rówok|colloquial Rówok]] some affirmative actions with negative senses (stopping as no longer doing, forgetting as no longer remembering, etc.) can show non-telic objects by analogy.


The [[#Partitive|partitive]] only has one postposition, and therefore is not included in the chart, namely '''''siyan''''', which roughly means "instead of" or "in the absence of".
Examples:


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
#''ayatyáš'''nak''' éytet''; marathon-S-'''TEL''' run-1-S-PERF; "I ran a marathon (to its completion)"
!colspan="15"|{{sc|postpositions}}
#''ayatyáš'''raz''' áytat''; marathon-S-'''GEN''' run-1-S-IMPERF; "I ran a marathon (but did not finish it)"
|-
#''ayátyaš'''ab''' áytat''; marathon-S-'''PART''' run-1-S-IMPERF; "I ran a tiny bit of a marathon (a lot of interpretations, from 5k to starting and getting an injury, to "ha, yeah right, me run a marathon?!", all depending on context)"
! rowspan="15" style="width: 90px; "|
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|[[#Genitive|genitive]]}}
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|[[#Benefactive|benefactive]]}}
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|[[#Telic|telic]]}}
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|[[#Inessive|inessive]]}}
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|[[#Superessive|superessive]]}}
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|[[#Instrumental|instrumental]]}}


|-
===Constituent phrases===
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|eng}}
Word order in Rówok tends in normal circumstances toward SOV, but it's really whatevs. The language features strong [[#Fronting|fronting]], which can result in any sort of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_typology#Subject.E2.80.93verb.E2.80.93object_positioning structural typology].
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|rów}}
 
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|eng}}
Meanwhile its [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphosyntactic_alignment morphosyntactic alignment] is fluid-S, with virtually all verbs able to show all types of [[#Agency|agency valence]] in conjunction with nominal arguments in various cases.
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|rów}}
 
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|eng}}
[[#Postpositions|Postpositions]], [[#Clitics|clitics]], and [[#Wh- words|wh- words]] have the most rigid word order, while most other constituents have pretty free word order, not dissimilar to Latin. Convention has led to some other fixed word orders in some situations, the majority of which will be described below.
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|rów}}
 
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|eng}}
====Copula====
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|rów}}
There is no copula in Rówok.
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|eng}}
 
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|rów}}
Instead the sense of the copula is expressed in one of the following ways:
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|eng}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|rów}}


#with [[#Nouns|nouns]] in apposition; [[#Animacy|animate]] subjects are in the [[#Ergative|ergative]] case and inanimate ones in the [[#Vocative|vocative]]
#a noun followed by an [[#Adverbs|adverb]] to express the '''''estar''''' sense of the [[#Adjectives|adjective]]
#a noun in conjunction with a [[#Middle voice|middle voice stative verb]] to express the '''''ser''''' sense of the adjective
Examples:
{{Gloss
|phrase =1) kanarín zál
|IPA =
| morphemes = kanar.ín.Ø zál-Ø-Ø
| gloss = tree-VOC-PL animal-VOC-SG
| translation = the forest is a living thing (literally "an animal")
}}
{{Gloss
|phrase =2) kanarín zalá
|IPA =
| morphemes = kanar.ín.Ø zál-á
| gloss = tree-VOC-PL animal-ADV
| translation = the forest is alive right now (in context understood as "lively, teeming with life, very active maybe with animals scurrying too and fro and lush forest growth")
}}
{{Gloss
|phrase =3) (zálŧa) kanarín (zálŧa)
|IPA =
| morphemes = kanar.ín.Ø zál-ŧ-a
| gloss = tree-VOC-PL live-MID-3SG.IMPERF
| translation = the forest is alive/lives (in a permanent sense, in context could be understood even as "is healthy")
}}
====Noun phrase====
====Postpositions====
Nouns can be followed and case can be governed by any number of '''postpositions''', which act as unstressed clitics in normal discourse, but the ultimate syllable in disyllabic and the penult in tri- and more-syllabic postpositons can be stressed for emphasis.
Examples:
{{Gloss
|phrase = 1a) knarínpra tošu
|IPA =
| morphemes = knar-ín-pra tošu
| gloss = tree-PL-BEN near
| translation = near the forest
}}
{{Gloss
|phrase = 1b) kanarínpra tošú
|IPA =
| morphemes = knar-ín-pra toš-ú
| gloss = tree-PL-BEN near-EMP
| translation = right by the (edge of the) forest
}}
{{Gloss
|phrase = 2a) knarínraz pašu
|IPA =
| morphemes = knar-ín-raz pašu
| gloss = tree.PL.GEN far
| translation = far from the woods
}}
{{Gloss
|phrase = 2b) knarínraz pašú
|IPA =
| morphemes = knar-ín-raz paš-ú
| gloss = tree.PL.GEN far-EMP
| translation = nowhere remotely near the woods
}}
=====List of postpositions=====
The chart below shows postpositions by alphabetical order of their English equivalents and by the [[#Ratio casuum|case]] that they govern.
Note 1) that some postpositions with similar semantics differ only by ablaut, and 2) many positions govern more than one case, sometimes between a locative or the telic, and sometimes with other less expected matches, e.g. '''''kawta''''', which means "according to/via" when governing the instrumental and "throughout when governing the inessive.
As a further note all postpositions beginning with a vowel insert an initial '''''y-''''' if the noun it follows ends in a vowel.
The [[#Partitive|partitive]] only has one postposition, and therefore is not included in the chart, namely '''''siyan''''', which roughly means "instead of" or "in the absence of".
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
!colspan="15"|{{sc|postpositions}}
|-
|-
|apud
! rowspan="15" style="width: 90px; "|
|'''kwutnu'''
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|[[#Genitive|genitive]]}}
|adjacent to
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|[[#Benefactive|benefactive]]}}
|
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|[[#Telic|telic]]}}
|across
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|[[#Inessive|inessive]]}}
|'''čreze'''
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|[[#Superessive|superessive]]}}
|along
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |{{sc|[[#Instrumental|instrumental]]}}
|
 
|above
|-
|
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|eng}}
|according to
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|rów}}
|'''kewte'''
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|eng}}
|-
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|rów}}
|far from
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|eng}}
|'''pašu'''
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|rów}}
|depending on
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|eng}}
|'''irpven'''
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|rów}}
|apud
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|eng}}
|'''kwotno'''
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|rów}}
|amid
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|eng}}
|'''kaylna'''
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|rów}}
|after
 
|
|-
|alongside
|apud
|'''oweš'''
|'''kwutnu'''
|-
|adjacent to
|from
|'''iltu'''
|near
|'''tošu'''
|onto
|
|among
|'''keylne'''
|against
|
|astride
|'''uveš'''
|-
|of
|'''valnu'''
|next to
|
|over
|
|between
|'''tarku'''
|around
|
|
|because of
|across
|'''čreze'''
|along
|
|
|-
|above
|off
|'''velnu'''
|opposite
|
|
|through
|according to
|'''kewte'''
|-
|far from
|'''pašu'''
|depending on
|'''irpvin'''
|apud
|'''kwotno'''
|amid
|'''kaylna'''
|after
|
|
|through
|alongside
|'''owoš'''
|-
|from
|'''iltu'''
|near
|'''tošu'''
|onto
|
|
|before
|among
|'''keylne'''
|against
|
|
|regardless of
|astride
|'''uvuš'''
|-
|of
|
|next to
|
|over
|
|between
|'''tarku'''
|around
|
|because of
|
|-
|off
|'''vilnu'''
|opposite
|
|through
|
|through
|
|before
|'''ižin'''
|regardless of
|
|
|-
|-
Line 1,764: Line 2,219:
[[#Nouns|Nominals]] included as the objects of negated [[#Verbs|verbs]] are either in the [[#Partitive|partitive]] or [[#Genitive|genitive]] case, as explained below in [[#Negative telicity|negative telicity]].
[[#Nouns|Nominals]] included as the objects of negated [[#Verbs|verbs]] are either in the [[#Partitive|partitive]] or [[#Genitive|genitive]] case, as explained below in [[#Negative telicity|negative telicity]].


The word '''''áma''''' is used to strengthen negative constructions. It is placed right before a negated word or [[#Constituent phrases|constituent phrase]], and often used in repeated or qualified constructions, with the effect of '''"...and I mean ''no..."'''''
The word '''''áma''''', otherwise a [[#Correlative conjunctions|conjunction]], is used to strengthen negative constructions. It is placed right before a negated word or [[#Constituent phrases|constituent phrase]], and often used in repeated or qualified constructions, with the effect of '''"...and I mean ''no..."'''''


Other complementary negatives instead of '''''lunú''''':
Other complementary negatives instead of '''''lunú''''':
Line 1,774: Line 2,229:
When negating clauses, Rówok shows a bipartite [[#Telicity|telicity]] system, in which:
When negating clauses, Rówok shows a bipartite [[#Telicity|telicity]] system, in which:


#Non-telic: whatever noun was not affected by the action of the verb. This is expressed in the genitive case.
#Non-telic: whatever noun was not affected by the action of the verb. This is expressed in the [[#Genitive|genitive case]].
Remotely telic: for actions not even attempted or begun, or for actions given the bare minimum of effort, sometimes with a pejorative sense, i.e. when the speaker wouldn't deign or dare to do something; expressed with the partitive case
#Remotely telic: for actions not even attempted or begun, or for actions given the bare minimum of effort, sometimes with a pejorative sense, i.e. when the speaker wouldn't deign or dare to do something; expressed with the [[#Partitive|partitive case]]. This structure is often doubled or repeated in an inchoative verb infix.
 
====Negative fronting====
Unemphatic statements follow Rówok's normal SOV syntax and circumfix the entire clause. Emphasized parts are usually [[#Fronting|fronted]] and then only the fronted unit is circumfixed.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
|phrase = 1)  ára mowokín razánraz kerpéwen lunú
|phrase =1) ára zaláyštarz lunú yésŧyet
|IPA =
| morphemes = ára zaláyšt-arz lunú yés-ŧy-e-t
| gloss = NEG biology-GEN NEG study-MID-PERF-1S
| translation = I didn't finish studying biology.
}}
 
{{Gloss
|phrase =2) ára zaláyštasab lunú yásŧyat
|IPA =
| morphemes = ára zaláyšta-sab lunú yás-ŧy-a-t
| gloss = NEG biology-PART NEG study-MID-IMPF-1S
| translation = I've never studied biology (at all).
}}
 
====Negative fronting====
Unemphatic statements follow Rówok's normal SOV syntax and circumfix the entire clause. Emphasized parts are usually [[#Fronting|fronted]] and then only the fronted unit is circumfixed.
 
{{Gloss
|phrase = 1)  ára mowokín razánraz kerpéwen lunú
|IPA =
|IPA =
| morphemes = ára mowok-Ø-ín razán-Ø-raz Ø-kerp-é-wen lunú
| morphemes = ára mowok-Ø-ín razán-Ø-raz Ø-kerp-é-wen lunú
Line 1,821: Line 2,292:
| gloss =  
| gloss =  
| translation =  
| translation =  
}}  
}}  
-->
-->
 
===Wh- words===
Rówok has several ways of forming questions, using both [[#Particles|particles]] and [[#Derivational morphology|enclitic suffixes]].
 
====Interrogative particles====
 
:'''''u(m/n)''''', comes at the beginning of both direct questions and indirect questions. In direct questions it means something like '''"did/does the following hold true...?"''', and in indirect questions it means '''"if/whether"'''. It shows euphony, being realized as /u/ before consonants, /um/ before vowels in words whose first subsequent consonant is voiced, and /un/ before vowels in words whose first subsequent consonant is unvoiced.
 
====True wh- words====
The following table shows a couple of things, namely that there is both a long form and a short form of, as well as an imperfective and perfective form of, the classic five '''who, what, where, when, why*''' words. These are all native Rówok roots, while the words for '''how''' are often loaned from Finno-Ugric.
 
They are in long form if at the beginning of the sentence, and in short form if forced by [[#Fronting|fronting]] to a subsequent position. They are also in short form if they are in dependent clauses, where they act as subordinating [[#Conjunctions|conjunctions]].
 
They are further "conjugated", for lack of a better term, according to the [[#Aspect|aspect]] of the verb to which they refer.
 
:*The word for "why", '''''pwočimo''''', is actually a hybrid borrowing from Russian '''почему''' and the original Rówok interrogative root '''''pw-'''''.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
|-
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|imperf. long}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|imperf. short}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|perf. long}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|perf. short}}
|-
! style="" |{{sc|who}}
| '''pwóso'''
| '''pós/pás'''
| '''pwúsu'''
| '''pús/pés'''
|-
! style="" |{{sc|what}}
| '''pwóno'''
| '''pón/pán'''
| '''pwúnu'''
| '''pún/pén'''
|-
! style="" |{{sc|when}}
| '''pwóčdo'''
| '''póč'''
| '''pwúčdu'''
| '''púč'''
|-
! style="" |{{sc|where}}
| '''pwóbo'''
| '''póbo'''
| '''pwúbu'''
| '''púb'''
|-
! style="" |{{sc|why}}
| '''pwóčimo'''
| '''póčim'''
| '''pwúčimu'''
| '''púčim'''
|-
|}
 
====Where, here, there====
There are ablative and allative words for '''where, here,''' and ''there''', as shown in the table below.
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
|-
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|where}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|here}}
!style="width: 45px; "|{{sc|there}}
 
|-
! style="" |{{sc|(w)(t)here}}
| '''pwóbo'''
| '''twóbo'''
| '''pábwa'''
|-
! style="" |{{sc|(w)(t)hence}}
| '''pwóbzo'''
| '''twóbzo'''
| '''pábwaz'''
|-
! style="" |{{sc|(w)(t)hither}}
| '''pwóbok'''
| '''twóbok'''
| '''pábwak'''
|-
|}
 
====Relativization====
There are 3 main strategies for '''relativization''' in Rówok, depending on whether the relative clause is 1) defining or 2) non-defining, or 3) if it's generic. Relativizers have special [[#Declension of relativizers|declensions]], that differ from what one might expect from [[#Declension tables|nominal and participial declension]].
 
#Defining relative clauses are formed by means of a [[#Participles|participial construction]] with the resumptive relativizer '''''dXž''''' (from root '''dyz-''', "do") agreeing in case '''and vocalic phonetic structure''' with the relativized participle, '''but not number'''. It comes directly after the relativized participle for clauses containing just one word (1a), and introduces relative clauses for words with more than one word (1b).
#Non-defining relative clauses are formed with the [[#True wh- words|short form of the wh- word]] in the appropriate case and aspect, and '''agreeing with the vocalic structure of the verb in the relative clause''' if its subject (2a), otherwise '''with the vocalic structure of the nominal antecedent''' from the main clause (2b).
#Generic relative clauses of the sort "Whosoever should do X..." are formed with a mix of the short form of the wh- word with a phonetically reduced verion of "dXž", namely '''''-Xǧ-''''' infixed between it and the case ending, and '''agreeing with the vocalic structure of the verb in the relative clause'''.
 
In the glosses below [brackets] are used to show whence the relativizer draws its vocalic structure.
 
[[File:Greenland 323 (34777287800).jpg|thumb|right|Dogs that are, in fact, barking.]]
 
{{Gloss
|phrase = 1a) mówok yát dáž kéyte
|IPA =
| morphemes = mówok [yát dáž] kéyk-e
| gloss = dog.ERG [running.IMPERF REL.IMPERF] bark.PERF-3S.IND
| translation = The dog that is running barked.
}}
 
{{Gloss
|phrase = 1b) mówok dážnak ŧwómgod bazƚának ára kéyke lunú
|IPA =
| morphemes = mówok [dáž-nak ŧ-wóm-god bazƚ-ának] ára kéyk-e lunú
| gloss = dog.ERG [REL-TEL INCL-we-INST pet.DIM.PART-TEL] NEG bark.PERF-3S.IND NEG.RES
| translation = The dog we are petting did not bark (the dog that is getting pet by us did not bark).
}}
 
{{Gloss
|phrase = 1c) mwokínko kikínank dážnak lewésket (ára yelŧá wolínroz dóžroz lunú)
|IPA =
| morphemes = mwok-ín-ko [kik-ín-ank dáž-nak] le-wésk-et (ára yelŧá [wol-ín-roz dóž-roz] lunú)
| gloss = dog-PL-TEL [barking-PL-TEL REL-TEL] DU-hear.PL-1Pl.INC (NEG but/immo [howling-PL-GEN REL-GEN] NEG.RES
| translation = The two of us heard the dogs that were barking (but not the ones that were howling)
}}
 
 
{{Gloss
|phrase = 2a) ŧórz mówok, pás áyta, ára kéyke lunú
|IPA =
| morphemes = ŧ-órz mówok, [pás áyt-a], ára kéyk-e lunú
| gloss = me-GEN dog.ERG, [REL.NOM run.IMPERF-3S.IND], NEG bark.PERF-3S.IND NEG.RES
| translation = My dog, who is running, did not bark.
}}
 
{{Gloss
|phrase = 2b) ŧórz mówok, pósonk yágnat, ára kéyke lunú
|IPA =
| morphemes = ŧ-órz [mówok, pós-onk] yágn-at, ára kéyk-e lunú
| gloss = me-GEN [dog.ERG, REL-TEL] adore.IMPERF-1S.IND NEG bark.PERF-3S.IND NEG.RES
| translation = My dog, whom I love, did not bark.
}}
 
 
{{Gloss
|phrase = 3) pubúǧ nukwúŧyu, aráda dáyma
|IPA =
| morphemes = [pub-úǧ nukwú-ŧy-u], aráda dáym-a
| gloss = [whither-REL arrive.PERF-MID-3S.IND], sun.ERG shine.IMPERF-3S.IND
| translation = Wherever you go, the sun shall shine (wherever it is arrived at, the sun shines).
}}
 
<!--
 
{{Gloss
|phrase =
|IPA =
| morphemes =
| gloss =
| translation =
}}
 
-->
=====Declension of relativizers=====
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
!colspan="7"|{{sc|relativizers}}
|-
!colspan=2|
!{{sc|underlying ending}}||{{sc|dXž}} nondefining ||{{sc|pXs, "who"}}||{{sc|pXn, "that"}}
|-
!colspan=1 rowspan=12|{{sc|singulare tantum}}
| {{sc|vocative}}      || {{sc|n/a}}          || {{sc|n/a}}  || '''pwóso'''  || '''pwóno'''   
|-
| {{sc|ergative}}      || {{sc|n/a}}          || '''dẊž'''    || '''pẊs'''    || '''pẊn''' 
|-
| {{sc|similative}}    || {{sc|-Xm}}          || '''dẊžXm'''  || '''pẊsXm'''  || '''pẊm''' 
|-
| {{sc|partitive}}    || {{sc|-sXb}}        || '''dẊžXb'''  || '''pẊsXp'''  || '''pẊnsXb''' 
|-
| {{sc|genitive}}      || {{sc|-rXz / -rz}}  || '''dẊř'''    || '''pẊlš'''  || '''pẊnXř'''
|-
| {{sc|benefactive}}  || {{sc|-prX / -pXr}}  || '''dẊžbXr''' || '''pẊspXl''' || '''pẊmbXr'''
|-
| {{sc|telic}}        || {{sc|-nkX / -nXk}}  || '''dẊžnXk''' || '''pẊsnXk''' || '''pẊnkX''' 
|-
| {{sc|inessive}}      || {{sc|-bi}}          || '''dẊžbi'''  || '''pẊzbi'''  || '''pẊmbi'''
|-
| {{sc|superessive}}  || {{sc|-pi}}          || '''dẊšpi'''  || '''pẊspi'''  || '''pẊnpi''' 
|-
| {{sc|instr./comit.}} || {{sc|-gdX / -gXd}}  || '''dẊžX'''  || '''pẊžX'''  || '''pẊmžX''' 
|-
| {{sc|caritive}}      || {{sc|-ktX / -kXt}}  || '''dẊšX'''  || '''pẊšX'''  || '''pẊnšX'''
|}
 
===Conjunctions===
Conjunctions are phrase-initial in [[#Fronting|unfronted]], unmarked discourse, and in second position in topicalized phrases. Some conjunctions are always in second position in resumptive clauses (see rí and wúnda). Other conjunctions are always [[#Clitics|clitics]], as explained below.
 
====Coordinating====
*'''órya''' - nam, for
*'''tí''' - and
*'''yún''' - nor
*'''yelŧá''' - immo, but on the other hand
*'''sú''' - or
*'''álŧ''' - yet
*'''žá/nú''' - so
*'''wiká''' - moreover
 
=====Correlative conjunctions=====
*'''áma...yún''' - neither...nor
*'''súŧa...sú''' - either...or
*'''u(m/n)...sú''' - whether...or
*'''yá...tí/-kX/gX''' - both...and
*'''ár...lún...álŧ''' - not...but
*'''ár yá...lún...yá tí/wiká''' - not only...but also
 
====Subordinating conjunctions====
*'''čáž''' - as if, so as if
*'''káz''' - ut, in order, so as to
 
=====Correlative subordinating conjunctions=====
*'''rí...wúnda''' (or vice versa) - if...then
*'''kál(i)...tún''' one the one hand, then; μέν...δέ
 
====Clitics====
There are 4 enclitic conjunctions appearing at the end of the last fully inflected noun in a string. When the enclisis makes a new consonant cluster, the accented syllable sympathetically moves to the new penult (old ultimate), if not already there by nature (cf. sentence '''4)''' below).
 
#'''-kX/gX''', "and"
#'''-wX/vX''', exclusive "or"
#'''-li/ri''', inclusive "or" (also used as an [[#Wh- words|interrogative particle]])
#'''-lXn/-rXn''', "and not"
 
Examples:
 
{{Gloss
|phrase = 1) mowokín asráynka arzánka-''ka'' wókdowon
|IPA =
| morphemes = mowok-ín asráy-nka arzá-nka-''ka'' wókd-owon
| gloss = dog.ERG-PL rabbit-TEL bear-TEL-'''''and''''' kill.IMPERF-3P
| translation = the dogs are killing a rabbit and a bear
}}
 
{{Gloss
|phrase = 2) mowokín asráynka arzánka-''wa'' wókdowon
|IPA =
| morphemes = mowok-ín asráy-nka arzá-nka-''wa'' wókd-owon
| gloss = dog.ERG-PL rabbit-TEL bear-TEL-'''''or''''' kill.IMPERF-3P
| translation = the dogs are killing a rabbit, or they're killing a bear
}}
 
{{Gloss
|phrase = 3) mowokín asráynka arzánka-''li'' wókdowon
| morphemes = mowok-ín asráy-nka arzá-nka-''li'' wókd-owon
| gloss = dog.ERG-PL rabbit-TEL bear-TEL-'''''or''''' kill.IMPERF-3P
|IPA =
| translation = the dogs are killing a rabbit or a bear (I can't tell which/I don't care which)
}}
 
{{Gloss
|phrase = 4) mowokín asráynka arzánka-''lun'' wókdowon
|IPA =
| morphemes =  mowok-ín asráy-nka arzá-nka-''lun'' wókd-owon
| gloss = dog.ERG-PL rabbit-TEL bear-TEL-'''''and.not''''' kill.IMPERF-3P
| translation = the dogs are killing a rabbit and not a bear (how could you make that mistake?)
}}
 
{{Gloss
|phrase = 5) nyažínraž itvoynróž-''go''+ gařáya
|IPA =
| morphemes = nyaž-ín-raž itvo-yn-róž-''go'' gařáya
| gloss = valley.DIM-PL-GEN running.water.DIM-PL-GEN-'''''and''''' child.DIM.ERG
| translation = a child of the valleys and running waters = sweet summer child, naive person
}}
+original accent would be '''''itvóynrož'''''
 
<!--
{{Gloss
|phrase =
|IPA =
| morphemes =
| gloss =
| translation =
}}
-->
 
===Comparison===
'''Comparative''' constructions in Rówok usually include a [[#Particles|particle]] or two and either a referent in the [[#Similative|similative]] case.
 
====More X than Y====
The particles used to express "more X than Y" are:
 
*'''''nyáč''''', "far more than"
 
====Less X than Y====
The particles used to express "more X than Y" are:
 
*'''''rúzǧu''''', "not so much"
 
====As X as Y====
The particles used to express "so" or "as X as Y" are:
 
*'''''ǧú''''', "so much"
 
{{Gloss
|phrase = ówkroz ''bŕsam ǧú'' tasí kún/kungúyz' ára pwólno lunú 
|IPA =
| morphemes = ówk.roz '''bŕs.am ǧú''' tas.í kún/kun.gúyzu ára pwóln.o lunú
| gloss = time-GEN '''foot-SIM EMPH''' silent-ADV nothing/nothing-NMZ NEG tread.lightly-3S.IMP.IND RES.NEG
| translation = '''like the''' of time '''foot so''' silent nothing doesn't tread at all = "Naught treads '''so''' silent '''as the foot''' of Time..." - Edward Young
 
 
*'''''ásya sáya''''', "just about as"; Note that the referent '''sometimes''' goes between the two words.
 
 
*'''''ára X vuƚú''''', "not unlike", literally "not opposite to"; Note that the referent '''always''' goes between the two words (other parts of the noun phrase can also be between the two words, but ''vuƚú'' always goes immediately after the noun in the similative.
 
}}
<!--
 
{{Gloss
|phrase = )
|IPA =
| morphemes =
| gloss =
| translation =
}}
 
-->
 
===Particles===
 
====Temporal====
:'''''murú''''', "today"
::'''''yúšmuru''''', "yesterday"
:::'''''liyúšmuru''''', "two days ago"
::'''''awštrá''''', "tomorrow"
:::'''''yilštrá''''', the day after tomorrow
::'''''múmurú''''', "day by day"
 
:'''''vučú/vúč''''', "now"
 
:'''''tusú''''', "again"
 
:'''''''''', ""
:'''''''''', ""
:'''''''''', ""
:'''''''''', ""
 
====Yá====
The particle '''yá''' is used extensively, inter alia in the following ways:
 
#as an intensifier at either the level of word or sentence
#as an [[#Aspect and tense|aspect]] particle meaning "already"
 
==Numbers==
:'''Note: all numbers in parentheses represent base-10, all numbers not in parentheses are assumed to be base-12.'''
 
Rówok uses a duodecimal system.
 
There are special conjugations and declensions that follow some numbers. Namely:
 
*In existential/stative constructions '''''ár/''(0)''' takes the '''[[#Genitive|genitive]] plural''' for count nouns, and the '''[[#Partitive|partitive]] singular''' for non-count nouns.
*Any naturally or temporarily occurring set of two, '''''líy''/2''', takes the '''dual''' in both [[#Morphology and morphophonology|nominal and verbal morphology]]
**Compounds with '''2''' in them also take the dual, e.g. '''22''' (26), '''102''' (146), etc.
*'''10''' (12) takes the '''singular''' in nominal and verbal morphology
*'''20''' (24) takes the '''dual''' in nominal and verbal morphology
 
 
{|class="wikitable
|+ Numbers up to 110 (156) in Rówok
!0 ár!!10 (12) zúmu !!20 (24) yizúmu !!30 (36) úmuz !!40 (48) úmurd !!50 (60) úmru !!60 (72) úmzyi  !!70 (84) úmsun !!80 (96) úmyurd !!90 (108) úmtuk !!ᘔ0 (120) úmyir !!Ɛ0 (132) úmbrun !!100 (144) gwóros
|-
!1 wúm
|'''11''' (13) '''zúmuti wúm''' ||'''21''' (25) '''yizúmdi wúm''' ||'''31''' (37) '''umúzdi wúm''' ||'''41''' (49) '''umúrdi wúm''' ||'''51''' (61) '''úmruti wúm''' ||'''61''' (73) '''úmzyiti wúm''' ||'''71''' (85) '''umsúnti wúm''' ||'''81''' (97) '''umyúrdi wúm''' ||'''91''' (109) '''umtíki wúm''' ||'''ᘔ1''' (121) '''umyírdi wúm''' ||'''Ɛ1''' (133) '''umbrúnti wúm''' ||'''101''' (145) '''gworósti wúm'''
|-
!2 líy
|'''12''' (14) '''zúmuti líy''' ||'''22''' (26) '''yizúmdi líy''' ||'''32''' (38) '''umúzdi líy''' ||'''42''' (50) '''umúrdi líy''' ||'''52''' (62) '''úmruti líy''' ||'''62''' (74) '''úmzyiti líy''' ||'''72''' (86) '''umsúnti líy''' ||'''82''' (98) '''umyúrdi líy''' ||'''92''' (110) '''umtíki líy''' ||'''ᘔ2''' (122) '''umyírdi líy''' ||'''Ɛ2''' (134) '''umbrúnti líy''' ||'''102''' (146) '''gworósti líy'''
|-
!3 áz
|'''13''' (15) '''zúmut íz ''' ||'''23''' (27) '''yizúmd íz''' ||'''33''' (39) '''umúzd íz''' ||'''43''' (51) '''umúrd íz''' ||'''53''' (63) '''úmrut íz''' ||'''63''' (75) '''úmzyit íz''' ||'''73''' (87) '''umsúnt íz''' ||'''83''' (99) '''umyúrd íz''' ||'''93''' (111) '''umtík íz''' ||'''ᘔ3''' (123) '''umyírd íz''' ||'''Ɛ3''' (135) '''umbrúnt íz''' ||'''103''' (147) '''gworóst íz'''
|-
!4 árd
|'''14''' (16) '''zúmut írd''' ||'''24''' (28) '''yizúmd írd''' ||'''34''' (40) '''umúzd írd''' ||'''44''' (52) '''umúrd írd''' ||'''54''' (64) '''úmrut írd''' ||'''64''' (76) '''úmzyit  írd''' ||'''74''' (88) '''umsúnt írd''' ||'''84''' (100) '''umyúrd írd/stó''' ||'''94''' (112) '''umtík írd''' ||'''ᘔ4''' (124) '''umyírd írd''' ||'''Ɛ4''' (136) '''umbrúnt írd''' ||'''104''' (148) '''gworóst írd'''
|-
!5 wúr
|'''15''' (17) '''zúmuti wúr''' ||'''25''' (29) '''yizúmdi wúr''' ||'''35''' (41) '''umúzdi wúr''' ||'''45''' (53) '''umúrdi wúr''' ||'''55''' (65) '''úmruti wúr''' ||'''65''' (77) '''úmzyiti wúr''' ||'''75''' (89) '''umsúnti wúr''' ||'''85''' (101) '''umyúrdi wúr''' ||'''95''' (113) '''umtíki wúr''' ||'''ᘔ5''' (125) '''umyírdi wúr''' ||'''Ɛ5''' (137) '''umbrúnti wúr''' ||'''105''' (149) '''gworósti wúr'''
|-
!6 yáz
|'''16''' (18) '''zúmuti yíz''' ||'''26''' (30) '''yizúmdi yíz''' ||'''36''' (42) '''umúzdi yíz''' ||'''46''' (54) '''umúrdi yíz''' ||'''56''' (66) '''úmruti yíz''' ||'''66''' (78) '''úmzyiti yíz''' ||'''76''' (90) '''umsúnti yíz''' ||'''86''' (102) '''umyúrdi yíz''' ||'''96''' (114) '''umtíki yíz''' ||'''ᘔ6''' (126) '''umyírdi yíz''' ||'''Ɛ6''' (138) '''umbrúnti yíz''' ||'''106''' (150) '''gworósti yíz'''
|-
!7 sún
|'''17''' (19) '''zúmuti sún''' ||'''27''' (31) '''yizúmdi sún''' ||'''37''' (43) '''umúzdi sún''' ||'''47''' (55) '''umúrdi sún''' ||'''57''' (67) '''úmruti sún''' ||'''67''' (79) '''úmzyiti sún''' ||'''77''' (91) '''umsúnti sún''' ||'''87''' (103) '''umyúrdi sún''' ||'''97''' (115) '''umtíki sún''' ||'''ᘔ7''' (127) '''umyírdi sún''' ||'''Ɛ7''' (139) '''umbrúnti sún''' ||'''107''' (151) '''gworósti sún'''
|-
!8 yárd
|'''18''' (20) '''zúmuti yírd''' ||'''28''' (32) '''yizúmdi yírd''' ||'''38''' (44) '''umúzdi yírd''' ||'''48''' (56) '''umúrdi yírd''' ||'''58''' (68) '''úmruti yírd''' ||'''68''' (80) '''úmzyiti yírd''' ||'''78''' (92) '''umsúnti yírd''' ||'''88''' (104) '''umyúrdi yírd''' ||'''98''' (116) '''umtíki yírd''' ||'''ᘔ8''' (128) '''umyírdi yírd''' ||'''Ɛ8''' (140) '''umbrúnti yírd''' ||'''108''' (152) '''gworósti yírd'''
|-
!9 ták
|'''19''' (21) '''zúmuti tík''' ||'''29''' (33) '''yizúmdi tík''' ||'''39''' (45) '''umúzdi tík''' ||'''49''' (57) '''umúrdi tík''' ||'''59''' (69) '''úmruti tík''' ||'''69''' (81) '''úmzyiti tík''' ||'''79''' (93) '''umsúnti tík''' ||'''89''' (105) '''umyúrdi tík''' ||'''99''' (117) '''umtíki tík''' ||'''ᘔ9''' (129) '''umyírdi tík''' ||'''Ɛ9''' (141) '''umbrúnti tík''' ||'''109''' (153) '''gworósti tík'''
|-
!ᘔ (10) yír/dísit
|'''1ᘔ''' (22) '''zúmut yír''' ||'''2ᘔ''' (34) '''yizúmdi yír''' ||'''3ᘔ''' (46) '''umúzd yír''' ||'''4ᘔ''' (58) '''umúrd yír''' ||'''5ᘔ''' (70) '''úmrut yír''' ||'''6ᘔ''' (82) '''úmzyit yír''' ||'''7ᘔ''' (94) '''umsúnt yír''' ||'''8ᘔ''' (106) '''umyúrd yír''' ||'''9ᘔ''' (118) '''umtík yír''' ||'''ᘔᘔ''' (130) '''umyírd yír''' ||'''Ɛᘔ''' (142) '''umbrúnt yír''' ||'''10ᘔ''' (154) '''gworóst yír'''
|-
!Ɛ (11) brún
|'''1Ɛ''' (23) '''zúmuti brún''' ||'''2Ɛ''' (35) '''yizúmdi brún''' ||'''3Ɛ''' (47) '''umúzdi brún''' ||'''4Ɛ''' (59) '''umúrdi brún''' ||'''5Ɛ''' (71) '''úmruti brún''' ||'''6Ɛ''' (83) '''úmzyiti brún''' ||'''7Ɛ''' (95) '''umsúnti brún''' ||'''8Ɛ''' (107) '''umyúrdi brún''' ||'''9Ɛ''' (119) '''umtíki brún''' ||'''ᘔƐ''' (131) '''umyírdi brún''' ||'''ƐƐ''' (143) '''umbrúnti brún''' ||'''10Ɛ''' (155) '''gworósti brún'''
|}
 
==Colloquial Rówok==
 
==Example texts==
 
{{Gloss
|phrase = Yá wóbom anránkta bwólkto-ke paypayŧyáspap. Wóbo čaščánka zudrúnku čaščágda péyŧye. (Wóbo) panávnak zudrúnku panávgad péyŧye. (Wóbo) samvárnak zudrúnku samvárgad péyŧye. Laylápškya wóbo yuyuwgyu-ge. Wóbom nu paypayŧyáspap, zík.
|IPA = Yá wóbo-m anrán-kta bwólk-to-ke pay-pay-ŧyá-sp-a-p. Wóbo-ø čaščá-nka zudrúnku čaščá-gda pey-ø-ŧy-e. (Wóbo-ø) panáv-nak zudrúnku panáv-gad péy-ø-ŧy-e. (Wóbo-ø) samvár-nak zudrúnku samvár-gad péy-ø-ŧy-e. Lay-láp-š-ø-ky-a wóbo yu-yuwg-y-u-ge. Wóbom nu pay-pay-ŧyá-sp-a-p, zík-ø.
| morphemes =
| gloss = Verily water-SIM shape-CAR form-CAR-and IRR-become-MID-INCH-IMPF-2S. Water-VOC cup-TEL poured-VOC cup-INST become-PERF-MID-3S (Water-VOC) horn-TEL poured-VOC horn-INST become-PERF-MID-3S. (Water-VOC) samovar-TEL poured-VOC samovar-INST become-PERF-MID-3S. IRR-flow.DIM-IMPF--FUT.3S water-VOC IRR-crash-FUT-PERF-3S-and. Water.SIM therefore IRR-become-MID-INCH-2S, friend-VOC.
| translation = “You must be shapeless, formless, like water. When you pour water in a cup, it becomes the cup. When you pour water in a bottle, it becomes the bottle. When you pour water in a teapot, it becomes the teapot. Water can drip and it can crash. Become like water my friend.” - '''Bruce Lee'''
}}
 
<!--
Kúg ŧórp Žówoš, tó kút Amiríkabi rodónok, murú nú Sloviníybi zál.
name-VOC me-BEN Josh, i-VOC/ERG man-VOC America-INES born-PP, today TOP Slovenia-INES living-PRESP
My name is Josh, I am a man from America, now living in Slovenia.
 
Gódoli ŧórp woktróli, záni-ka gársa, ti múk láyŧa.
son-VOC.DU me-BEN strong-PRESP.DU, wife-VOC-CONJ great, and dog-VOC silly-PRESP
I have two strong boys, a great wife, and a silly dog.
 
Orwokímdo alapáymda-ga tlačínča wonróŧyot.
languages-INST words-INST-CON furs-TEL hunt-1S.MID.IND
I hunt my furs with languages and words. (to hunt one's furs=to make a living by)
 
Dwopímdo vibropongod-go, kitaráymda ukililigúd-gu gánŧyat.
drums-INST vibraphone-INST-CONJ, guitars-INST ukelele-INST-CONJ sing.DIM-1S-MID-IND,
 
Bwokínroz zalínka pestenkínrez galnŧyat.
bones-GEN animals-TEL bury.PP-GEN-PL adore-1S-MID-IND
I love the animals of the buried bones (the native expression for "dinosaur", as Rówok speakers have no knowledge of modern paleontology*).
 
*You could form "bukíštu", basically bone+ology, to mean paleontology. Otherwise to borrow the modern, international term, phonetically you could say "dinozowrínko galnŧyat"
 
-->
 
===Idioms===
 
*'''''nyažínraž itvoynróžgo gařáya''''', "a child of the valleys and running waters" = sweet summer child, naive person
*'''''čižmik''''', utter nonsense, babbling, blithering, talking out your ass
*'''''Ar iwónroz/áparz Novgróžbi lunú!''''', "We're/you're not in Novgorod!", "we" is used to mean "let's conserve resources", while "you" is used to mean "get off your high horse"
*'''''kalwálŧya''''', a general state of lethargy and idleness, expressed as a stative in the middle voice, also "just chilling", also "possibly wasting talent through not doing anything"
*'''''arznáynta''''', "good night", for friends and acquaintances in parting (literally: "free of bears")
*'''''nówoz gukú''''', "good night", for family, lovers, etc.
*'''''ašávapař knarímbi yówčŧop''''', "you're crying over a stick in the woods" = "you're wallowing in misery while an endless amount of opportunities surrounds you"


===Wh- words===
====Dog idioms====
Rówok has several ways of forming questions, using both [[#Particles|particles]] and [[#Derivational morphology|enclitic suffixes]].
[[File:Sharr dogs.jpg|thumb|right|"Three dogs, no leash" - a Rówok expression meaning a person has control over a situation.]]  


:'''''u(m/n)''''', comes at the beginning of both direct questions and indirect questions. In direct questions it means something like '''"did/does the following hold true...?"''', and in indirect questions it means '''"if/whether"'''. It shows euphony, being realized as /u/ before consonants, /um/ before vowels in words whose first subsequent consonant is voiced, and /un/ before vowels in words whose first subsequent consonant is unvoiced.
As mentioned above, dogs are an integral part of Rówok culture; as such, many idioms are related to dogs and human interaction with them


====Dependent clauses====
*'''''ár kárzawan lunú mowokín rokín''''', "barking dogs do not bite" = "his/her bark is bigger than their bite"
*'''''nučgúyžu mwoklígod''''', "to night it with 2 dogs" = a two dog night/a freezing night
*'''''stlánka lažta''''', "s/he/it is lapping at ice" = conducting an exercise in futility
*'''''ownlópro wólo''''', "s/he/it is howling at the moon" = talking crazy, fervently, even primitively sometimes
*'''''tú (mwókroz) awsánča rátsa''''', "that scratches the (dog) ear" = that hits the spot
*'''''asaváynko bwokinróz-run kárzda''''', "chewing sticks instead of bones" = wasting time, doing something ineffective when a better option is around
*'''''wutmúbu lašíŧya''''', "s/he's humping in autumn" = late to the party, too little too late (note this could to the dogs, whose mating season, like wolves, is January to March, but could also apply to humans, as Rówok speakers generally mate in the summer in order to give birth in the spring, so children are strong enough by the time their first winter comes)
*'''''tármpa''''', "to be like a louse" = to be annoying
*'''''líy mowókli, asáv' álŧ wúm''''', "two dogs, but one stick" = there's competition brewing, that's not gonna end well, there's bound to be a clash


=====Reported speech=====
====Snow idioms====
[[File:Sninský kameň (v zime) 010.jpg|thumb|left|371px|"Sideways snow" - an expression meaning "hard to understand/interpret/decipher".]]


===Conjunctions===
Living nearly year-round under snowcover, there are also a lot of idioms related to snow and the cold.


====Clitics====
*'''''krúžbi blšínam''''', "like snowflakes in a butt" = "something done half-assedly, pisspoorly", the idea being "about as durable as ice crystals in a warm place"
There are 4 enclitic conjunctions appearing at the end of the last fully inflected noun in a string. When the enclisis makes a new consonant cluster, the accented syllable sympathetically moves to the new penult (old ultimate), if not already there by nature (cf. sentence '''4)''' below).
*'''''bálsŧya belsénkpre''''', "it is snowing upon fallen snow" = to beat a dead horse; to preach to the choir
 
*'''''zála párzđya, plút nú sálŧya''''', "life is cold, death is freezing" = "life sucks and then you die"
#'''-kX/gX''', "and"
*'''''ráda goǧówkŧispo nú bĺsa sašálŧispa''''', "may the sun be warm and the snow freezing" = "travel safe"
#'''-wX/vX''', exclusive "or"
*'''''tuzdú, gáři, barsá-lun/brážgađ, dlnádgad, twozgód-vo, gáři, párz išána''''', "by sled, young one, not by foot"/by foot, by snowshoe, by sled, young one, your choice" = "brains over brawn", "work smarter not harder"
#'''-li''', inclusive "or" (also used as an [[#Wh- words|interrogative particle]])
*'''''álvyank blášpi / vƚašínpi yižin solwóŧišop''''', "you're hoarding bark* before the snow/some flurries" = "you're panicking, doing something unnecessary when you could be focusing attention elsewhere"
#'''-lXn''', "and not"
 
Examples:
 
:1) '''mowokín saráynka razánka''ka'' wokódowon'''
:dog.erg.pl rabbit.tel bear.tel.'''''and''''' fight.3.pl.ACT
:the dogs are killing a rabbit and a bear
 
:2) '''mowokín saráynka razánka''wa'' wokódowon'''
:dog.erg.pl rabbit.tel bear.tel.'''''or''''' fight.3.pl.ACT
:the dogs are killing a rabbit, or they're killing a bear
 
:3) '''mowokín saráynka razánka''li'' wokódowon'''
:dog.erg.pl rabbit.tel bear.tel.'''''or''''' fight.3.pl.ACT
:the dogs are killing a rabbit or a bear (I can't tell which/I don't care which)
 
:4) '''nyažínraž itvoynróž''go''+ gařáya'''
:valley.gen.pl.dim running water.gen.pl.dim.'''''and''''' child.erg.dim
:a child of the valleys and running waters = sweet summer child, naive person
::+original accent would be '''''itvóynrož'''''
 
:5)
:XXXXXXXXX
:XXXXXXXXX
:XXXXXXXXX
 
===Particles===
 
==Colloquial Rówok==
 
==Example texts==
 
*'''''kalwálŧa''''', a general state of lethargy and idleness, expressed as a stative in the middle voice
 
===Idioms===
*'''''bálsŧa belsénkpre''''', "it is snowing upon fallen snow" = to beat a dead horse; to preach to the choir
*'''''nyažínraž itvoynróžgo gařáya''''', "a child of the valleys and running waters" = sweet summer child, naive person
*'''''čižmik''''', utter nonsense, babbling, blithering, talking out your ass


==Other resources==
==Other resources==
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