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{{Construction}} | {{Construction}} | ||
'''Is Burunking''' (/is | {{Infobox language | ||
|name = Is Burunking | |||
|nativename = Is | |||
|pronunciation = is | |||
|creator = Neil Whalley | |||
|setting = North Atlantic ocean | |||
|states = Burung | |||
|nation = Burung | |||
|familycolor = Isolate | |||
|scripts = * [[w:Latin script|Latin script]] | |||
* Hookozoi | |||
}} | |||
'''Is Burunking''' (/is buɾˈunkiŋ/, literally 'Burungian language') is the language of Burung, an island in the north Atlantic Ocean. | |||
==Background== | ==Background== | ||
==Phonology== | ==Phonology== | ||
===Consonants=== | ===Consonants=== | ||
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! style="width: 68px; " |Bilabial | ! style="width: 68px; " |Bilabial | ||
! style="width: 68px; " |Alveolar | ! style="width: 68px; " |Alveolar | ||
! style="width: 68px; " |Palatal | ! style="width: 68px; " |Palatal | ||
! style="width: 68px; " |Velar | ! style="width: 68px; " |Velar | ||
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! style="" |Nasal | ! style="" |Nasal | ||
| m | | m | ||
| n | | n | ||
| | | | ||
| ŋ | | ŋ | ||
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| t d | | t d | ||
| | | | ||
| k g | |||
| | | | ||
|- | |||
! style="" |Sibilant | |||
| | |||
| s | |||
| ɕ ʑ | |||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! style="" |Fricative | ! style="" |Fricative | ||
| ɸ | | ɸ | ||
| | | | ||
| | | ç | ||
| | | | ||
| h | | h | ||
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| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | t͡ɕ d͡ʑ | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
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| | | | ||
| ɾ | | ɾ | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
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! style="" |Approximant | ! style="" |Approximant | ||
| w | | w | ||
| | | | ||
| j | | j | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! style="" |Lateral app. | ! style="" |Lateral app. | ||
| | |||
| l | | l | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
|} | |} | ||
Consonants generally do not occur in clusters, with some exceptions (see [[#Phonotactics|Phonotactics]] below). Any consonant except a fricative may occur as a geminate word-internally. | |||
===Vowels=== | ===Vowels=== | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! style="" |Close | ! style="" |Close | ||
| | | ɨ | ||
| | | ʉ | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="" |Open-mid | ! style="" |Open-mid | ||
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|} | |} | ||
Vowels are considered to be short in all environments but may occur consecutively as in ''eekez'' 'left' /ɛːkɛz/. Note | Vowels are considered to be short in all environments but may occur consecutively as in ''eekez'' 'left' /ɛːkɛz/. | ||
:: <small>'''Note:''' word-initial sequences of ''i + i'' and ''u + uu'' are written ''yi-'', ''wu-''. </small> | |||
===Diphthongs=== | ===Diphthongs=== | ||
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===Phonotactics=== | ===Phonotactics=== | ||
Is Burunking has a relatively restrictive syllabic structure, with a maximal form CGVVC, in which C represents a consonant, G a glide and V a vowel or diphthong. Of these, only the central vowel is essential but there are restrictions on the other elements | Is Burunking has a relatively restrictive syllabic structure, with a maximal form CGVVC, in which C represents a consonant, G a glide and V a vowel or part of a diphthong. Of these, only the central vowel is essential but there are also restrictions on the other elements. The table below shows the rules governing each position in the syllable: | ||
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" | {| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;" | ||
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| style="text-align:left; vertical-align: top;" | | | style="text-align:left; vertical-align: top;" | | ||
* optional | * optional | ||
* only ''b, g, d, h, x, l, n, ng'' or ''m'' word-initially | * only ''b, g, d, z, f, j, h, x, l, n, ng'' or ''m'' word-initially | ||
* any consonant word-medially | * any consonant word-medially | ||
| style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; " | | | style="text-align:left; vertical-align:top; " | | ||
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* optional | * optional | ||
* only ''s, sh, ng'' or ''z'' word-finally | * only ''s, sh, ng'' or ''z'' word-finally | ||
* only ''n'' or ''m'' before a consonant | * only ''n'' or ''m'' before a consonant, except in the case of geminates | ||
|} | |} | ||
The word-final consonants ''s, sh, ng'' and ''z'' are not permitted to occur before another consonant, so undergo changes in compounds or when consonant-initial endings are added: | The word-final consonants ''s, sh, ng'' and ''z'' are not permitted to occur before another consonant, so undergo changes in compounds or when consonant-initial endings are added: | ||
Word-final vowels may also be altered or lost when they come into contact with initial vowels in compounds or endings | * ''-s'' is lost, the preceding vowel is doubled and a following voiced plosive is devoiced: | ||
:: ''is'' 'language, speech' + ''-do'' (pejorative) = ''yito'' 'curse' | |||
:: ''os'' 'cold' + ''-pung'' (abstract) = ''oopung'' 'coldness' | |||
* ''-sh'' becomes ''-i-'', forming a diphthong with the preceding vowel, and a following voiced plosive is devoiced: | |||
:: ''banash'' 'fruit' + ''-to'' (diminutive) = ''banaito'' 'berry' | |||
:: ''ush'' 'empty' + ''gyong'' 'person' = ''wikyong'' 'vain person' | |||
* ''-ng'' becomes ''-m'' before ''p, b, f'' and ''n'' before any other consonant: | |||
:: ''gyong'' 'person' + ''-zoi'' (collective) = ''gyonzoi'' 'team, band' | |||
:: ''yong'' 'smooth' + ''-pung'' (abstract) = ''yompung'' 'smoothness' | |||
* ''-z'' is lost and causes a following consonant to double (except ''s, z, f, x, h''): | |||
:: ''az'' 'man' + ''-chi'' (adjectival) = ''acchi'' 'masculine' | |||
:: ''haaz'' 'old' + ''-ki'' (nominal) = ''haakki'' 'antique, relic' | |||
In some cases a word ending in a vowel + ''-i'' will alter to vowel + ''-u'' when a suffix or the second element of a compound begins with a consonant: | |||
:: '' | |||
Word-final vowels may also be altered or lost when they come into contact with initial vowels in compounds or endings: | |||
* In words of three or more syllables, the vowel is always lost, e.g. ''arato'' 'food' + ''-oi'' (adjectival) = ''aratoi'' 'gluttonous', ''eshayo'' 'sea' + ''ugi'' 'bread' = ''eshayugi'' 'seaweed'. | |||
* Words of two syllables usually lose their final vowel, e.g. ''binji'' 'mountain' + ''arate'' 'gap' = ''binjarate'' 'mountain pass', but when the second word is only one syllable the final vowel sometimes remains, forming a glide in the case of ''i'' or ''u'' e.g. ''bigi'' 'eye' + ''uz'' 'water' = ''bigyuz'' 'tear'. | |||
* In reduplication, the final vowel usually remains in disyllables, but an epenthetic ''k'' (occasionally ''y'') is inserted between the elements: ''aze'''k'''aze'' 'very dark'. | |||
===Stress=== | ===Stress=== | ||
Primary stress is generally on the penultimate syllable of polysyllables, e.g. ''berósu'' 'nine', ''esháyo'' 'sea', ''ázeng'' 'fish'. | Primary stress is generally on the penultimate syllable of polysyllables, e.g. ''berósu'' 'nine', ''esháyo'' 'sea', ''ázeng'' 'fish'. | ||
In true verbs, primary stress is always placed on the first syllable of the root, e.g. ''eróz'' 'go down', ''isúru'' 'go past'. | |||
In compounds, the primary stress is placed on the second element, with secondary stress on the first. | |||
===Orthography=== | ===Orthography=== | ||
Is Burunking was originally written in a syllabary called ''hookozoi'', mainly carved into wood or, occasionally, stone. | Is Burunking was originally written in a syllabary called ''hookozoi'', mainly carved into wood or, occasionally, stone. | ||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
! !! a !! e !! i !! o !! u !! Ø | |||
|- | |||
! Ø | |||
| a || e || i || o || u || style="background: lightgray;" | | |||
|- | |||
! y | |||
| ya || ye || yi || yo || yu || style="background: lightgray;" | | |||
|- | |||
! w | |||
| wa || we || wi || wo || wu || style="background: lightgray;" | | |||
|- | |||
! b | |||
| ba || be || bi || bo || bu || style="background: lightgray;" | | |||
|- | |||
! d | |||
| da || de || ji || do || style="background: lightgray;" | || style="background: lightgray;" | | |||
|- | |||
! g | |||
| ga || ge || gi || go || style="background: lightgray;" | || style="background: lightgray;" | | |||
|- | |||
! p | |||
| pa || pe || style="background: lightgray;" | || style="background: lightgray;" | || pu || style="background: lightgray;" | | |||
|- | |||
! t | |||
| ta || te || chi || to || style="background: lightgray;" | || style="background: lightgray;" | | |||
|- | |||
! k | |||
| ka || ke || ki || ko || style="background: lightgray;" | || style="background: lightgray;" | | |||
|- | |||
! f | |||
| fa || fe || fi || fo || fu || style="background: lightgray;" | | |||
|- | |||
! h | |||
| ha || he || style="background: lightgray;" | || ho || style="background: lightgray;" | || style="background: lightgray;" | | |||
|- | |||
! x | |||
| xa || xe || xi || xo || xu || style="background: lightgray;" | | |||
|- | |||
! s | |||
| sa || se || style="background: lightgray;" | || so || su || s | |||
|- | |||
! sh | |||
| sha || she || shi || sho || shu || sh | |||
|- | |||
! m | |||
| ma || me || style="background: lightgray;" | || style="background: lightgray;" | || mu || rowspan="2;" | m/n | |||
|- | |||
! n | |||
| na || ne || ni || no || nu | |||
|- | |||
! ng | |||
| nga || nge || ngi || ngo || style="background: lightgray;" | || ng | |||
|- | |||
! l | |||
| la || le || li || lo || lu || style="background: lightgray;" | | |||
|- | |||
! r | |||
| ra || re || ri || ro || ru || style="background: lightgray;" | | |||
|- | |||
! z | |||
| za || ze || zi || zo || zu || z | |||
|} | |||
When the language was initially discovered by Europeans the Greek alphabet was used in its transcription, but later studies preferred to use the Latin script, which is still used today. | When the language was initially discovered by Europeans the Greek alphabet was used in its transcription, but later studies preferred to use the Latin script, which is still used today. | ||
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1 | {| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" style="text-align:center;" class="wikitable" | ||
! style="width: 90px; " |Graph | ! style="width: 90px; " |Graph | ||
! style="width: 90px; " |IPA | ! style="width: 90px; " |IPA | ||
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|} | |} | ||
In word or syllable initial position the sequences ''ii, uu'' are written ''yi, wu''. The glide /j/ is always written ''y'' but /w/ is written ''u'' following a consonant and ''w'' syllable initially. | In word or syllable initial position the sequences ''ii, uu'' are written ''yi, wu''. The glide /j/ is always written ''y'' but /w/ is written ''u'' following a consonant and ''w'' syllable initially. | ||
==Grammar== | ==Grammar== | ||
===Nouns=== | ===Nouns=== | ||
====Gender==== | ====Gender==== | ||
Strictly speaking, Is Burunking, like English, does not have grammatical gender affecting the morphology of words. Their concept of natural gender, however, is substantially different from many other cultures and does influence language to certain extent. It is rooted in a more fundamental understanding of how things in the world are related and categorised. | |||
At its most basic, all things (and the names that describe them) are considered either '''animate''' (''bixi'') or '''inanimate''' (''es bixi''). The primary distinction between these two groups is that animate nouns are capable of movement under their own power, but inanimate ones are not. Humans, animals and deities are therefore considered animate (as are some celestial bodies), whereas plants, rocks and abstract concepts are inanimate. | |||
Within the class of animate nouns, a further distinction is made between three genders: '''masculine''' (''acchi''), '''feminine''' (''buyachi'') or '''middle''' (''iriji''). Inclusion within one of these three groups is based to some extent on biological sex, but also takes into account personality, strengths and a chosen role within society. | |||
At birth, all human children are considered to be ''iriji'' and remain so throughout childhood until the onset of puberty. At some point during puberty, depending on the development of the individual, the child will be undergo an initiation into adulthood as either ''acchi'', ''buyachi'' or ''iriji'', taking a gendered form of their name and a byname to symbolise this important rite of passage. The choice of appropriate gender is made by the community elders, with input from the parents and/or foster parents, based on an understanding of the individual. | |||
There are no hard and fast rules regarding gender, rather each has a series of complex associations. | |||
The table below shows some of the basic characteristics for each group: | |||
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" | {| class="wikitable" border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ||
! rowspan=" | |- | ||
! | ! rowspan=2; width="125px;"| !! colspan=3; | Bixi !! rowspan=2; width="175px;" | Eipixi | ||
| | |- | ||
! width="175px;" | Buyachi !! width="175px;" | Iriji !! width="175px;" | Achi | |||
|- | |||
! Element | |||
| Earth || Fire || Water || Air | |||
|- | |||
! Direction | |||
| East || South || West || North | |||
|- | |||
! Season | |||
| Spring || Summer || Autumn || Winter | |||
|- | |||
! Celestial Body | |||
| Moon || Sun || Moon || Sun | |||
|- | |||
! Lunar Phase | |||
| Waxing || Full || Waning || New | |||
|- | |||
! Solar Phase | |||
| Dawn || Day || Evening || Night | |||
|- | |||
! Temperature | |||
| Warm/Wet || Hot/Dry || Cool/Wet || Cold/Dry | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Family | ||
| | | Mother || Child || Father || House | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Aspect | ||
| | | Emotional || Intellectual || Physical || Material | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Noun class | ||
| | | adult female humans <br /> some female animals <br /> female deities | ||
| human children <br /> adult ''iriji'' humans <br /> most animals <br /> ''iriji'' deities | |||
| adult male humans <br /> some male animals <br /> male deities | |||
| unmoving objects <br /> most materials <br /> abstracts | |||
|} | |} | ||
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Relationships between nouns in a sentence are marked by particles following the noun. | Relationships between nouns in a sentence are marked by particles following the noun. | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Case !! Particle !! Uses | ! Case !! Particle !! Uses | ||
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====Number==== | ====Number==== | ||
Nouns are generally not marked for number and context is usually sufficient to show whether ''heuji'' means 'horse' or 'horses'. Numerals or adjectives can be used to qualify the noun for number, e.g. ''bade oz'' 'one dog, a dog'. | Nouns are generally not marked for number and context is usually sufficient to show whether, e.g. ''heuji'' means 'horse' or 'horses'. Numerals or adjectives can be used to qualify the noun for number, e.g. ''bade oz'' 'one dog, a dog'. | ||
There are two collective suffixes, which may sometimes translate the English plural: | |||
* '''''-zoi''''' is used to refer to a discrete group of things, usually occupying a single location, e.g. ''gyonzoi'' 'band, group, team of people', ''heujizoi'' 'a herd of horses'. | |||
* '''''-bua''''' is more abstract, referring to all things within a class collectively and also to the state of being an object within that class, similar in some ways to the English suffix '-hood' in a word like 'priesthood', e.g. ''gyombua'' 'everybody, humanity, humankind, population', ''binjibua'' 'mountains'. | |||
Both of these suffixes are productive, though in some cases the noun with the suffix has taken on a specialised meaning as in ''azoi'' 'council, assembly' from ''az'' 'man'. | |||
Reduplication may also be used to express a large group of something, often with an intensive meaning, e.g. ''gyongyong'' 'crowd, mass of people', ''yaiyai'' 'storm' (from ''yai'' 'wind'). | |||
===Adjectives=== | ===Adjectives=== | ||
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Superlatives are formed from the positive adjective with the suffix ''-na'' and precede the noun they modify, e.g. ''enjina az'' "biggest man", ''lashana ebaz'' "quietest river". The usual sentence structure follows the pattern [Topic] + ''ba'' (+ [Location] + ''gang'') + [Superlative] + [Noun] + ''da'', e.g. ''Eric ba (Burung gang) enjina az da'' "Eric is the tallest man (in Burung)''. | Superlatives are formed from the positive adjective with the suffix ''-na'' and precede the noun they modify, e.g. ''enjina az'' "biggest man", ''lashana ebaz'' "quietest river". The usual sentence structure follows the pattern [Topic] + ''ba'' (+ [Location] + ''gang'') + [Superlative] + [Noun] + ''da'', e.g. ''Eric ba (Burung gang) enjina az da'' "Eric is the tallest man (in Burung)''. | ||
===Numerals=== | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
! !! Cardinal !! Ordinal | |||
|- | |||
| '''1''' || ''zu'' || ''leneng'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''2''' || ''hai'' || ''uzeng'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''3''' || ''gi'' || ''gichi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''4''' || ''baka'' || ''bakachi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''5''' || ''utu'' || ''utuchi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''6''' || ''xa'' || ''xachi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''7''' || ''gyeng'' || ''gyenchi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''8''' || ''eileng'' || ''eilenchi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''9''' || ''zuneng'' || ''zunenchi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''10''' || ''haz'' || ''hachi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''11''' || ''zu-haz'' || ''zu-hachi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''20''' || ''hatorung'' || ''hatorunchi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''21''' || ''zu-hatorung'' || ''zu-hatorunchi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''30''' || ''gyauka'' || ''gyaukachi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''40''' || ''bakauka'' || ''bakaukachi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''50''' || ''utauka'' || ''utaukachi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''60''' || ''xauka'' || ''xaukachi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''70'''|| ''gyengauka'' || ''gyengaukachi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''80''' || ''eilengauka'' || ''eilengaukachi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''90''' || ''zunengauka'' || ''zunengaukachi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''100''' || ''inung'' || ''inunchi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''101''' || ''zu-inung'' || ''zu-inunchi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''121''' || ''zu-hatorung-inung'' || ''zu-hatorung-inunchi'' | |||
|} | |||
===Pronouns=== | ===Pronouns=== | ||
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! rowspan="3" | 3 | ! rowspan="3" | 3 | ||
! masculine | ! masculine | ||
| '' | | ''az'' || ''azoi'' | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! feminine | ! feminine | ||
| '' | | ''buya'' || ''buyazoi'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! common | ! common | ||
| '' | | ''xini'' || ''xinizoi'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
There are no inanimate forms, the demonstrative | There are no inanimate forms, the demonstrative pronoun ''ong'' being used instead. | ||
Possessives may be formed with the | Possessives may be formed with the particle ''eng'', e.g. ''ni eng yata'' "my father", ''xini eng eshe'' "its house". | ||
==== | ====Reflexive==== | ||
The reflexive pronoun ''bera'' is used as the direct or indirect object of a verb, referring the action back to the subject. The pronoun doesn't change for person or number and simply fills the relevant object slot of the sentence, e.g. ''az ba bera ke bigiipush fong'' "he saw himself", ''ni eng asho ba bera ni inua da'' "my grandma talks to herself". It is usually only used with animate subjects. | |||
! | |||
| | ====Demonstratives==== | ||
There are three series of demonstratives expressing three degrees of proximity: | |||
* ''ong'' "this" denotes objects close to the speaker | |||
* ''uri'' "that" (proximal) denotes objects close to the hearer | |||
* ''ang'' "that" (distal) denotes objects at a distance or abstract | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="2;" | !! this <br/> ''ong'' !! that (prox.) <br/> ''uri'' !! that (dist.) <br/> ''ang'' | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="2;" | Object (inan.) | |||
| ''ong'' <br/> this || ''uri'' <br/> that || ''ang'' <br/> that yonder | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="3;" | person || m | |||
| ''azong'' <br/> that man || ''azuri'' <br/> that man || ''azang'' <br/> that man yonder | |||
|- | |||
! f. | |||
| ''buyong'' <br/> this woman || ''buyuri'' <br/> that woman || ''buyang'' <br/> that woman yonder | |||
|- | |||
! c. | |||
| ''xinyong'' <br/> this ''xini'' || ''xinyuri'' <br/> that ''xini'' || ''xinyang'' <br/> that ''xini'' yonder | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="2;" | Place | |||
| ''ukyong'' <br/> here || ''ukyuri'' <br/> there || ''ukyang'' <br/> yonder | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! colspan="2;" | Way | ||
| | | ''bideung'' <br/> this way || ''bideuri'' <br/> that way || ''bideeng'' <br/> that way yonder | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! colspan="2;" | Time | ||
| | | ''eujong'' <br/> now || ''eujuri'' <br/> then (recent) || ''eujang'' <br/> then (distant) | ||
|} | |} | ||
These forms are all really pronouns, but they may perform adjectival or adverbial functions. The simple forms ''ong, uri, ang'' are used as adjectives following a noun, e.g. ''eshe uri'' "that house". As pronouns, these are used with inanimate objects and the 'person' forms are used with animates, agreeing in gender with the (natural) gender of the object, e.g. ''ang ba ni eng eshe da'' "that is my house", ''azong ba buya eng yata da'' "this (man) is her father". | |||
The | The 'place', 'way' and 'time' forms function as adverbs when they take the appropriate case particle, e.g. ''andosh ba ukyong a etozi heng'' "the king came here", ''eujong gang ni ba yus zu'' "I am leaving now". | ||
====Interrogative==== | ====Interrogative==== | ||
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===Verbs=== | ===Verbs=== | ||
Burunking verbs are usually composed of two elements: the '''main verb''' which contains the semantic information and an '''auxiliary verb''' that contains most of the conjugation information. Verbs may be conjugated according to the following criteria: | |||
* Tense: past or non-past | |||
* Mood: indicative, hypothetical, hortative, imperative | |||
* Aspect: imperfective or perfective | |||
* Valency: transitive, intransitive, applicative or causative. | |||
====Main Verbs==== | |||
Main verbs contain the primary semantic information of the Burunking verb form. At the heart of the main verb is a verbal root, one of a small closed class of elements denoting either basic physical processes (e.g. ''ANG'' "eat"), states (e.g. ''YEKI'' "stand") or types of movement (e.g. ''BII'' "move"). Verbal roots cannot occur independently and, at the most basic, must be accompanied by the prefix ''e-, i-'' or ''y-'' to create a simple non-finite verb stem, e.g. ''yang'' "eat", ''eyeki'' "stand", ''ibii'' "move". | |||
::<small>'''''Note''''': where verbal roots are shown alone in this article, they will be written in caps to indicate their dependent status, e.g. ''ANG''</small> | |||
The | The meaning of the verbal root may be modified by one of three processes: | ||
* '''Reduplication''' of the root creates an intensive or '''frequentative''' meaning, e.g. ''ibiibii'' "flit about", ''yangang'' "scoff, gobble", ''inuanua'' "chatter, babble" (< ''NUA'' "speak, make noise"). | |||
* '' | * '''The infix ''-na-''''' may precede the root to create a '''pejorative''' verb indicating perversity, ill intent or action resulting in unfortunate circumstances, e.g. ''enaro'' "molest, chafe" < ''RO'' "touch", ''enaus'' "flee, escape" < ''US'' "move away". | ||
* '''The suffix ''-ki''''' may be added to the end of the root, creating an '''applicative''' whereby the direct object of the verb denotes the benefactor, malefactor, recipient, purpose or goal of the action, depending on context and the meaning of the verb, e.g. ''egonki'' "wait for" < ''GONG'' "wait, stay". | |||
The | The majority of main verbs replace the prefix with a nominal element that alters the meaning of the root. The initial element may be: | ||
* a '''noun''' denoting the direct object of the verb, e.g. ''burushigos'' "throw a spear" (< ''burushi'' "spear" + ''GOS'' "throw"), ''xennua'' "call by name" (< ''xeng'' "name" + ''NUA'' "speak"). These verbs may be intransitive, with the incorporated noun acting as the true direct object, or transitive taking a new direct object, e.g. ''az ba burushigos da'' "he throws a spear", ''Furiko ba ni eng yata az ni ke xennua zu'' "my father calls me Furiko". | |||
* a '''verbal noun''' denoting the primary action or state of the verb, e.g. ''loging'' "sleep" (< ''lo'' "sleep, sleeping" + ''GING'' "do"), ''neilung'' "want, desire" (< ''nei'' "wanting, desire" + ''LUNG'' "have"). | |||
* an '''adjective''' to denote various senses of being or becoming the quality of the adjective, or to denote the subject's opinion depending on the verb used, ''furitoz'' "become white" (< ''furi'' "white" + ''TOZ'' "come"), ''onshi'' "like, approve" (< ''ong'' "good" + ''SHI'' "think, consider"). | |||
* an '''adverb''' indicating the method, direction or means of doing the action, e.g. ''wengeepii'' "walk" (< ''wenges'' "by foot" + ''BII'' "move"), ''laitekkibii'' "move quickly" (< ''laitekki'' "quickly" + ''BII''). | |||
=====Perfective===== | |||
Main verbs are considered to be imperfective, generally denoting incomplete or non-finite actions. In order to indicate a completed action the perfective suffix ''-i'' is added to the verb, e.g. ''yangi'' "ate", ''enaroi'' "molested", ''burushigoshi'' "threw a spear", ''ibiyi'' "moved". | |||
====Auxiliary Verbs==== | |||
Auxiliary verbs carry most of the information regarding tense, mood and valency in the verb form. Each auxiliary is based on one of twelve particles, four intransitive, four transitive and four causative, to indicate past and non-past indicative, hypothetical and hortative moods. In addition, there is an imperative mood, created from the main verb alone. The table below indicates the particles with the primary uses. | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Function !! Intransitive !! Transitive !! Causative !! Usage with Imperfective or Perfective (excl. Causative) | |||
|- | |- | ||
| '' | | Non-Past|| ''da ''|| ''zu'' || ''dara'' || '''Impf:''' denotes an action ongoing at the time of speaking or a future, e.g. ''yang da'' "eats, is eating, will eat". <br/> '''Perf:''' denotes an action completed at the time of speaking, creating a near-past tense, e.g. ''yangi da'' "has eaten". | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '' | | Past || ''heng'' || ''fong'' || ''herang'' || '''Impf:''' denotes an action ongoing at some past time (past progressive), e.g. ''yang heng'' "was eating" <br/> '''Perf:''' denotes an action completed at some past time (remote-past), e.g. ''yangi heng'' "had eaten". | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '' | | Hypothetical || ''li'' || ''lu'' || ''lerai'' || '''Impf:''' denotes an ongoing hypothetical action, e.g. ''yang li'' "may be eating, may eat". <br/> '''Perf:''' denotes a completed hypothetical action, e.g. ''yangi li'' "may have eaten". | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '' | | Hortative || ''bii'' || ''byo'' || ''berai'' || Used only with the '''Impf.''' to express a wish or an entreaty, e.g. ''yang bii'' "let's eat" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '' | | Imperative || -- || -- || -- || Used only with the '''Impf.''' to give a direct command, e.g. ''yang!'' "eat!" | ||
|} | |} | ||
To these base particles, a number of prefixes may be added, in reverse order: | |||
The | * The '''negative''' prefix is ''ei-'', which becomes ''-i-'' after another prefix and always causes a following ''d-'' or ''b-'' to devoice, e.g. ''yang eita'' "doesn't eat". | ||
* The '''conditional''' prefix is ''ba-'', equivalent to "if" in English, e.g. ''yangi baheng'' "if he has eaten". The negative form is ''bai-'', e.g. ''baita'' "if it is not". | |||
* The '''modal''' prefixes are: | |||
** ''nei-'' denoting desire or wish to do something, e.g. ''yang neida'' "want to eat". The negative form is ''neiki-'', e.g. ''yang neikita'' "don't want to eat"; | |||
** ''nau-'' denoting ability or possibility, e.g. ''Inlanko ke eiranging nauzu'' "can read". The negative form is ''nawi-''. | |||
** ''bez-'' denoting necessity, e.g. ''yang bedda'' "need to eat" | |||
===Postpositions=== | |||
Spatial relations are largely expressed by means of the case particles, but additional senses can be expressed by nominal elements in combination with the gentive ''eng'' and the locative ''gang''. A concise list of forms expressing spatial relations is given below. | |||
=== | |||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
! colspan="3;" | Simple Particles | |||
|- | |- | ||
| ''a'' || to, towards, up to || ''buya ba ibya a ewangi heng'' "the woman went to the river" | |||
|- | |- | ||
| ''chi'' || from, of, off, through || ''ni eng asho binji chi ewashi heng'' "my grandmother came down from the mountain" | |||
|- | |- | ||
| ''gang'' || in, on, at || ''arato ba jibang gang da'' "the food is on the floor" | |||
|- | |- | ||
| ''ha'' || with, by || ''eba byo aneeto ha'' "cut it with a knife!" | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | | ''heez'' || across, over, beyond || | ||
| | |- | ||
| ''ni'' || to (recipient), for (purpose, intent) || | |||
|- | |||
| ''ta'' || with (comitative) || | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="3;" | Compounds with ''eng ... gang'' | |||
|- | |||
| ''auda'' || beside, by || | |||
|- | |- | ||
| ''bee'' || under, below, beneath || | |||
|- | |- | ||
| '' | | ''beekaz'' || behind, at the back of, after || | ||
|- | |||
| ''bozu'' || inside || | |||
|- | |- | ||
| '' | | ''geeng'' || outside || | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '' | | ''gyang'' || on top of, on || | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '' | | ''iriji'' || in the middle of, inside || | ||
|- | |- | ||
| '' | | ''waz'' || in front of, before || | ||
|} | |} | ||
===Derivation=== | ===Derivation=== | ||
Derivation is carried out using a number of suffixes and independent particles, and by compounding. | Derivation is carried out using a number of suffixes and independent particles, and by compounding. | ||
Line 586: | Line 744: | ||
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" | {| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ||
! style="width: 90px; " |Suffix | ! style="width: 90px; " |Suffix | ||
! style="width: | ! style="width: 350px; " |Use | ||
! style="width: | ! style="width: 350px;" |Example | ||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | Adjectives | ! colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | Adjectives | ||
|- | |- | ||
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-chi'' | | style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2;" | ''-chi'' | ||
| style="text-align:left;" | of, like, pertaining to | | style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) 'of, like, pertaining to; full of, covered with' | ||
| style="text-align:left;" | ''buyachi'' | | style="text-align:left;" | ''buyachi'' "feminine, female" (''buya'' "woman"), ''busochi'' "shitty" (''buso'' "dirt, shit") | ||
|- | |||
| (verbs) characterised by the action, '-y', '-ing' | |||
| ''ibiichi'' "moving, full of motion, kinetic" | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2;" | ''-i'' | |||
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) 'having the characteristics of' | |||
| style="text-align:left;" | ''eechii'' "sweet" (''eechi'' "honey") | |||
|- | |||
| (verbs) perfective participle | |||
| ''inuai'' "said" (''inua'' "say") | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2;" | ''-jing'' | |||
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) 'resembling', '-ish, -like' | |||
| style="text-align:left;" | ''ajjing'' "man-like" (''az'' "man") | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | | (adjective) somewhat, '-ish' | ||
| ''dodourijing'' "reddish" (''dodouri'' "red") | |||
|- | |- | ||
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-king'' | | style="text-align:left;" | ''-king'' | ||
| style="text-align:left;" | of, | | style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) 'of, relating to' | ||
| style="text-align:left;" | ''Burunking'' | | style="text-align:left;" | ''Burunking'' "of Burung" | ||
|- | |- | ||
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-oi'' | | style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2;" | ''-oi'' | ||
| style="text-align:left;" | tending to, fond of | | style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) 'tending to, fond of' | ||
| style="text-align:left;" | ''aratoi'' ' | | style="text-align:left;" | ''aratoi'' "gluttonous" (''arato'' "food") | ||
|- | |||
| (verbs) 'tending to' | |||
| ''neilungoi'' "needy, wanting, unsatisfied" (''neilung'' "want) | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-ri'' | |||
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) forms colour adjectives, materials, '-en' | |||
| style="text-align:left;" | ''dodouri'' "red" (''dodoi'' "blood"), ''eziri'' "made of stone" (''ezi'' "stone") | |||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | Nouns | ! colspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | Nouns | ||
|- | |- | ||
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-bua'' | | style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2;" | ''-bua'' | ||
| style="text-align:left;" | collective, abstract | | style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) collective, abstract, '-hood' | ||
| style="text-align:left;" | '' | | style="text-align:left;" | ''gyombua'' "people, population; humanity" (''gyong'' "person") | ||
|- | |||
| (adjectives) collective, 'the ~, ~ ones' | |||
| ''ipushoibua'' "wise ones" (''ipushoi'' "wise") | |||
|- | |- | ||
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-daz'' | | style="text-align:left;" | ''-daz'' | ||
| style="text-align:left;" | person or thing from | | style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) person or thing from (often analogical); language | ||
| style="text-align:left;" | ''eshayodaz'' 'foreigner' ( | | style="text-align:left;" | ''eshayodaz'' 'foreigner' (''eshayo'' "sea"), ''Inlandaz'' "English person, English language" (''Inlang'' "England"). | ||
|- | |- | ||
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-do'' | | style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2;" | ''-do'' | ||
| style="text-align:left;" | pejorative | | style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) pejorative | ||
| style="text-align:left;" | '' | | style="text-align:left;" | ''bazedo'' "mocking laughter" (''baze'' "laughter") | ||
|- | |- | ||
| | | (noun) false, pseudo-; used to extend the metaphorical meaning of nouns | ||
| ''beiwando'' "leg (of table), support" (''beiwang'' "leg") | |||
|- | |- | ||
| style="text-align:left;" | ''- | | style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2;" | ''-iri'' | ||
| style="text-align:left;" | | | style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) thing connected with, found near | ||
| style="text-align:left;" | '' | | style="text-align:left;" | ''yipuiri'' "glove" (''yipu'' "hand") | ||
|- | |||
| (verbs) abstract or concrete, instance of an action | |||
| ''yangiri'' "eating, meal" (''yang'' "eat") | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2;" | ''-ki'' | |||
| style="text-align:left;" | (adjectives) concrete noun | |||
| style="text-align:left;" | ''bixiki'' "living thing" (''bixi'' "alive") | |||
|- | |||
| (nouns) extending the sense of the noun, creating concrete from abstract nouns | |||
| ''haaki'' "lucky charm, talisman" (''haz' "luck, fortune") | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2;" | ''-ko'' | |||
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) instrument, person connected with, office, occupation | |||
| style="text-align:left;" | ''goudeko'' "ploughman" (''goude'' "plough") | |||
|- | |||
| (verbs) office, occupation | |||
| ''iniiko'' "hunter" (''inis'' "hunt") | |||
|- | |- | ||
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-no'' | | style="text-align:left;" | ''-no'' | ||
| style="text-align:left;" | diminutive (often pejorative) | | style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) diminutive (often pejorative) | ||
| style="text-align:left;" | ''ano'' ' | | style="text-align:left;" | ''ano'' "coward" (''az'' "man") | ||
|- | |||
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-sho'' | |||
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns, anim.) augmentative | |||
| style="text-align:left;" | ''Amasho'' "mother goddess" | |||
|- | |||
| style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2;" | ''-te'' | |||
| style="text-align:left;" | (adjectives) abstracts, states | |||
| style="text-align:left;" | ''bixite'' "life" (''bixi'' "alive") | |||
|- | |- | ||
| | | (verbs) abstracts, states | ||
| ''oneekonte'' "patience" (''oneekong'' "be patient") | |||
|- | |- | ||
| style="text-align:left;" | ''- | | style="text-align:left;" | ''-teng'' | ||
| style="text-align:left;" | | | style="text-align:left;" | (nouns, inan.) augmentative | ||
| style="text-align:left;" | '' | | style="text-align:left;" | ''yiteng'' "town" (''yi'' "settlement") | ||
|- | |- | ||
| style="text-align:left;" | ''-to'' | | style="text-align:left;" | ''-to'' | ||
| style="text-align:left;" | diminutive | | style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) diminutive | ||
| style="text-align:left;" | ''hizito'' 'piglet' | | style="text-align:left;" | ''hizito'' 'piglet' (''hizi'' "pig") | ||
|- | |||
| style="text-align:left;" rowspan="2;" | ''-zoi'' | |||
| style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) collective, group | |||
| style="text-align:left;" | ''eshezoi'' "settlement" (''eshe'' "house") | |||
|- | |||
| (adjectives) collective, group | |||
| ''gaatezoi'' "young ones, youths" | |||
|- | |- | ||
| style="text-align:left;" | ''- | | style="text-align:left;" | ''-zung'' | ||
| style="text-align:left;" | | | style="text-align:left;" | (nouns) possessor of | ||
| style="text-align:left;" | '' | | style="text-align:left;" | ''ombazung'' "parent" (''omba'' "child") | ||
|} | |} | ||
===Syntax=== | ===Syntax=== | ||
===Summary of Particles=== | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|- | |||
! width="120px;" | <big>a</big> | |||
| colspan="2;" | allative "to, towards, up to" | |||
|- | |||
| Noun || width="200px;" | ''az az'' || width="200px;" | Example | |||
|- | |||
! <big>au</big> | |||
| colspan="2;" | interrogative, precedes auxiliary verb | |||
|- | |||
| Aux. Vb. || Example || Example | |||
|- | |||
! <big>az</big> | |||
| colspan="2;" | nominative | |||
|- | |||
| Noun || Example || Example | |||
|- | |||
! <big>ba<sup>1</sup></big> | |||
| colspan="2;" | topicaliser | |||
|- | |||
| Noun || Example || Example | |||
|- | |||
! <big>ba<sup>2</sup></big> | |||
| colspan="2;" | conditional "if" | |||
|- | |||
| Aux. Vb. || Example || Example | |||
|- | |||
! <big>chi</big> | |||
| colspan="2;" | ablative, "from, off, of, through" | |||
|- | |||
| Noun || Example || Example | |||
|- | |||
! <big>eng</big> | |||
| colspan="2;" | genitive, "of" | |||
|- | |||
| Noun || Example || Example | |||
|- | |||
! <big>gang</big> | |||
| colspan="2;" | locative, "in, on, at" | |||
|- | |||
| Aux. Vb. || Example || Example | |||
|- | |||
! <big>ha</big> | |||
| colspan="2;" | instrumental, "by, with", "in" (with languages) | |||
|- | |||
| Noun (language) || ''Lating ha'' || "in Latin" | |||
|- | |||
! <big>heez</big> | |||
| colspan="2;" | "across, over, beyond, past" | |||
|- | |||
| Noun || Example || Example | |||
|- | |||
! <big>ke</big> | |||
| colspan="2;" | accusative | |||
|- | |||
| Noun || Example || Example | |||
|- | |||
! <big>meng</big> | |||
| colspan="2;" | hearsay, precedes auxiliary verb | |||
|- | |||
| Aux. Vb. || Example || Example | |||
|- | |||
! <big>ni</big> | |||
| colspan="2;" | dative, "to" (recipient), "for" (purpose) | |||
|- | |||
| Aux. Vb. || Example || Example | |||
|- | |||
! <big>ta</big> | |||
| colspan="2;" | comitative, "with", "and" | |||
|- | |||
| Noun || ''ni az ni eng buya ta egong da'' || "I live with my wife" | |||
|- | |||
| Noun || || | |||
|- | |||
! <big>te</big> | |||
| colspan="2;" | uncertainty, precedes auxiliary verb | |||
|- | |||
| Aux. Vb. || Example || Example | |||
|} | |||
==Vocabulary== | ==Vocabulary== | ||
(see also [[https://linguifex.com/wiki/Is_Burunking/Vocabulary | Vocabulary]]) | |||
====Verbal Roots==== | |||
{| class="wikitable sortable" | |||
|- | |||
! style="width: 100px;" | Root !! style="width: 350px;" | Meanings !! style="width: 100px;" | Stem !! style="width: 100px;" | Perfective | |||
|- | |||
| '''BII''' || move; travel; run, flow || ''ibii'' || ''ibiyi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''GANG''' || go up, ascend; grow; improve || ''egang'' || ''egangi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''WASH''' || go down, descend; fall; shrink; deteriorate || ''ewash'' || ''ewashi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''SURU''' || go past, pass; exceed; change state || ''isuru'' || ''isurui'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''RO''' || touch, come into contact; mention || ''ero'' || ''eroi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''TOZ''' || move towards, come, approach; arrive, reach; attain || ''etoz'' || ''etozi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''US''' || move away, go || ''yus'' || ''yushi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''XAZ''' || move into, enter; penetrate || ''exaz'' || ''exazi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''UKI''' || move out of, leave, exit || ''yuki'' || ''yukii'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''GONG''' || remain; stay, wait; dwell; persist, continue || ''egong'' || ''egongi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''AZ''' || sit; be located, situated; abide passively || ''yaz'' || ''yazi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''SUANG''' || lie; be located; spread, extend || ''isuang'' || ''isuangi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''YEKI''' || stand; be located; abide actively || ''eyeki'' || ''eyekii'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''EHANG''' || be, exist || ''yehang'' || ''yehangi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''KING''' || heat, cook || ''iking'' || ''ikingi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''RESH''' || constrict, narrow, tighten; shrink || ''eresh'' || ''ereshi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''XOZ''' || begin; beget, produce, create, conceive || ''exoz'' || ''exozi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''JI''' || appear; seem, look like || ''iji'' || ''ijii'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''LU''' || die; cease, stop; break || ''ilu'' || ''ilui'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''LUAZ''' || spread, scatter, disperse || ''eluaz'' || ''eluazi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''LUNG''' || have; own, possess; use || ''ilung'' || ''ilungi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''BA''' || incise, cut, scratch; carve; mark || ''eba'' || ''ebai'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''BANG''' || give; offer, pay; provide || ''ebang'' || ''ebangi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''BEI''' || come together, congregate, assemble; swarm, herd || ''ebei'' || ''ebeyi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''GOS''' || throw; shoot; cast; release || ''egos'' || ''egoshi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''LAZ''' || divide, split, separate || ''elaz'' || ''elazi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''AS''' || step; pace, tread; measure || ''yas'' || ''yashi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''GING''' || do, act; make || ''iging'' || ''igingi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''NUA''' || speak, say; make noise || ''inua'' || ''inuai'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''ZUNG''' || expel; defecate; emit, reject || ''izung'' || ''izungi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''ANG''' || eat, consume; take in; receive, accept || ''yang'' || ''yangi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''GAS''' || get; obtain, receive; understand || ''egas'' || ''egashi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''KASH''' || learn, comprehend || ''ekash'' || ''ekashi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''PUSH''' || perceive; know; sense || ''ipush'' || ''ipushi'' | |||
|- | |||
| '''SHI''' || think, consider, regard; view; judge, measure || ''ishi'' || ''ishii'' | |||
|} | |||
====Verbs of Motion==== | |||
Verbal roots of motion define direction but not means or manner, i.e. there are roots meaning 'go', 'go up', 'go past' etc. but not 'walk', 'fly', 'ride', 'rush'. To describe either means or manner, compound verbs are used. | |||
Means of motion is usually indicated by an adverb ending in ''-(e)s'', derived from | |||
* a noun denoting the physical method of propulsion | |||
:: ''wengeepii'' "walk, go by foot" < ''wenges'' "by foot" + ''BII'' | |||
:: ''heujiipii'' "ride, go by horse" < ''heujis'' "by horse" + ''BII'' | |||
:: ''ferowupii'' "sail, go by boat" < ''ferous'' "by boat" + ''BII'' | |||
* a noun denoting the medium through which movement occurs | |||
:: ''uzeepii'' "swim etc, go by water" < ''uzes'' "by water" + ''BII'' | |||
:: ''urushiipii'' "fly, go by air" < ''urushis'' "by sky" + ''BII'' | |||
:: ''bideepii'' "go by road" < ''bides'' "by road" + ''BII'' | |||
Manner of motion is denoted either by | |||
* an adverb in ''-ki'', derived from an adjective | |||
:: ''laitekkibii'' "move quickly" < ''laitekki'' "quickly" | |||
:: ''lambakibii'' "move slowly" < ''lambaki'' "slowly" | |||
* a noun, with the meaning "to move as or like..." | |||
:: ''urujibii'' "move drunkenly" < ''uruji'' "drunk person" | |||
:: ''bumibii'' "move like a baby" < ''bumi'' "baby" | |||
:: ''heujitobii'' "move like a foal" < ''heujito'' "foal" | |||
These same methods can be employed with other roots denoting movement to describe both directed and means or manner, e.g: | |||
:: ''wengeekang'' "climb, ascend by foot" < ''wenges'' + ''GANG'' | |||
:: ''uzeewash'' "sink, descend through water" < ''uzes'' + ''WASH'' | |||
:: ''laitekkitoz'' "rush towards, charge" < ''laitekki'' + ''TOZ'' | |||
:: ''urujixaz'' "enter drunkenly" < ''uruji'' + ''XAZ'' | |||
====Kinship Terms==== | ====Kinship Terms==== | ||
In Burungian society, each individual belongs to a broad group known as an ''yenu'' "tribe", largely defined by adherence to a particular chief and worship of a tutelary deity. Within that tribe they belong to a family group called an ''as'' "clan", the members of which claim matrilineal descent from a pair of common ancestors known as the ''atasho'' (male) and ''amasho'' (female). A person belonging to the same clan is called a ''beraako'', whilst anyone beyond the clan group is an ''ase''. | |||
Somewhat distinct from the clan group is an individual's close family group, known as ''angazoi'' "kinsmen". While a person traces his clan group as a vertical line, descending through a series of individuals, his ''angazoi'' is more like a network extending in every direction. Anyone who shares a common great-grandfather (''araato'') or great-grandmother (''ashoto'') with a person is considered his ''angaba'' "relative, kinsman". Within this family group there are then three degrees of proximity, which restrict such things as marriage and are relevant in the inheritance of property: the '''''hayabing''''' line, the '''''yipuaute''''' line and the '''''wengaute''''' line. | |||
=====''Hayabing''===== | |||
The ''hayabing'' line (literally "ancestors-descendents"), also called the ''buruaute'' or "head line", is the primary family line including a persons direct ancestors and descendents. Marriage and sexual relationships are strictly prohibited within the ''hayabing''. | |||
{| class="wikitable" width="100%;" | * ''hayaba'' any direct ancestor preceding great-grandparents | ||
* ''nanaba'' "great-grandmother" | |||
* ''waraapa'' "great-grandfather" | |||
* ''ashoba'' "grandmother" | |||
* ''araapa'' "grandfather" | |||
* ''ama'' "mother" | |||
* ''ata'' "father" | |||
* ''ayaba'' "daughter" (teenage or older) | |||
* ''xemba'' "son" (teenage or older) | |||
* ''omba'' "child" (preteen or ''iriji'') | |||
* ''yoba'' "grandchild" | |||
* ''yobato'' "great-grandchild" | |||
* ''bimba'' any direct descendant following great-grandchild. | |||
Notes: | |||
* Most familial terms end with the suffix ''-ba'' and are derived (sometimes irregularly) from ordinary parts of speech, e.g. ''xemba'' "son" < ''xini'' "boy, lad", ''waraapa'' "great-grandfather" < ''waras'' "old man". | |||
* Distinctions between maternal and paternal ancestors are made with the adjectives ''amaking'' "maternal" and ''ataking'' "paternal", e.g. ''amaking nanaba'' "maternal great-grandmother". | |||
* Disctinctions of gender may be made with ''hayaba'', ''yoba, yobato'' and ''bimba'' with the adjectives ''acchi'', ''buyachi'' and ''iriji'', e.g. ''acchi yoba'' "grandson". | |||
=====''Yipuaute''===== | |||
The ''yipuaute'' (literally "hand line") is the secondary line and includes a person's siblings and their children, their spouse and their spouse's parents and children, and their parent's siblings or spouses. Half-siblings are not distinguished from full siblings as they still contain one parent's blood. Step-parents are considered identical in relation to parents-in-law and step-children to children-in-law. Marriage within this line is prohibited (except in the case of spouses), but sexual relationships are not. | |||
* ''xeba'' "aunt, foster-mother" | |||
* ''hoyaba'' "uncle, foster-father" | |||
* ''waba'' "mother-in-law, step-mother, mother of half-sibling" | |||
* ''aneriba'' "father-in-law, step-father, father of half-sibling" | |||
* ''az, abba'' "husband" | |||
* ''buya, buyaba'' "wife" | |||
* ''neba'' "older sibling" | |||
* ''azeba'' "younger sibling" | |||
* ''ezang'' "daughter-in-law, step-daughter" | |||
* ''angane'' "older cousin, foster-sibling, or other relative of same generation" | |||
* ''angeepa'' "younger cousin, foster-sibling, or other relative of same generation" | |||
{| class="wikitable" width="100%;" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align: center;" | |||
|- | |||
| width="25%;" | || width="25%;" | || width="25%;" | || style="background: pink;" width="25%;" | ''nanaba'' <br /> <small> great-grandmother</small> <br /> ''waraapa'' <br /> <small> great-grandfather</small> | |||
|- | |- | ||
| || || style="background: pink;" | ''ashoba'' <br /> <small>grandmother</small> <br /> ''araapa'' <br /> <small>grandfather</small> | |||
| style="background: lemonchiffon;" rowspan="2;" | <small>older relative</small> | |||
|- | |- | ||
| || style="background: pink;" | ''ama'' <br /> <small>mother</small> <br /> ''ata'' <br /> <small>father</small> | |||
| style=" | | style="background: moccasin;" | ''xeba'' <br /> <small>aunt</small> <br /> ''hoyoba'' <br /> <small>uncle</small> | ||
|- | |- | ||
| style="background: pink;" | '''EGO''' | |||
| style=" | | style="background: pink;" | ''neba'' <br /> <small>older sibling</small> <br /> ''azeba'' <br /> <small>younger sibling</small> | ||
| style="background: moccasin;" | ''angane'' <br /> <small>older cousin</small> <br /> ''angeepa'' <br /> <small>younger cousin</small> | |||
| style="background: lemonchiffon;" | | |||
|- | |- | ||
| style="background: pink;" | ''ayaba'' <br /> <small>daughter</small> <br /> ''xemba'' <br /> <small>son</small> <br /> ''omba'' <br /> <small>child</small> | |||
| style=" | | style="background: moccasin;" | <small>niece, nephew</small> | ||
| colspan="2;" rowspan="3;" style="background: lemonchiffon;" | | |||
|- | |- | ||
| style="background: pink;" | ''yoba'' <br /> <small>grandchild</small> | |||
| style=" | | rowspan="2;" style="background: lemonchiffon;" | | ||
|- | |- | ||
| style="background: pink;" | ''yobato'' <br /> <small>great-grandchild</small> | |||
| style=" | | | ||
|} | |} | ||
====Personal Names==== | |||
Burunking personal names consist of a '''family name''' (''aaxeng'') and a '''given name''' (''xeng''). Family names are derived from an individual's clan and remain the same throughout a person's life. Given names consist of two types: a) a childhood name conferred by parents at birth or early childhood (''ayaxeng''), and b) an adult name conferred at puberty by community elders (''xensho''). | |||
=====''Family Names''===== | |||
Family names are generally derived from the name of the ''amasho'' (female ancestor) of a clan, usually with one of the suffixes ''-eng'', ''-iri'', ''-ko'', ''-zoi'' and, rarely, ''-daz''. For example, a descendant of ''Endazibya'' might be called ''Endazibyeng'' or ''Endazibiri''. More often, a hypocoristic form of the name is used, e.g. ''Endashiri'' or ''Daziko''. | |||
Some clans - mainly those of higher status - take their name from a specific historical event or a chosen characteristic, e.g. ''Laitezuenzoi'' "swift-footed ones", ''Buzugozzoi'' "solid in battle". | |||
Family names are not changed on marriage. Children will usually adopt the name of their mother. | |||
=====''Childhood Names''===== | |||
Childhood names are usually affectionate, descriptive names indicating some physical characteristic or quality. For example, a child born with dark hair or complexion might be called ''Beuto'' "little dark one", a fair child might be called ''Oijing'' "like the sun", a happy child might be called ''Izizoi'' "fond of smiling". To western ears some of these names might seem rude or uncouth, denoting apparently negative or embarrassing features according to our own standards, e.g. ''Ishuno'' "little blind one", ''Beretteng'' "big ears", ''Xabeuno'' "little pot belly". There are few taboos concerning such names, except where they are deemed to confer bad luck or are considered to diminish the status of the family. A handful of words are not considered appropriate, e.g. ''dedez'' "beautiful, handsome" is used only of adults. | |||
Since prepubescent children are considered to be ''iriji'', names do not differ between physically male and female children, except in cases where they refer to specifically male or female properties, e.g. ''Hekyuto'' "little penis" or ''Heenjing'' "bull-like". | |||
Childhood names essentially work like nicknames in the sense that they are designed to be specific to an individual and affectionate. As such, they often continue to be used even when the child no longer resembles the description. In some cases, however, names are changed naturally to more appropriate descriptions. For example, a small chubby baby named ''Lujito'' "little chubby one" might grow tall and slim and be renamed ''Xigojjing'' "rod-like". | |||
Once a child has reached adulthood and undergone the relevant rites, it is considered rude to refer to a person by their childhood name, except for close family members and close friends. In some cases an individual will forego their childhood name entirely. | |||
=====''Adult Names''===== | |||
Adult names are conferred as part of the series of rites that initiate a child into adulthood. They are usually composed of two elements, which are symbolic of an individual's qualities and expected role in society. The two elements are always combined into a single word, but they may or may not make sense as a unit. For example, the name ''Endazibya'' above is derived from ''endaz'' "strength, power" and ''ibya'' "river", and may be interpreted as a whole meaning "power of a river". | |||
There is effectively no restriction to the elements that may be used to create a given name, but there are general themes to words used and certain common elements. The elements may be nouns or adjectives and in most cases there is no restriction on the order in which they appear. | |||
* '''Topographical features:''' ''binji'' "mountain", ''ibya'' "river", ''eshayo'' "sea", ''laze'' "meadow" | |||
* '''Celestial:''' ''xaz'' "star", ''urushi'' "sky", ''yori'' "rain", ''oi'' "sun", ''oje'' "cloud", ''ye'' "moon", ''yai'' "wind", ''ibung'' "day", ''ba'' "night", ''nibu'' "winter", ''oda'' "summer" | |||
* '''People:''' ''andosh'' "lord", ''andez'' "lady" | |||
* '''Animals:''' ''heuji'' "horse", ''osho'' "wolf", ''heeng'' "bull", ''azang'' "eagle", ''erei'' "bee", ''uruho'' "dove", ''iji'' "ox", ''esang'' "stallion" | |||
* '''Other:''' ''fu'' "fire", ''xing'' "oath, promise" | |||
* '''Adjectives:''' ''dedez'' "beautiful, handsome", ''enji'' "great, large", ''furi'' "white, pure", ''funuz'' "wise", ''eregi'' "bright", ''laxa'' "calm, peaceful, gentle", ''xakong'' "deep", ''ong'' "good", ''goz'' "hard", ''beng'' "solemn", ''heni'' "careful, vigilant" | |||
In some communities it is common for all children to the same parents or the same mother to have one element of their name in common. For example, a group of siblings may be called '''''Azang'''enji'', ''Oda'''azang''''', ''Nibu'''azang''''', '''''Azam'''funuz'' and '''''Azam'''beng''. | |||
There are no clear distinctions made between masculine, feminine or ''iriji'' names. Semantically, certain elements are more common for certain genders: | |||
* '''acchi''' names are more commonly associated with battle, physical strength and bravery. Male animals like ''heeng'' and ''esang'' are almost exclusively used for males, as are other masculine forms like ''andosh'' "lord". | |||
* '''buyachi''' names are often | |||
=====''Hypocoristics''===== | |||
Hypocoristics or nicknames are common in Is Burunking. There are no clear rules for their formation, but they are generally shortened versions of childhood or adult names. They also rarely include long vowels or diphthongs. | |||
The shortened form may be purely a section of a longer name, commonly taken from the middle of the name so that it overlaps separate elements, though frequently the choice is merely a matter of preference. E.g. ''Izizoi → Zizo, Zizoi, Izi, Endazibya → Dazi, Endaz''. Frequently, such names will undergo anomalous changes, such as voicing of plosives or altering sounds, e.g. ''Hekyuto → Gyudo, Azambeng → Zambu, Zama, Jambe, Shambe''. | |||
Reduplication of a syllable is especially common in childhood names, in female names and in pet names but is often considered demeaning in the wrong context. Any part of the name may be reduplicated and the syllable may be repeated exactly or undergo ablaut. E.g. ''Beuto → Bebe, Bebo; Oijing → Jiji, Jiju, Lujito → Lulu, Lula''. Names or syllables beginning with a vowel will often reduplicate the consonant at the beginning of the word, e.g. ''Oijing → Joji, Odaazang → Doda''. | |||
[[Category:Languages]] | |||
[[Category:Conlangs]] |
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