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Ris
रिस

Pronunciation	[ɹɪs]
Created by	Waahlis
Native to	Iran
Native speakers	Enough. (2013)
Language family	Jivan Ris
Early form	Proto-Jivan
Dialects	Main Ris Rayan
Writing systems	Devanagari Latin
Language codes
CLCR	`qri`
Map picturing the Namastan region in Iran, south of the Caspian Sea
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Ris, /ɹɪs/, (Devanagari: रिस, Latin: Ris /ɹɪs/) is a Jivan language, a constructed a priori language related to Kiwi. It draws inspiration from mainly the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European languages, with inspiration from the nonconcatenative morphology of the Semitic languages.

The language is a language isolate, and is thus not known to be related to any extant language. Ris has a normal-sized inventory of consonants and a fair amount of allophony. It is a fusional language and is morphosyntactically active-stative and with a fluid subject. The morphology is evenly split between nominal and verbal inflections.

Background

The Ris language is a Jivan language with a number of speakers totalling over 245,000. Maybe. It is designed to be closely related to the Sanskrit language with clear influence from the Old Avestan language. Ris is spoken in Central Asia, not far from the Jivan Urheimat in Caucasia. It is not the official language of any region.

The language has remained extant especially in the Namastan and Maharaya regions in Iran and Afghanistan despite the lack of official status. There is an exclave of speakers of the Parsa dialect of the Ris language in Iran, sometimes classified as a proper language. The dialect is heavily influenced by the Farsi language.

Phonology

Consonants

This is the Ris inventory of consonants.

Gemination is not phonemic. The letter /h/ represents aspiration when following consonants.

**Phonology and Orthography**
		Bilabial		Dental		Retroflex		Palatal	Velar		Glottal
		aspirated	unaspirated	aspirated	unaspirated	aspirated	unaspirated	Palatal	aspirated	unaspirated	Glottal
Nasal		m /m/		n /n̪/		ṇ /ɳ/		[ɲ]	[ŋ]
Plosives	voiced	bh /bʱ/	b /b/	dh /d̪ʱ/	d /d̪/	ḍh /ɖʱ/	ḍ /ɖ/	[ɟ]	gh /gʱ/	g /g/
Plosives	voiceless	ph /pʰ/	p /p/	th /t̪ʰ/	t /t̪/	ṭh /ʈʰ/	ṭ /ʈ/	[c]	kh /kʰ/	k /k/	ḥ /ʔ/
Affricates	voiced			j /ɟ͡ʝ ~ d͡ʒ/
Affricates	voiceless			ć /c͡ç ~ t͡ʃ/
Fricatives	voiced	v /β/				y /ʐ/
Fricatives	voiceless	[ɸ]		s /s̪/		ṣ /ʂ/		ś /ɕ/		h /x ~ h/
Trills
Approximant				r /ɹ/		ṛ /ɻ/
Lat. Approximant				l /l/		ḷ /ɭ/

Consonant allophony

Sandhi

The Ris phonology utilises a variety of sandhi procedures, collectively called saṃdhi in Ris. Sandhi refers to alteration of sounds at morpheme boundaries, that assimilate due to adjacent sounds.

Retroflex sandhi

Retroflex sandhi, raṛisaṃdhi, occurs at the morpheme boundaries or clusters containing a retroflex consonant, or its vocalic equivalent.

वृत
vṛta
/ˈβɚtɑ/ → /ˈβɚʈɑ/
vṛta-∅
land.INAN.SG-PAT
land

इणदर
iṇdra
/ˈɪɳdɹɑ/ → /ˈɪɳɖɹɑ/
iṇdra-∅
earth.INAN.SG-PAT
Earth

हरनटि
hranṭi
/ˈxɹanʈɪ/ → /ˈxɹaɳʈɪ/
hranṭi-∅
to_run.VN.INAN.SG-PAT
running

Nasal sandhi

The nasal sandhi, or anaśisaṃdhi, works in a similar way to the retroflex one. The nasal stops assimilate to the place of articulation of the adjacent sound, including to retroflex consonants.

अमभिल
ambhiḷa
/anˈbʱɪɭɑ/ → /amˈbʱɪɭɑ/
an-bhiḷa-∅
re-to_word.VN.INAN.SG-PAT
rewording

हरनटि
hranṭi
/ˈxɹanʈɪ/ → /ˈxɹaɳʈɪ/
hranṭi-∅
to_run.VN.INAN.SG-PAT
running

अनखूति
ankhūti
/anˈkʰʊːtɪ/ → /aŋˈkʰʊːtɪ/
am-khūti-∅
down-to_fall.VN.INAN.SG-PAT
downfall

Voicedness sandhi

Sandhi due to voicedness, known as ūkasaṃdhi in Ris, causes some consonants to change their phonation in morpheme boundaries.

Lenition

Ris also suffers from severe lenition, or caused when:

Consonants lie in medial position between two vowels.
Consonants lie in final position in words, but not in syllables.

The aspirated consonants become completely spirantisised, whilst the unaspirated phonemes become affricates. The exceptions are the velars, which all become fricatives. The nasal consonants, affricates, trills and approximants remain unaffected.

Please note that the phonemes without brackets are the non-lenited consonants.

**Lenition**
		Bilabial		Labiodent.	Dental		Retroflex		Palatal	Velar
		aspirated	unaspirated	Labiodent.	aspirated	unaspirated	aspirated	unaspirated	Palatal	aspirated	unaspirated
Plosives	voiced	bʱ	b		d̪ʱ	d̪	ɖʱ	ɖ	ɟ	gʱ	g
Plosives	voiceless	pʰ	p		t̪ʰ	t̪	ʈʰ	ʈ	c	kʰ	k
Affricatives	voiced	b > [b͡β]			d̪ > [d̪͡ð]		ɖ > [ɖ͡ʐ]		ɟ >[ ɟ͡ʝ]
Affricatives	voiceless	p > [p͡ɸ]			t̪ > [t̪͡θ]		ʈ > [ʈ͡ʂ]		c >[c͡ç]
Fricatives	voiced	bʱ > [β]		v	d̪ʱ, > [ð]		ɖʱ > [ʐ]			gʱ, g > [ɣ]
Fricatives	voiceless	pʰ > [ɸ]			t̪ʰ, s̪ > [θ]		ʈʰ > [ʂ]			h ,kʰ, k > [x]
Approxim.	voiced			v > [w]
Approxim.	voiceless

Consonant Assimilation

Nāmic possesses a progressive consonant assimilation word-internally, based upon phonation, or voicedness.

Assimilation
Example	Translation	Sthānta	Austikā
hkantrā	moon	[s̪an̪.ˈt̪raː]	[s̪an̪.ˈd̪ra]
dāntha	tooth	[ˈd̪ãːða]	[ˈd̪aːn̪.t̪ʰa]
āsvyaṭ	he has	[ˈaːs̪.fʂas̪]	[ˈaːs̪.vʐas̪]
nāmastıkā	naming	[naː.mas̪.t̪ɪ.ˈkaː]	[naː.mas̪.t̪ɪ.ˈkaː]

Vowels

The representation of Nāmic's vowels. There are are 12 vowel phonemes, yet only 6 graphemes, thus, it may be assumed some are allophones during certain circumstances. It is obvious that many of the vowel graphemes are recycled, since many phonemes are allophones. The background is covered in the Metaphony section.

	Front	Near-front	Central	Near-back	Back
Close					ı [ɯ] · u [u]
Near-close		ı [ɪ] ·		ә [ʊ]
Close-mid			· u [ɵ]
Mid			ә/e/o [ə]
Open-mid	e [ɛ] · o [œ]				· o [ɔ]
Near-open	e [æ]
Open	a [a]				a [ɑ]

Diphthongs

There are a limited number of diphthongs in Nāmic, with the same amount rising as falling diphthongs. [ɪ̯] is most often equivalent to [j], and [u̯] is often just [w]. The left diphthong is its front value, and the right one is the back value. All other vowel clusters are diaeresis. The main phoneme in all diphthongs may be geminated.

Diphthongs
Rising			Falling
	Front	Back		Front	Back
ıa	[ɪ̯a]	[ɪ̯ɑ]	aı	[aɪ̯]	[ɑɪ̯]
ıe	[ɪ̯ɛ]	[ɪ̯ə]	eı	[ɛɪ̯]	[əɪ̯]
ıu	[ɪ̯ɵ]	[ɪ̯u]	uı	[ɵɪ̯]	[uɪ̯]
ıo	[ɪ̯œ]	[ɪ̯ɔ]	oı	[œɪ̯]	[ɔɪ̯]
ua	[u̯a]	[u̯ɑ]	au	[au̯]	[ɑu̯]
ue	[u̯ɛ]	[u̯ə]	eu	[ɛu̯]	[əu̯]
uo	[u̯œ]	[u̯ɔ]	ou	[œu̯]	[ɔu̯]

Synaeresis

Similarly to Sanskrit and Modern Greek, the Nāmic language is affected by synaeresis, which causes diphthongs to collapse into monophthongs.

No falling diphthongs occur in between consonants, as a nucleus, nor do the falling diphthongs appear geminated in open coda position. They are transformed into geminated or short monophthongs , depending on the length of the diphthong. The arisen monophthongs are inconsistently written as their monophthong equivalents., however it isn't compulsory. The allophony adheres to this schedule:

Front diphthongs on the left, back ones at the right.

Diphthong Allophony
Falling
	Front		Back
	Diphthong	Monophthong	Diphthong	Monophthong
aı	[aɪ̯]	[ɛ]	[ɑɪ̯]	[ə]
eı	[ɛɪ̯]	[ɪ]	[əɪ̯]	[ɯ]
uı	[ɵɪ̯]	[ɵ]	[uɪ̯]	[u]
oı	[œɪ̯]	[œ]	[ɔɪ̯]	[ə]
au	[au̯]	[œ]	[ɑːu̯]	[ɔ]
eu	[ɛu̯]	[æ]	[əːu̯]	[ə]
ou	[œu̯]	[ɵ]	[ɔːu̯]	[u]

Vowel Metaphony

The Naṃkrthāvāka suffers from a certain kind of vowel harmony, called progressive vowel metaphony. This urges all vowel phonemes in a lexeme to be of the same kind of the preceding one. That is: V_a = type-a vowel, V_b = type-b vowel, C = consonant: V_aV_bV_b > V_aV_aV_a

There are tqo exception, causing the metaphony to be regressive instead; when a word is initialised by an [ɛ], or an [ә]. The [ɛ] and [ә] the gets assimilated by the succeeding consonant: V_bV_aV_b > V_aV_aV_a

These modified [ɛ-ә] -sounds will occurr later in text, and will be referred to as "affected" [ɛ-ә].

Nāmic's metaphony is based upon backness, with exceptions being when /ә/, /e/ and /o/ are followed by an [r], which ignores the harmony, and modifies the phoneme.

Metaphony
Grapheme	Aa	Ee	Әә	Iı	Uu	Oo
Front Phoneme	[a]	[ɛ]	Unchanged	[ɪ]	[ɵ]	[œ]
Back Phoneme	[ɑ]	[ə]	Unchanged	[ɯ]	[u]	[ɔ]
[r] Phoneme	-	[æ]	[ʊ]	-	-	[ə]

Vowel Quality

There are four different vowel qualities:

Short and geminated Oral
Short and geminated Nasal

The vowels will be represented by a default /a/. Please note that any nasal can nasalise the preceding vowel, however in non-voiced environments, only the letter ⟨ṃ⟩ may.

Quality
	Oral				Nasal
Phoneme	/a/		/aː/		/ã/		/ãː/
Grapheme	a		ā		aṃ		āṃ

Phonotactics

Any consonant - C
Sonorant - S
Fricative - F
Nasal - N
Vowel, also diphthong when final - V

A Nāmic syllable have two different maximal syllabic structures, the by far most common structure is (F)(C)(C)V(C)(F/N) initially, and (F)(C)CV(C)(F/N) medially and finally. The conclusion is that a syllable's maximal consonant cluster is FCC, that a medial and final syllable minimally must look like CV, and that all syllables must terminate in either a F, fricative, a nasal- N, or a vowel - V. Since most lexemes in Nāmaς are disyllabic, a common lexeme might look like this: FCVN.CV, like stānta - "state" [ˈstaːn.ta]. It should herefore be noted that ēkva - either, is pronounced [ˈɛː.kʍa], and not [ˈɛːk.ʍa].

The second structure is very uncommon, but does occur: (C)CS(C), and sometimes (C)CVS(C), where a sonorant occupy the syllable nucleus. Most of the syllables are free, that is, without the coda. Examples include vṙkas - wolf [ˈfr̩ˑ.kas], and ēktrva - any of them [ˈɛː.ktr̩ˑ.ʍa]. Interestingly, all syllabic sonorants are half-geminated.

Other

Some phonemes develop new pronunciations when adjacent to eachother:

[h] + [r] = [xr]
[s] + [r] = [ʂr]
[s] + [u] + [vowel] = [sfV]

Grammar

The grammar of the Nāmic language is that of a constructed language, that is, fairly regular.

Stress

Lexical Stress

The lexical stress of the Nāmic language is completely irregular in the lemma forms. Declension, conjugation and prosodic stress may manipulate the stress however. All stressed polysyllables in Nāmic are geminated, but note that all geminated syllables are not stressed. That is, a lexeme may contain several geminated syllables. If so, the second one is stressed.

Stress must always be marked in all polysyllabic words - except verbs in the infinitive, or rather lemma, to avoid confusion in the vocabulary.

Diacritics
	Lexically		Phonetically
Standard	Naṃkrthāvāka		[nã.kr̩ˑ.tʰaː.ˈfaː.xa]
Alternative	Naṃkrthàváka		[nã.kr̩ˑ.tʰaː.ˈfaː.xa]

The alternative set of diacritics, the acute (´) and grave (`) accents, are not commonly used, but provide information which syllable to stress - both being geminated, but with the acute accent signifying stress in polysyllabic lexemes.

Stress Apophony

A pecurious detail of Nāmic is that it is possible to manipulate the stress to convey different meanings. In Nāmic linguistics called stress apophony.

The manipulation of stress in conjugations and declensions change the meaning of the word radically. The most common usage of changing the stress, is in the conjugations; the stress may be pressed forward to the ultimate syllable, to change the tense from present to preterite. See the Verbs section.

Stress Apophony
	Radical	Manipulated
Example	nākyәm āha	nakyə̄m āha
Phonetically	[ˈn̪aː.c͡çəm ˈaː.ha]	[n̪aˈ.c͡çəːm ˈaː.ha]
Grammatically	"I" pro.1.sg.abs "dance"intrans.pre.pfv.1.sg	"I"pro.1.sg.abs "danced" intrans.ppfv.1.sg

In the first nominal declension, nouns terminating in an unstressed open syllable, may be stressed on the ultimate syllable in the genitive case.

Stress Apophony
	Radical	Manipulated
Example	ma nāma	ma namā¹
Phonetically	[ˈma ˈn̪aː.ma]	[ˈma n̪a.ˈmaː]
Grammatically	"the" def.art "name" abs.sg.neuter	"the"def.art "name's"gen.sg.neuter

¹ This form possesses an irregular form present in the language's name: Naṃkrthāvāka, pronounced: [nã]. The genitive is quite often used in compound words.

Prosody

Intonation

The intonation of the Namic language is phonemic, and is primarily used to distinguish grammatical moods. There are three common pitches used in Nāmic, and one for further emphasis. The intonation is not phonemic, but should be used to keep a native pronunciation.

Rising [↗] Intonation.
Falling [↘] Intonation.
Rising-Falling or Peaking [↗↘] Intonation.
- Falling-Rising or Dipping [↘↗] Intonation.

The intonation is used to emphasise certain words - that is, if you want to stress a certain action, location or noun in the sentence. It is very similar to the case in English. If not necessarily sad, the pitch is normaly rising [↗].

Lexical
English		Nāmic
I want to go home! - Not somewhere else.		kāṇam gaȷyāram gṛhan
[aɪ̯ wɒnt tuː gəʊ̯ ↗həʊ̯m]		[ˈkaːɳam gaˈɟ͡ʝaːrã ↗gr̩ˈɣã]
I want to go home! - That is, walk. Not bike.		kāṇam gaȷyāram* gṛhārә*
[aɪ̯ wɒnt tuː ↗gəʊ̯ həʊ̯m]		[ˈkaːɳam ↗gaˈɟ͡ʝaːrã gr̩ˈɣaːrә]
It is on top of the table. - Not below the table.		Āhta mīsau ūpar.
[ɪt ɪz ɒn ↗tɒp ɔf ðə teɪ̯bɫ̩]		[ˈaːxt̪a ˈmɪːs̪au̯ ↗ˈuːpɑr]

For the grammatical intonation, certain moods are associated with certain intonation, which may vary by dialect and accent. The standard however dictates a rising pitch [↗] during interrogative moods and the interrogative words, followed by a dipping intonation in the end [↘↗].

Interrogative Mood
	English		Nāmic
Example	Why are you here?		Kātva tāhar āssә?
Phonetically		[↗waɪ̯ ɑː juː ↗heːə̯]	[↗ˈkaːt̪fa ↘ˈtaːxar ↗ˈaːsːә]

The conditional mood however - the subjunctive mood when used in main clauses - is characterised by a peaking [↗↘] intonation. The English language doesn't really distinguish the intonation in the conditional mood, but a rising pitch is fairly common.

Conditional Mood
	English		Nāmic
Example	If so, I would sing.		Yātva, hangābhran.
Phonetically		[ɪf soʊ̯ aɪ̯ wʊd ↗sɪŋ]	[ˈʐaːd̪va xa↗ˈnkaː↘pʰran]

Prosodic Stress

Another use of the stress manipulation, other than grammatically, is prosodically. The interrogative mood is not expressed phonemically in the Naṃkrthāvāka, other than by intonation - see above. It is therefore possible to manpulate the stress on certain non-interrogative pronouns and pro-adverbs. This is equivalent to the English rise in pitch on interrogative nouns:

Here. →
Here? ↗

Prosodic stress in pro-adverbs
	Radical		Interrogative
Example	Tāhar.		Tāhar?
Phonetically	[ˈˈt̯aːxar ]		[t̯aˈxaːr ]
Translation		Here.	Here?

Syntactics

Considering the fusional nature of the Naṃkrthāvāka, the word order's rather free. It does possess tendencies towards SOV and SVO. It sould however be noted that the word order may alter depending on transitivity. Only SOV, VSO and SVO orders will be presented here.

Transitive Orders

SVO with ergative verbs is rather common, similarly to English.

Transitive SVO
Inflectional phrase
(noun phrase)	verb phrase	noun phrase

"I" pro.1.sg.erg	"killed" trans.ppfv.1.sg	"the man" sg.acc.def

Since focus lies on the patient, the verb phrase often moves further back.

Transitive SOV
Inflectional phrase
(noun phrase)	noun phrase	verb phrase

"I" pro.1.sg.erg	"the man" sg.acc.def	"killed" trans.ppfv.1.sg

Intransitive Orders

The intransitive order SV(O) is not very common, but it does occur.

Intransitive SVO
Inflectional Phrase
noun phrase	verb phrase
āha	kaskrbhām
"I" pro.1.sg.abs	"wrote" intrans.ppfv.1.sg

Since focus lies on the verb in the Nāmic languages intransitive orders, the VS(O) is much more common. Please note that the pronoun may be dropped, but it is not custom regarding intransitive verbs.

Intransitive SVO
Inflectional Phrase
verb phrase	noun phrase
kaskrbhām	āha
"wrote" I.ppfv.1.sg	"I" pro.1.sg.abs

Phrases

Noun Phrase

The Naṃkrthāvāka does not possess particular positions for the adpositional phrase, thus it will be prepositional for the sake of simplicity. It is quite similar to English.


Noun Phrase
demonstrative	adjectival phrase	modifier	prepositional phrase	noun

"Those" pro.1.sg.erg	"very" u.adv."nice" adj.attr.fem.erg.pl	"university" mod.adj.fem.pl	"by" u.prep."house" loc.sg.neut	"students" nom.pl.fem
"Those very nice university students by the house"

Possessive noun phrases can be formed by the means of a possessive pronoun, or a dative construction. Nevertheless, they remain after the noun.

Possessive
Noun Phrase
noun	postpositional phrase	prepositional phrase

"chair" nom.sg.fem	"brown"adj.attr.fem.pl "mark" nom.pl.fem "with" u.prep.	"to" u.prep."me" 1.sg.dat
"My chair with brown marks"

Verb Phrase

In the Naṃkrthāvāka, adverbial phrases always precede the modified verb. The noun phrase may be freely positioned,or it may depend on transitivity - see further up.


Verb Phrase
adjverbial phrase	verb	noun phrase
mā
"very" u.adv."closely" adv.masc.sg	"looked" trans. pst.ipfv.1.sg	"that" u.dem."brown"attr.acc.sg.fem "chair" acc.sg.fem
"(He) looked closely at that brown chair"

Pro-forms

I have, out of simplicity, assembled a table of correlatives of corresponding pronouns and pro-adverbs. They are a mixture of irregular and regular structures, and are by no means the full collection. It is a selection.

Please note that the pronouns decline as common nouns, according to the phonological characteristics, except kō, keı, kā, and their respective relative pronouns. See the "Declensions" section.


Correlatives
	Interrogativ	Relative	Demonstrative		Quantifier
	Interrogativ	Relative	Proximal	Distal	Existential	Elective¹	Universal	Negative	Alternative
Pronouns
Masculine	kō	yō	tāha	ahmā	yahō	ēka	marnōu	nahōu	antrōu
Masculine	who/which		he/this	he/that	someone	anyone	everyone	no one	another
Feminine	keı	yeı	tāha	āya	yāheı	ēn	mārneı	nāheı	āntreı
Feminine	who/which		she/this	she/that	someone	anyone	everyone	no one	another
Neutral	kā	yā	tāṇ	әmā	yāha	mıā	mārna/hrāva	nāha	āntra
Neutral	what/which		this	it/that	something	anything	everything	nothing	another
Dual	kyātra	yātra	tāhabha	āhmabha	ēke	ēkatta	dnāra	nātta
Dual	which out of the two		both	neither					-
Plural	kyā	dā	hrau	nāhrau
Plural	which out of all		this one	that one	some	either/any	all	none	-
Pro-adverbs
Location	kyār	yār	tāhar	āhmar	sāṃr	ekayār	hrāvastha	nāstha	āntrastha
Location	where		here	there	somewhere	anywhere	everywhere	nowhere	elsewhere
Source	aukyār	auyār	autāhar	avāhmar	ausāṃr	avekayār	auhrauyār	nāyar	antrayār
Source	whence		hence	thence	⁹	anywhence	²	nowhence	elsewhence
Goal	akyār	ayār	atāhar	atāhmar	asāṃr	atekayār	ahrauyār	nayār	āntrayar
Goal	whither		hither	thither	somewhither	anywhither	³	nowhither	elsewhither
Time	kuā	dū	nāva	tva	sāṃtva	ekatvā	hrāvar	nātva	āntar
Time	when		now	then	sometime	anytime	always	never	other time
Manner	kau	dau	tāhadau	āhmadau	sāṃr	ekadāu	hrāvavaha	nāvaha	āntravaha
Manner	how		hereby	thereby	somehow	anyhow	everyway	nowise	otherwise
Reason	kāṇ	yāṇ	tāhayaṇ	āhmayaṇ	sāṃyaṇ	ekayāṇ	hrauyāṇ	nayāṇ	antrayāṇ
Reason	why		herefore	therefore	⁴	⁵	⁶	⁷	⁸

The "elective" pro-forms, is quite obsolete. It always identified with the similar "existential". For example, for Nāmic native speakers the difference between "Do you have any peas?" and "Do you have some peas", translated as "a tvāya ēke phāpama hānṭ"? The difference ıs determined simply by context.
Many adverbs are simply hyperbolic, and "auhrauyār", is simply translated as from "from everywhere", which of course is not possible.
Likewise, the adverb "ahrauyār" - "to everywhere", or "going everywhere."

Nouns

The nouns of Nāmic decline according to case, gender, and number. There is no inflection for definiteness, however. There is a sparingly used article though.

Person

There are two proper persons in the Nāmic language, the first and second, known as addresser and addressee respectively. These are irregular and only present in the personal pronouns and verbs. Other than that, the language possesses a number of demonstratives, which serve as, and are called, the third person.

Impersonal Person

In addition, the Nāmic has an impersonal person. This is a substitution for the passive voice in the language, which melded with the subjunctive. It could be variously called a fourth person or autonomous person, and is equivalent to the English indefinite pronouns of "you","one" and "they".

Other corresponding pronouns are the German, Swedish, Danish and Norwegian "man", the French "on" and the Finnish "ei", with similar uses. The Irish Gaelic autonomous person is the closest correspondent.

Genders

There are three genders in the Nāmic language. They are the following:

Masculine

Feminine

Neuter

They do not simply represent natural gender. The distinction between genders is irregular and difficult, though there is for example a tendency among feminine nouns to be abstract. The demonstratives, or third person, decline according to three genders, though the personal pronouns do not.

Cases

Nāmic possesses nine cases, and all nouns in a clause must be declined by one, and one only. The cases are often followed by a particle, for example the instrumental and locative cases that often are preceded or replaced by such particles as sām [saːm] "with" and ım [ɪm] "in, within". The links will display the usage of each case.

Please note that the ergative-absolutive distinction is not made in the third nominal declension, nor in the comparative, cercative nor the superlative degrees of comparison of adjectives, whence they form the Nominative case.

Case
Case	Usage	Example
Nominative	The independent form of nouns	The dog
	Marks a subject of actions without a patient	The dog bites
	Marks the subject of actions with a patient	The dog bites the man
Absolutive	Denotes subjects of verbs without a patient	The man runs
Ergative	Denotes the subjects of verbs with a patient	I killed him
Accusative	Denotes the object or patient of a verb	The dog bites the man
Dative^{1 3}	Marks an indirect object of a verb	He gave the man a pen
Instrumental	Marks the means of the action	He writes with a pen
	The performer of actions	Opened by the mayor
	The aid of an action	Go by the short cut
	Marks the means of an action	He was caught by a net
Locative²	Denotes the position of objects	I'm in Moscow
	Marks vicinity to places	He's at your house
	Marks abstract positions	Between one and ten
	Marks abstract positions	The woman at work
Genitive	Symbolises ownership	The dog's bone
	Marks objects related to the subject in composition	The group member
	Symbolises lacking	Go without me
	Marks origin of nouns.	I moved from the house
Benefactive⁴	Indicates objects intentionally affected by actions.	Open the door for her
	Indicates movement towards, at, from nouns.	Get to the house
	Marks intention to nouns.	It is for adults
Ablative	Marks origin of nouns	It is from France
	Marks concerned, associated nouns	On the Origin of Species⁵
	Marks concerned, discussed nouns.	Talking about films
	Indicates cause	It's because of the snow
	Marks abstract cause	Thanks to/despite him

In Nāmic, should the focus lie on the patient, and not the object, the patient ought to be marked with the benefactive case.
In Nāmic, the following Adpositions correspond to the locative case.
The dative can also be used to construct different dative constructions.
Considering the use with movement, a better name ought to be benefactive-allative, or alike.
"Species" should be in the genitive case.

Number

There are two standard numbers and one other number in Nāmic. All nouns decline by the singular and plural numbers. In addition, the first and second person personal pronouns decline according to the archaic dual number.

Pronouns

Nāmic pronouns are no different to other languages' pronouns, with exception of the rather uncommon impersonal person. There are relative, interrogative, personal and demonstrative pronouns which decline similarly to other nouns. There are no reflexive pronouns, thus, you'll be forced to use the objective personal pronouns.

It ought to be noted that the Impersonal has merged with the old reflexive pronouns in appearance.
The declension is irregular.

Pronominal Declension

Personal Pronouns
Person →	First			Second			Impersonal
Case ↓	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular
Absolutive	āha	ēbhәm	vәı	tә	ūbham	ȷūhma	suāyam
Ergative	āhәm	ēbhәm	āhma	tva	ūbham	ȷam	sua
Accusative	mā	ēbhma	vәm	daı	ūbhama	ȷāma	suām
Enclitic	maı	yan	yahm	taı	yan	ūhm	sua
Dative	mayā	ēbhya	āhmәbha	tvayā	ūbhaya	ȷūhmabha	sәyā
Enclitic	mya	bhya	yahm	tya	bhya	ūhm	saı
Instrumental	mābhәm	ēbhya	āhmәbha	tūbhya	ūbhaya	ȷūhmabha	sābhәm
Locative	mıā	ēbhәı	ahmıə̄	dıā	ūbhaı	ȷuhmıā	suā
Genitive	maı	ēbhәı	vāı	tū	ūbhaı	ȷāṃ	suaı
Enclitic	ma	ua	nau	tau	ua	yū	sa
Benefactive	mēnṭa	bhēnṭa	və̄nṭa	tūnṭa	ūbhenṭa	ȷānṭa	sāna
Ablative	māṭ	ēbhәṭ	āhmaṭ	tūṭ	ūbhaṭ	ȷūhmaṭ	suaṭ

Nota Bene:

The first person singular pronouns, and the impersonal, possesses more formal alternatives to the accusative. In respective order: mēga, tēga and sāga.
The dual number pronouns sort as plural in conjugations.

Word order

In transitive phrases with pronouns, the syntax is modified. The subject is most often omitted, however, if enclitic pronouns are used, the subjects become almost compulsory. The cause is the phonological change in the verb.

Transitive (S)OV
Inflectional phrase
noun phrase	verb phrase
ūbhama	kyāhroı
"you two" pro.2.du.acc.	"I hate" trans.pre.pfv.2.pl

Transitive SV(O)
Inflectional phrase
noun phrase	verb phrase
āhәm	kyāhrәyan
"I" pro.1.sg.erg	"I hate you two" trans.pre.pfv.2.du

Demonstratives

The demonstratives serve as determinatives. However, since Nāmic doesn't have a third person personal pronoun in the English sense, its demonstratives fulfil this function instead, by standing independently without a noun to be modified. The demonstratives decline by gender, number, and case. The declension is equivalent to English he, she and it, and will be called the third person in conjugations. Consider the following:

Demonstratives
Determiner
tāṇa kāntham	gāryәm
"this" det.prox.acc.neut.sg "book" n.acc.neut.sg	"I read" trans.pre.pfv.1.sg
Demonstrative Pronoun
tāṇa	gāryәm
"this" pro.prox.acc.neut.sg	"I read" trans.pre.pfv.1.sg
Third person Pronoun
tā	gārya
"this" pro.prox.acc.neut.3.sg	"It (this) reads" intrans.pre.pfv.3.sg

Nota Bene:

The demonstratives only decline according to singular and plural, and not the dual number - unlike the personal pronouns.

The declensions are irregular.

Distal Declension

The distal, or normal declension, corresponds either to he, she and it, or that. It is a cognate to the Sanskrit distal "ayám"-declension.

Distal Demonstratives
Person →	Masculine		Feminine		Neuter
Case ↓	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Absolutive	ahmā	ahmāı	āya	āyaı	әmā	әmānı
Ergative	āyam	әmāı	yām	әmāı	ādam	әmāı
Accusative	әmām	āmau	yāma	āyau	ādam	әmāı
Enclitic	әṭām	әṭāma	әṭām	әṭāma	әṭēm	әṭēma
Dative	āhmaya	āhmayaı	āhmaya	āhmayaı	әdām	әdāma
Enclitic	ayā	ayāı	ayā	ayāı	ṭa	ṭaı
Instrumental	āṇan	āṇana	āṇan	āṇana	āṇaya	āṇaya
Locative	āhmau	āhmaṿa	yau	yāṿa	āsyau	āsyaṿa
Genitive	ahmīṇ	ahmīṇa	ayīṇ	ayīṇa	ādam	adām
Enclitic	aṇ	yīṇa	aṇ	yīṇa	yīṇ	īṇa
Benefactive	ahmāṇta	ahmāṇtaı	yāmaṃ	yāmama	әmāṇta	әmāṇtaı
Ablative	āhmaṭ	әbhāṭ	āsyaṭ	asyāṭ	āhmaṭ	әbhāṭ

Proximal Declension

The proximal declension, corresponds well to the English demonstrative this. It is a cognate to the Sanskrit distal "etát"-declension.

Proximal Demonstratives
Person →	Masculine		Feminine		Neuter
Case ↓	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Absolutive	tāha	tāhaı	tāha	tāhaı	tāṇ	tāṇa
Ergative	әtā	teı	әṣā	taı	tā	tāṇ
Accusative	tām	tāma	tāṃ	tāva	tāṇa	tāṇaı
Enclitic	ātam	ātaı	ātam	ātaı	āta	ātaı
Dative	tyā	tāyaı	tāṣya	tāṣyaı	tyā	tyaı
Enclitic	ātaya	ātayaı	ātaya	ātayaı	ātya	ātyaı
Instrumental	tēṇa	tēṇaı	tāya	tāyaı	tāṇa	tāṇaı
Locative	tīu	tau	tīa	tau	tīṇ	tīṇa
Genitive	tēṇa	tēṇaı	tāṣva	tāṣvaı	tīṇ	tīṇa
Enclitic	әtēṇ	әtēṇa	әtēṇ	әtēṇa	ētıṇ	ētıṇa
Benefactive	әtānṭa	әtānṭa	ṣyānṭa	ṣyānṭaı	tīnṭa	tīnṭaı
Ablative	taṭ	tāṭ	ṣaṭ	ṣāṭ	taṭ	tāṭ

Interrogatives

There is but one interrogative pronoun, kyā, which declines. It congruates with gender, but does not distinguish the dual number. It is essentially similar to the First front declension, though it's somewhat irregular.

Interrogative Declension

Interrogative Declension
Gender →	Masculine		Feminine		Neuter
Case ↓	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Absolutive	kō	koı	keı	kıā	kā	kaı
Ergative	kyō	kyoı	kyī	kyeı	kyā	kyaı
Accusative	kyōm	kyōmau	kyīm	kyīma	kyām	kyāma
Dative	kōya	kōyoı	kīya	kīyaı	kāya	kāyaı
Instrumental	kyōṇa	kyōṇoı	kīṇ	kīṇa	kāṇ	kāṇa
Locative	kyōu	kyōva	keu	kēva	kau	kāva
Genitive	kyōnә	kyōnoı	kīṇa	kīṇaı	kāṇa	kāṇaı
Benefactive	kyōṃ	kyōma	kīnṭa	kīnṭaı	kānṭa	kānṭaı
Ablative	kyoṭ	kyōṭ	kәṭ	kēṭ	kaṭ	kāṭ

Relative Declension

The relative declension is indeed identical to the interrogative one, with exception for three enclitics. In case they are suffixed postvocally, they receive an initial ⟨a⟩.

Relative Enclitics
Gender →	Masculine		Feminine		Neuter
Case ↓	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Accusative	yām	yāma	yәm	yēma	yām	yāma
Dative-Instrumental	yā	yaı	yә	yei	yā	yaı
Genitive	yōnә	yōnoı	yīn	yīna	yān	yāna

Nominal Declension

There are four nominal declensions in the Naṃkrthāvāka, each declined differently, based upon phonological differences in the terminating syllable.

Nota bene:

Many case endings are determined by the vowel harmony.
Many case endings are determined by diphthongisation, and monophthongisation.
The stress of the lexemes is irregular in the radical, but changes regularly with case.

First Declension

The characteristic of the First declensions is the vowel stem. There is little difference between gender, however [...]. The pluralisation of the nouns is mainly due to diphthongisation of the ultimate vowel.

Front First Declension

The First declension is split into two suptypes, depending on the vowel metaphony of the word. The Front declension is recognised should the lexeme:

Initiate with a front vowel.
Initiate with an [ә] or [ɛ] and continue with front vowels.

Contain only front vowels.

Contain only [ɛ]'s.

Front Declension
	Sdē chair		Kēma fire		Nāra person
Gender →	Masculine		Feminine		Neuter
Case ↓	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Absolutive	sdē	sdēı	kēma	kēmaı	nāra	nāraı
Ergative	sdēsya	sdēsyaı	kēmasya	kēmasyaı	nāraṭta	nāraṭtaı
Accusative	sdēm	sdēma	kēmam	kēmama	nāram	nārama
Dative	sdēya	sdēyaı	kēmaya	kēmayaı	nāraya	nārayaı
Instrumental	sdēṇ	sdēṇa	kēmaṣta	kēmaṣtaı	nāraṇ	nāraṇa
Locative	sdeu	sdēṿa	kēmau	kēmaṿa	nārau	nāraṿa
Genitive¹	sdēṇa	sdēṇaı	kēmaṣua	kēmaṣuaı	nāreṇa	nāreṇa
Benefactive	sdēnṭa	sdēnṭaı	kēmanṭa	kēmanṭaı	nāranṭ	narānṭ
Ablative	sdēṭ		kēmaṭ		nāraṭ

For polysyllables which are not stressed on the first syllable, the genitive may be formed through postponing the stress of the absolutive to the ultimate vowel.

Back First Declension

There are, as mentioned, two separate subtypes of the first vowel stem declension. These are distinguished through whether the word has a back or front vowel harmony. The back declension is used should the word have a single back vowel, have an initial one, or a second one succeding an "affected" [ɛ/ә].

Please note,

that ⟨ṃ⟩ is pronounced /n/ intervocally.
the ⟨ṿ⟩ indicates an intervocal ⟨u⟩, pronounced /w/.

Back Declension
	krṭō work		bhūva mud		dhēnu bull
Gender →	Masculine		Feminine		Neuter
Case ↓	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Absolutive	krṭō	krṭoı	bhūva	bhūvuı	dhēnu	dhēnuı
Ergative	krṭōsya	krṭōsyoı	bhūvasua	bhūvasvuı	dhēnusya	dhēnusyuı
Accusative	krṭōm	krṭōmau	bhūvam	bhūvamau	dhēnum	dhēnumau
Dative	krṭoı	krṭoyau	bhūvoı	bhūvoyau	dhēnoı	dhēnoyau
Instrumental	krṭōṇa	krṭōṇoı	bhūvaga	bhūvagoı	dhēnuga	dhēnugoı
Locative	krṭou	krṭōṿa	bhūvou	bhūvaṿa	dhēnu	dhēnuı
Genitive	krṭon	krṭonau	bhūvan	bhūvanau	dhēnun	dhēnunau
Benefactive	krṭōṃ	krṭōṃu	bhūvaṃ	bhūvaṃu	dhēnuṃ	dhēnuṃu
Ablative	krṭ		bhūvaṭ		dhēnuṭ

Second Declension

The second declension declines nouns with a fricative coda. There is no distinction of number in the accusative, locative or ablative cases.

Please note that the ⟨ṭ⟩ is pronounced /ʂ/ intervocally and finally.

Second Declension
	kaṭ hair		ȷēnas knee		khōros chorus
Gender →	Masculine		Feminine		Neuter
Case ↓	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Absolutive	kaṭ	kāṭ	ȷēnas	ȷenās	khōros	khorōs
Ergative	kātya	kātyaı	ȷēnasya	ȷēnasyaı	khōrosya	khōrosyoı
Accusative	kāṭ		ȷenās		khorōs
Dative	kāṭya	kāṭyaı	ȷēnahya	ȷēnahyaı	khōrhya	khōrohyaı
Instrumental	kāṭta	kāṭtaı	ȷēnasṭa	ȷēnasṭaı	khōrosṭa	khōrosṭoı
Locative	kāṭau		ȷēnau		khōrou
Genitive	kāṭna	kāṭnaı	ȷēnasṇa	ȷēnasṇaı	khōrosṇa	khōrosṇaı
Benefactive	kāṭta	kāṭtaı	ȷēnaṣsa	ȷēnaṣsaı	khōroṣsa	khōroṣsoı
Ablative	kāṭa		ȷēnasa		khōrosu

Third Declension

The third declension is based upon nasal stems, and have peculiar function, since it affects the other declensions, especially in the accusative. Third declension monosyllabic nouns always have an ungeminated vowel.

Please note that the neuter declines identically to the masculine, however, this does not apply to the so called "s-neuter". The s-neuter includes nouns which terminate with a nasal and an /s/.

Third Declension
	svan dog		ȷyum yoke		ktans hand
Gender →	Masculine		Feminine		s-Neuter
Case ↓	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Absolutive	svan	svāna	ȷyum	ȷyūmo	ktans	ktāna
Ergative	svan	svāna	ȷyum	ȷyūmo	ktans	ktānta
Accusative	svāna	svānaı	ȷyūmo	ȷyūmoı	ktānta	ktāntaı
Dative	svāna	svānaya	ȷyūmo	ȷyūmoya	ktānta	ktāntaya
Instrumental	svāṇna	svāṇnaı	ȷyūṇmo	ȷyūṇmoı	ktāntaṇa	ktāntaṇaı
Locative	svānau		ȷyūmou		ktāntau
Genitive	svānaṇ	svānaṇa	ȷyūmoṇo	ȷyūmoṇoı	ktānteṇa	ktānteṇaı
Benefactive	svānna	svānnaı	ȷyūmno	ȷyūmnoı	ktānna	ktānnaı
Ablative	svānaṭ		ȷyūmoṭ		ktāntaṭ

Fourth Declension

The fourth declension handles nouns ending in ⟨r⟩ or ⟨ar, ur⟩. These are exclusively agentive nouns and entails human agents only, thus you may only decline the neuter in the plural, because no neuter agents exist.

Examples include:

suāstr, सउास्तर, (sister)
pītr, पीतर, (father)
pātur, पातर, (pedestrian)

Fourth Declension
	dātr giver, donor
Gender →	Masculine		Feminine		Neuter
Case ↓	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Plural
Absolutive	dātr	dātar	dātr	dātrә	dātraḥ
Ergative	dāta	dātaı	dātә	dāteı	dātaı
Accusative	dātaram	dātaramā	dātrәm	dātrәmā	dātarma
Dative	dātraı	dātraya	dātreı	dātreya	dātaraı
Instrumental	dātrā	dātarbhaı	dātre	dātәrbheı	dātarabhāı
Locative	dātru	dātroı	dātrә	dātreı	dātrau
Genitive	dātrn	dātrma	dātrәna	dātrәnaı	dātarma
Benefactive	dātrnṭa	dātrnṭaı	dātrnṭә	dātrnṭeı	dātrnṭu
Ablative	dātar		dātәr		dātarbhaı

Adjectives

Forms

The Naṃkrthāvāka distinguishes five different adjectival forms, which are all perceived as functions of the corresponding noun in Nāmic:

Predicative

Predicative adjectives are conjuncted to the object with copulae or another verb, that is, a predicate. The adjectival predicative is indeclinable to case and number, but not gender. It can be compared.

āyam	sāma	ākyam
pro.prox.erg.masc.3.sg	cop.pres.pfv.3.sg	pred.adj.masc.sg
He appears nice
[a.ˈʐãː ˈsaː.ma ˈaː.c͡çam]
āhәm	hvā	hārәm
pro.erg.1.sg	cop.ppfv.1.sg	pred.adj.masc.sg
I was yellow
[ˈaː.həm xfaː ˈhaː.rəm]

Please note that the adjectival predicative above in reality is derived from the nominal predicative, declined to the accusative case.

Nominal

The nominal form stands independently or with a demonstrative, to represent the full object. In Nāmic, it's identical to the nominative attributive form.

grīgama	nāvaı	tāpranṭ
acc.neut.pl	nomi.adj.nom.masc.pl	vt.pres.pfv.3.sg
The young throw rocks
[ˈnaː.ʍaɪ̯ ˈtaː.praɳʈ ˈgrɪː.ɣam.a]
āhәm	āraȷya	rautām
pro.erg.1.sg	vt.pres.ımpfv.1.sg	nomi.adj.acc.masc.sg
I love (the) red (one)
[ˈaː.ʔə̤m a.ˈraː.ɟ͡ʝa rau̯.ˈt͡θām]

Attributive

Attributive adjectives differ in the sense that they congruate with the nouns regarding case, number and gender. They describe a feature of the object in a state.

nāraı	mādraı	dyēvanṭ
abs.neut.3.sg	attr.adj.nom.neut.pl	vit.pres.impfv.3.pl
Sweet people shine.
[ˈnaː.raɪ̯ maː.draɪ̯ ˈɖ͡ʐɛː.wãʐ]
nārama	mṙtama	sāham
acc.neut.3.sg	attr.adj.acc.neut.pl	vt.pres.impfv.1.sg
I see dead people
[ˈnaː.ra.ma ˈmr̩ˑ.ʈa.ma saː.ʔa̤m]

Adverbial

The last form describes a verb, in which manner it's conducted. Adverbs are not perceived as a lexical category in Neumatic linguistics, separate from adjectives. Please note that adverbs decline by gender and number of the verb's subject.

nāka	kāryakā		āya
vit.pres.impfv.3.sg	adv.fem.sg		pro.abs.fem.3.sg
She dances beautifully.
[ˈnaː.xa kaːr.ʂa.ˈxaː ˈa.ʐa]
magāı		aȷākou
vit.ppfv.2.sg		adv.masc.sg
You did well, man!
[ma.ˈɣɛː a.ˈɟaː.kœu̯]

Adjectival Declension

First Declension

Second Declension

Third Declension

Fourth Declension

Adjectival Comparison

Adjectival Root

Articles
			Comparative		Cercative		Superlative
Positive
Negative
Gender		Masculine		Feminine		Neuter
Number		Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Predicative
Comparative	Nominative
	Accusative
	Dative
	Instrumental
	Locative
	Genitive
	Benefactive
	Ablative
Adverb
	Cercative
Cercative	Nominative
	Accusative
	Dative
	Instrumental
	Locative
	Genitive
	Benefactive
	Ablative
Adverb
	Superlative
Superlative	Nominative
	Accusative
	Dative
	Instrumental
	Locative
	Genitive
	Benefactive
	Ablative
Adverb
Notes

Verbs

Voice

The Nāmic language only possess one voice, the active. In the Proto-Indo-European language, the passive and medio-passive voices merged, only to produce the Nāmic impersonal pronoun, instead of a voice.

However, a passive construction is possible using the instrumental case on the former subject, and the absolutive on the former patient, if you want to emphasize the subject.

The English equivalent, for example: "The girl was killed by him", uses the past participle and an oblique argument.
The Nāmic equivalent uses the instrumental case on the former subject, him, and the absolutive case on the former patient, the girl. In addition, the verb is intransivitised, similarly to the use of the past participle killed in English.

Please note that this is however only used in formal contexts.

htrīṇa		marәyā
acc.fem.sg		vt.ppfv.3.sg
He killed the girl.
[ˈxʈrɪː.ɳa ma.rə.ˈʐaː]
htrīṇ	āṇan		marәyāṭ
abs.fem.sg	pro.instr.masc.sg		vit.ppfv.3.sg
The girl was killed by (means of) him.
[ˈxʈrɪːɳ ˈaː.ɳan ma.rə.ˈʐaːʐ]

Mood

Nāmic possesses four moods, which all verbs conjugate by. The conditional is simply the subjunctive used in main clauses, and is therefore identical in form.

Indicative						Subjunctive						Conditional						Desiderative
ātam āha						āha ātam kānharan¹						ātaran āha kānharan						ātasyam
I eat.						I eat if I am hungry.						I would eat, if I were hungry.						I want/wish/would like to eat.

The verbal root √kānha means "to hunger".

Tense

In Nāmic there are two simple tenses, which denote the temporal place. The difference between the past and the present, is simply a manipulated stress. All tenses are dependent on the aspects.

Present			Past
vākam			vakām
I talk.			I talked.

Aorist

There is however a more complicated tense, which intertwines with the perfect aspect, to form the aorist. This tense is similar to its Sanskrit and Ancient Greek counterparts but is on the whole quite facile. The aorist marks events akin to its name, "unlimited", "indefinite"; which means that the most simple statements go here, as long as the temporal place isn't important, equal to English colloquial speech. For example:

What did you do today? - I danced.

Which more colloquially would be:

What did you do today? - Dance.

Simple statements in the future also class into this category:

What did you want to do when you get older? - Be a pilot.

Aspect

There are three or two aspects in the Nāmic language, although not all aspects may be combined with other moods.

Aorist						Imperfective						Retrospective
ādatam kuā gamāṭ						ādatam kuā gamāṭ						ādatabham
I was eating when he came.						I was eating when he came.						I have eaten.

Transitivity

The transitivity distinction in Nāmic is derived from the Proto-Indo-European causative verb form, which it shares a lot of attributes, lost in most other Indo-European languages. The characteristic is known foremostly in Uralic languages and Siberian ones.

Transitivity is, how many, and if, a verb accepts a direct object. If it doesn't, it is called an intransitive verb. This is Nāmic's basic verb form.

Confer the intransitive I see and the transitive I see the man.

The transitivity is distinguished in all verbs, with a few exceptions, and may also signalise a stative versus dynamic distinction. Something the English language retains traces of.

Confer the stative and intransitive I sit versus the dynamic I set.

I chose not to write that I set is transitive, only because the Nāmic language would translate this clause intransitively because it has no object, that is, I am a person who set (things).

Differentiating between the transitivity is made through an old causative infix from the Proto-Indo-European language, initially /aja/. This infix did however go through mutation and formed firstly /ja/, then just /j/. Eventually it grew to form falling diphthongs from the preceding vowel. These diphthongs were exposed to synaeresis and formed the following table:

Development of the causative infix /aja/.
Falling
	Front		Back
	Diphthong	Monophthong	Diphthong	Monophthong
aı	[aɪ̯]	[ɛ]	[ɑɪ̯]	[ə]
eı	[ɛɪ̯]	[ɪ]	[əɪ̯]	[ɯ]
uı	[ɵɪ̯]	[ɵ]	[uɪ̯]	[u]
oı	[œɪ̯]	[œ]	[ɔɪ̯]	[ə]

This table is half the table found in the Synaeresis section.

The development can be seen in transition from Old Nāmic:

Development of the causative infix /aja/.
Language
Old Nāmic		Nāmic
Normal	Causative	Intransitive	Transitive
vētas	veyātas	vēta	vēıta	vīta
be able to	to make able to	to be able to; can; know	to know; know of
sthās	sthāyas	sthā	sthāı	sthē-
to stand	to make standing	to stand; arise	to put; raise

The transitive form is always considered a part of the intranistive complement, and is not recognised as a verb proper. In Nāmic linguistic notation the intransitive and transitive roots of verbs are marked as √ and t√ respectively. Confer the reduplicated root, r√. The lemma form of the verbs is almost exclusively the intransitive root √ + an "a".

Supine

Participle

Infinitive

Conjugation

Reduplication

The Nāmic language utilises reduplication. Perhaps it is no surprise considering the tight bonds with Proto-Indo-European and Sanskrit. Reduplication in the language serves the purpose of creating the imperfective and retrospective aspects of the verb in the subjunctive and indicative moods. The system of reduplication is quite regular but depends heavily on the initial letters, but can be mapped. First remember these:

C = Consonant

G = Voiced consonant.

S = Plosive consonant; stop

F = Fricative

R = Rhotic

V = Vowel

The most basic reduplication occurs on onsets similar to the one below. It represents the second to maximum onset in the language, but the FC cluster is unaffected.

(FC)C₁V which creates S₁V.(FC)C₁V

sthā- → tāstha-

hkānt- → kāhkant-

nām- → nānam-

If the first vowel is an "e", the scheme becomes:

(FC)C₁e which creates S₁ı.(FC)C₁e

If the onset possesses a rhotic consonant, like the absolute maximum onset:

(FC)CR₁V creates R₁V.(FC)CR₁V

trānya- → rātranya

If the root starts with a vocalic syllable and the second syllable is a consonant:

V.C/N creates V.G/NVC/N

āt- → ādat-

If the root starts with a vocalic syllable and the first consonant is a rhotic:

V.R creates RV.R

ārg- → rārg-

Other useful reduplication schemes are:

CRC → CeCRC

pV → pupV

The reduplicated form is in Nāmic linguistic notation always marked with the lemma form in conjugations and dictionaries, marked as r√. Confer the transitivity root markers √ and t√.

Intransitive Conjugation

This section is subject to change. Reduplication has received a new purpose, and paradigms shall now be derived from PIE.

Intransitive Verb
√sthā		r√testhāı		to stand, stay, remain, arise.
Supine
sthān
Participles
Non-Past			sthānta
Past			sthanta
Person		Singular			Plural			Impersonal
Person		1^st	2^nd	3^rd	1^st	2^nd	3^rd	Impersonal
Indicative	Aorist
	Perfective	stham	sthaı	sthaṭ	sthāma	sthāṭa	sthanṭ	sthau
	Present
	Imperfective	tāstham	tāsthaı	tāsthaṭ	tāsthama	tāsthaṭa	tāsthanṭ	tāsthau
	Retrospective	tāsthabham	tāsthabhaı	tāsthabaṭ	tāsthabhama	tāsthabhaṭa	tāsthabhanṭ	tāsthabhau
	Ag.Retrospective	ātastham	ātasthaı	ātasthaṭ	ātasthama	ātasthaṭa	ātasthanṭ	ātasthau
	Past
	Imperfective	tasthām	tasthāı	tasthāṭ	tasthamā	tasthaṭā	tasthānṭ	tasthāu
	Retrospective	tasthabhām	tasthabhāı	tasthabāṭ	tasthabhamā	tasthabhaṭā	tasthabhānṭ	tasthabhāu
Subjunctive	Person	1^st	2^nd	3^rd	1^st	2^nd	3^rd	Impersonal
	Aorist
	Perfective	sthāur	sthāṭaur	sthātar	sthāmasta	sthāṭau	sthāntar	sthaur
	Present
	Imperfective	tāsthar	tāsthatar	tāsthatr	tāsthamasta	tāsthaṭau	tāsthantar	tāsthaur
	Retrospective	tāsthabhar	tāsthabhatar	tāstabhatr	tāsthamabhasta	tāsthabhaṭau	tāsthabhantar	tāsthabhaur
	Past
	Imperfective	tasthar	tasthatar	tasthatr	tasthamasta	tastaṭau	tasthantar	tasthaur
	Retrospective	tasthabhar	tasthabhatar	tastabhatr	tasthamabhasta	tasthabhaṭau	tasthabhantar	tasthabhaur
Desiderative	Person	1^st	2^nd	3^rd	1^st	2^nd	3^rd	Impersonal
	Present
	Imperfective	sthāsyam	sthāsyaı	sthāsyaṭ	sthāsyama	sthāsyaṭa	sthāsyanṭ	sthāsyau
	Retrospective	tāsthasyam	tāsthasyaı	tāsthasyaṭ	tāsthasyama	tāsthasyaṭa	tāsthasyanṭ	tāsthasyau
	Past
	Imperfective	sthasyām	sthasyāı	sthasyāṭ	sthasyamā	sthasyaṭā	sthasyānṭ	sthasyāu
	Retrospective	tasthasyām	tasthasyāı	tasthasyāṭ	tasthasyamā	tasthasyaṭā	tasthasyānṭ	tasthasyāu
Notes
√sthāı is a monosyllabic root and reduplicated in the past.

Transitive Conjugations

This one, on the other hand, is finished. Descriptive texts will come.

Transitive Verb
√sthā		t√sthāı		r√testhāı		to put, set, keep, raise.
Supine
sthēna
Participles
Non-Past			sthāyata
Past			sthāyatā
Person		Singular			Plural			Impersonal
Person		1^st	2^nd	3^rd	1^st	2^nd	3^rd	Impersonal
Indicative	Aorist
	Perfective	sthә	sthaı	stheṭ	sthem	sthēṭa	sthēn	sthayu
	Present
	Imperfective	tēsthә	tēsthaı	tēstheṭ	tēsthem	tēstheṭa	tēsthen	tēsthayu
	Retrospective	testhēbhә	testhēbhaı	testhēbheṭ	testhēbhem	testhēbhәṭa	testhēbhen	testhēbhu
	Ag.Retrospective	āstebhә	āsthebhaı	āsthebheṭ	āsthebhem	āsthebhәṭa	āsthebhen	āstebhu
	Past
	Imperfective	testhṃ	testhāı	testhēṭ	testhēm	testhēṭa	testhēn	testhayū
	Retrospective	testhebhē	testhebhāı	testhebhēṭ	testhebhēm	testhebhәṭā	testhebhēn	testhebhū
Subjunctive	Person	1^st	2^nd	3^rd	1^st	2^nd	3^rd	Impersonal
	Aorist
	Perfective	sthaı	sthāṭaı	sthātaı	sthāmasta	sthāṭau	sthāntaı	sthāu
	Present
	Imperfective	tāsthava	tāsthaṭa	tāsthaṭ	tāsthamaṭ	tāsthathau	tāsthanta	tāsthu
	Retrospective	tāstabhava	tāsthabhaṭa	tāsthabhaṭ	tāsthabhamaṭ	tāsthabhatau	tāsthabhanta	tāsthabhu
	Past
	Imperfective	tasthavā	tasthaṭā	tasthāṭ	tasthamāṭ	tasthathāu	tasthantā	tasthū
	Retrospective	tastabhavā	tasthabhaṭā	tasthabhāṭ	tasthabhamāṭ	tasthabhatāu	tasthabhantā	tasthabhū
Desiderative	Person	1^st	2^nd	3^rd	1^st	2^nd	3^rd	Impersonal
	Present
	Imperfective	sthēsyә	sthēsyaı	sthēsyeṭ	sthēsyem	sthēsyeṭa	sthēsyen	sthēsyayu
	Retrospective	testhēsyә	testhēsyaı	testhēsyeṭ	testhēsyem	testhēsyeṭa	testhēsyen	testhesyayū
	Past
	Imperfective	sthesyē	sthesyāı	sthesyēṭ	sthesyēm	sthesyeṭā	sthesyēn	sthesyayū
	Retrospective	testhesyē	testhesyāı	testhesyēṭ	testhesyēm	testhesyeṭā	testhesyēn	testhesyayū
Notes
√sthāı is a monosyllabic root and reduplicated in the past. Please note that āı > ē.

Conjugation Classes

Nāmic possesses a few classes of conjugations, which conjugate slightly differently, because of their phonological attributes, or irregularity. They are named after the most prominent word conjugated in the class.