Aeranir: Difference between revisions
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{{Infobox language | {{Infobox language | ||
| name = | | name = Aeranir | ||
| nativename = coeñar aerānir<br />coeñar inceris | |||
| pronunciation = ˈk̟øː.ɲar ˈɪ̃ŋ̟.k̟ɛ.rɪs̠]<br />[ˈk̟øː.ɲar ɛːˈraː.nɪr | |||
| nativename = | |||
| pronunciation = | |||
|creator=Limius | |creator=Limius | ||
|setting=''[[Avrid]]'' | |setting=''[[Avrid]]'' | ||
| state = [[Telrhamir]], [[Iscaria]], [[Aeranid Empire]] | | state = [[Telrhamir]], [[Iscaria]], [[Aeranid Empire]] | ||
| ethnicity = Aeran | | ethnicity = Aeran | ||
Line 17: | Line 14: | ||
|ancestor2=[[Proto-Iscaric]] | |ancestor2=[[Proto-Iscaric]] | ||
|ancestor3=[[Aeranir#Old Aeranir|Old Aeranir]] | |ancestor3=[[Aeranir#Old Aeranir|Old Aeranir]] | ||
| nation = [[Aeranid Empire]] | | nation = [[Aeranid Empire]] | ||
| minority = [[Iscaria]], [[S'entin]], [[Tevrén]] | | minority = [[Iscaria]], [[S'entin]], [[Tevrén]] | ||
| notice = IPA | | notice = IPA | ||
| clcr = qco | |||
}} | }} | ||
'''Aeranir''', also known as '''coeñar aerānir''' (''language of the Aerans''), or '''coeñar | '''Aeranir''', also known as '''coeñar aerānir''' (''language of the Aerans''), or '''coeñar inceris''' (''language of the capital''), is an Iscaric language in the [[Maro-Ephenian languages|Maro-Ephenian language group]]. It was originally spoken by the [[Aerans]], developed in the deserts of Northern [[Iscaria]] in the city of [[Telrhamir]], and spread with the expanse of the [[Aeranid Empire]] throughout [[Ephenia]], as well as parts of [[Eubora]] and [[Syra]]. It later developed into the Aeranid languages, such as [[Dalot]], [[Ilesse]], [[Iscariano]], [[Îredese]], [[S'entigneis]], and [[Tevrés]]. It is still used throughout Ephenia as a language of theology, science, medicine, literature, and law. | ||
Aeranir had been standardised into Classical Aeranir by the time of the Early Empire, around the second millennia <small>[[New Imperial Age|BNIA]]</small> by the writer and educator Limius. The period before that is generally referred to as Old Aeranir. The language spoken between the 15th and 12th centuries <small>[[New Imperial Age|BNIA]]</small> is generally referred to Late Aeranir. This shift is marked by several grammatical and phonetic shifts. After that period, Aeranir began to splinter off into the various Aeranid languages. A form of Classical Aeranir called New Aeranir or Medieval Aeranir remained in use in official writings even after this period. | Aeranir had been standardised into Classical Aeranir by the time of the Early Empire, around the second millennia <small>[[New Imperial Age|BNIA]]</small> by the writer and educator Limius. The period before that is generally referred to as Old Aeranir. The language spoken between the 15th and 12th centuries <small>[[New Imperial Age|BNIA]]</small> is generally referred to Late Aeranir. This shift is marked by several grammatical and phonetic shifts. After that period, Aeranir began to splinter off into the various Aeranid languages. A form of Classical Aeranir called New Aeranir or Medieval Aeranir remained in use in official writings even after this period. | ||
Aeranir is a highly | Aeranir is a highly inflective and fusional language, with three distinct [[w:Gramatical Gender|genders]], nine [[w:Gramatical Case|cases]], two [[w:Gramatical Aspect|aspects]], four [[w:Gramatical Mood|moods]], three [[w:Gramatical Person|persons]], two or three [[w:Gramatical Voice|voices]], and two [[w:Gramatical Number|numbers]]. | ||
==History== | ==History== | ||
===Periodisation=== | |||
{{Graphical timeline | |||
|title=Timeline of Aeranir | |||
|align=right | |||
|plot-colour=#bbeebb | |||
|from=0 | |||
|to=3000 | |||
|scale-increment=200 | |||
|width=10 | |||
|height=300 | |||
|height-unit=px | |||
|legend1=Aeran settlements | |||
=== | |bar1-from=2400 | ||
|bar1-left=0 | |||
|bar1-right=0.2 | |||
|legend2=City of Telhramir | |||
=== | |bar2-to=2600 | ||
|bar2-left=0.1 | |||
|bar2-right=0.2 | |||
A | |legend3=Aeranid Kingdom | ||
|legend3-colour=#e0aacc | |||
|bar3-to=2400 | |||
|bar3-left=0 | |||
|bar3-right=0.2 | |||
|bar3-colour=#e0aacc | |||
|<!-- If this was bar 4 it would be overlapped by the Botomian bar --> | |||
|bar4-to=2104 | |||
|bar4-left=0 | |||
|bar4-right=0.2 | |||
|bar4-colour=red | |||
|legend4=Aeranid Empire | |||
|legend4-colour=red | |||
|<!--Epochs & stages--> | |||
|bar5-to=1266 | |||
|bar5-from=825 | |||
|bar5-left=0 | |||
|bar5-right=0.2 | |||
|bar5-colour=#AA98A9 | |||
|legend5=Eastern Aeranid Empire | |||
|legend5-colour=#AA98A9 | |||
|bar6-from=1172 | |||
|bar6-to=1266 | |||
|bar6-left=0.1 | |||
|bar6-right=0.2 | |||
|bar6-colour=blue | |||
|legend6=Western Aeranid Empire | |||
|legend6-colour=blue | |||
|bar7-to=825 | |||
|bar7-left=0 | |||
|bar7-right=0.2 | |||
|bar7-colour=grey | |||
|legend7=Various Nations | |||
|legend7-colour=grey | |||
|bar8-text=Proto-Aeranid | |||
|bar8-to=953 | |||
|bar8-from=700 | |||
|bar8-left=1 | |||
|bar8-right=1.75 | |||
|bar8-border-width=1 | |||
|bar8-border-colour= #996666 | |||
|bar8-colour=lightgrey | |||
|bar9-text=Liturgical Aeranir | |||
|bar9-to=953 | |||
|bar9-left=0.2 | |||
|bar9-right=1 | |||
|bar9-border-width=1 | |||
|bar9-border-colour= #996666 | |||
|bar9-colour=#cc9999 | |||
|bar10-text=Post-Collapse Aeranir | |||
|bar10-from=953 | |||
|bar10-to=1266 | |||
|bar10-left=0.2 | |||
|bar10-right=1.75 | |||
|bar10-colour=#99cc99 | |||
|bar11-text=Late Aeranir | |||
|bar11-from=1266 | |||
|bar11-to=1450 | |||
|bar11-left=0.2 | |||
|bar11-right=1.75 | |||
|bar11-colour=#99cc99 | |||
|bar11-border-width=0.1 | |||
|bar12-text=Golden Age Aeranir | |||
|bar12-from=1450 | |||
|bar12-to=1800 | |||
|bar12-left=0.2 | |||
|bar12-right=1.75 | |||
|bar12-border-width=0.1 | |||
|bar12-colour=#99cc99 | |||
|bar13-text=Classical Aeranir | |||
|bar13-from=1800 | |||
|bar13-to=2200 | |||
|bar13-left=0.2 | |||
|bar13-right=1.75 | |||
|bar13-border-width=0.1 | |||
|bar13-colour=#99cc99 | |||
|bar14-text=Old Aeranir | |||
|bar14-from=2200 | |||
|bar14-to=2500 | |||
|bar14-left=0.2 | |||
|bar14-right=1.75 | |||
|bar14-border-width=0.1 | |||
|bar14-colour=#99cc99 | |||
|bar15-text=Proto-Iscaric | |||
|bar15-from=2500 | |||
|bar15-to=3000 | |||
|bar15-left=0.2 | |||
|bar15-right=1.75 | |||
|bar15-border-width=0.1 | |||
|bar15-colour=#bbeebb | |||
|bar16-text=Aeranid Languages | |||
|bar16-to=700 | |||
|bar16-from=0 | |||
|bar16-left=1 | |||
|bar16-right=1.75 | |||
|bar16-border-width=1 | |||
|bar16-border-colour= #996666 | |||
|bar16-colour=grey | |||
|note1=The Collapse | |||
|note1-at=1266 | |||
|note1-nudge-right=10 | |||
|note1-colour=green | |||
|caption=A timeline of the evolution of Aeranir. The scale is in years BCA. The thin bar to the left denotes the Aeranir (and later Aeranid) speaking powers of the time, whilst the right denotes the evolutionary stage of Aeranir. | |||
}} | |||
The Aeranir language is descended from Proto-Iscaric, a theoretical reconstruction, which is in turn descended from [[Proto-Maro-Ephenian]]. This makes Aeranir a member of the Maro-Ephenian language family, along with Talothic, Fyrdan, and Marian. Because neither of these two proto-languages are attested in writing, it can be difficult to say when they were spoken, and when one transitioned into the other, but scholars generally agree that there was something that could be called Proto-Iscaric around the end of the 4th millennium BCA. | |||
Proto-Iscaric was spoken by numerous Maro-Ephenian tribes which settled in Iscaria at the end of the 4th millennium. This evolved into numerous attested Iscaric languages, of which the language of the Aerans, who settled the region known as Aes, was but one. The oldest evidence of their language is found dating well after the founding of their most famous city, Telhramir, around 2500 BCA. This phase of the language, from around then to the later years of the Aeranid Kingdom, is known as Old Aeranir (called '''''coeñar accuiha aerānir''''' or '''''aerānir accuiha''''' by Classical and Golden Age sources). | |||
==Phonology== | ==Phonology== | ||
===Consonants=== | ===Consonants=== | ||
The following is a table of phonemes in Aeranir. This analysis is based on Classical Aeranir, as it was used during the hight of the [[Aeranid Empire]]. The phonology, especially the number of vowel phonemes, varied greatly time, but this is seen as the standard version of the language. | The following is a table of phonemes in Aeranir. This analysis is based on Classical Aeranir, as it was used during the hight of the [[Aeranid Empire]]. The phonology, especially the number of vowel phonemes, varied greatly time, but this is seen as the standard version of the language. | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;" | ||
|+caption | Classical consonant phonemes | |+caption | Classical consonant phonemes | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! rowspan="2" | | ||
! rowspan="2" | Labial | ! rowspan="2" | Labial | ||
! colspan=" | ! colspan="2" | Coronal | ||
! rowspan="2" | Palatal | ! rowspan="2" | Palatal | ||
! colspan="2" | Velar | ! colspan="2" | Velar | ||
Line 53: | Line 195: | ||
! rowspan="2" | Glottal | ! rowspan="2" | Glottal | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small> | ! <small> central <small> | ||
! <small> lateral <small> | ! <small> lateral <small> | ||
! <small> plain <small> | ! <small> plain <small> | ||
! <small> labial <small> | ! <small> labial <small> | ||
Line 61: | Line 202: | ||
! <small> labial <small> | ! <small> labial <small> | ||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
! | ! Nasal | ||
| | | m | ||
| | | n | ||
| | |||
| ɲ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! Stop | |||
| p | |||
| t | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| k | |||
| kʷ | |||
| q | |||
| qʷ | |||
| | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! Affricate | |||
| | | | ||
| ts | |||
| tɬ | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
Line 73: | Line 235: | ||
| | | | ||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
! | ! Fricative | ||
| f | |||
| | | s | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| h | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
! Liquid | |||
| | |||
| r | |||
| l | |||
| j | |||
| | |||
| w | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| ɦ | |||
|} | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;" | |||
|+caption | Golden age consonant phonemes | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | | |||
! rowspan="2" | Labial | |||
! colspan="2" | Coronal | |||
! rowspan="2" | Palatal | |||
! colspan="2" | Velar | |||
! colspan="2" | Uvular | |||
! rowspan="2" | Glottal | |||
|- | |||
! <small> central <small> | |||
! <small> lateral <small> | |||
! <small> plain <small> | ! <small> plain <small> | ||
! <small> labial <small> | |||
! <small> plain <small> | |||
! <small> labial <small> | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! colspan="2" | Nasal | |||
| m | |||
| n | |||
| | | | ||
| ɲ | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
! | ! rowspan="3" | Stop | ||
| | ! aspirated | ||
| | | (pʰ) | ||
| (tʰ) | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | kʰ | ||
| | | | ||
| qʰ | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
! | ! plain | ||
| p | |||
| t | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| k | |||
| kʷ | |||
| q | |||
| qʷ | |||
| | | | ||
| | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
! voiced | |||
| (b) | |||
| (d) | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| (g) | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
Line 123: | Line 321: | ||
| | | | ||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
! | ! rowspan="2" | Affricate | ||
! voiceless | |||
| | | | ||
| ts | |||
| tɬ | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! voiced | |||
| | | | ||
| (dz~z) | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
Line 135: | Line 344: | ||
| | | | ||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
! colspan="2" | | ! colspan="2" | Fricative | ||
| | | f | ||
| s | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| h | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! colspan="2" | Liquid | |||
| ʋ | |||
| r | |||
| l | |||
| j | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| ɦ | |||
|} | |} | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;" | ||
|+caption | Late consonant phonemes | |+caption | Late consonant phonemes | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | | ||
! rowspan="2" | Labial | ! rowspan="2" | Labial | ||
! colspan=" | ! colspan="2" | Coronal | ||
! rowspan="2" | Palatal | ! rowspan="2" | Palatal | ||
! colspan="2" | Velar | ! colspan="2" | Velar | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small> | ! <small> central <small> | ||
! <small> lateral <small> | ! <small> lateral <small> | ||
! <small> plain <small> | ! <small> plain <small> | ||
! <small> labial <small> | ! <small> labial <small> | ||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
! colspan="2" | Nasal | ! colspan="2" | Nasal | ||
| m | | m | ||
| n | | n | ||
| | | | ||
| | | ɲ | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
! rowspan="2" | Stop | ! rowspan="2" | Stop | ||
! | ! voiceless | ||
| p | | p | ||
| t | | t | ||
| | |||
| | | c | ||
| | | k | ||
| | | kʷ | ||
| | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
! | ! voiced | ||
| b | | b | ||
| d | | d | ||
| | | | ||
| ɟ | |||
| g | |||
| | | | ||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
! colspan="2" | | ! colspan="2" | Affricate | ||
| | | | ||
| | | ts | ||
| | | tɬ | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
! colspan="2" | | ! colspan="2" | Fricative | ||
| | | f | ||
| | | s | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
! colspan="2" | | ! colspan="2" | Liquid | ||
| | | | ||
| r | |||
| l | |||
| j | |||
| | | | ||
| | | | ||
|} | |} | ||
====Notes on consonants==== | ====Notes on consonants==== | ||
*The | *The clusters /rh/, /nh/, and /lh/ vary greatly between dialects; [rɦ nɦ ɫɦ ~ rg ŋg ɫg ~ ʀː ŋː ʟː]. | ||
*The sequence /ks/ is written in the romanisation as ''x''. | |||
*The nasal consonant /n/ assimilates to the place of articulation of the following stop, so that / | *The nasal consonant /n/ assimilates to the place of articulation of the following stop, so that /nk/ or /nqʷ/ for example become /ŋk/ and /ɴʷqʷ/. Before fricatives, /n/ is deleted, and the proceeding vowel is lengthened and nasalised. These processes apply between word boundries as well. Word final /n/ as part of case and personal markers is elided before a word starting with a vowel, fricative, approximate, or before a [[w:Pausa|pausa]]. It often served as a [[w:Shibboleth|shibboleth]] for discerning one's origins or social circles. | ||
*The velar, labio-velar, and labio-uvular consonants /k/, /kʷ/, /q/, and /qʷ/ are palatalised before front vowels and /j/ to [k̟], [kᶣ], [k̠] and [k̠ᶣ] respectively. Futhermore, dental consonants /n/ and /t/ are palatalised before /j/ to [ɲ̟], and [tʲ]. The glottal fricative /h/ is also palatalised to [ç] before high front vowels and /j/. Some dialects also palatalise the postalveolar consonants /s/ and /ts/ to [ɕ] and [tɕ] before front vowels and /j/. | |||
*The velar, labio-velar, and labio-uvular consonants | *The labialised consonants /kʷ/, and /qʷ/ are pronounced as truly labialised, rather than a sequence of two consonants, i.e. /kw/, /qw/. The voiced labiovelar stop only occurs after a nasal consonant. | ||
*The labialised consonants | *All consonants, with the exception of /ʋ/, can be geminated between vowels. This is denoted orthographically by doubling of the first letter of the phoneme, i.e. ⟨cc⟩, ⟨ff⟩, ⟨hh⟩, etc. The palatal approximate /j/ is always geminated to [jː] between vowels, but is written with a simple ⟨i⟩. Fricative /hː/ is usually realised as [çː]. In dialects that palatalise /s/ and /ts/, [çː] often becomes [ɕː], merging in some environments with /sː/. | ||
*All consonants, with the exception of /ʋ/, can be geminated between vowels. This is denoted orthographically by doubling of the first letter of the phoneme, i.e. ⟨cc⟩, ⟨ff⟩, | |||
*The lateral approximate /l/ has two allophones in Classical Aeranir; [l] before close front vowels, /j/, and when geminated, and [ɫ] elsewhere. | *The lateral approximate /l/ has two allophones in Classical Aeranir; [l] before close front vowels, /j/, and when geminated, and [ɫ] elsewhere. | ||
*The | *The fricative /s/ is often pronounced further back in the mouth, closer to [s̠]. | ||
* The phoneme /h/ has two distinct allophones following the nasal /n/. When this cluster occurs natively within a word, /h/ is voiced and velarised to [g]. Nasal /n/ is likewise velarised to [ŋ]. Dialectically, the cluster /ŋg/ may be fortified to [gː] or lenited to [ŋː]. Before front vowels and /j/, these may appear as [ɲʝ], [ŋ˖g˖], [g˖ː], or [ŋ˖ː]. When the cluster /nh/ occurs where /h/ was once word initial, as result of a prefix, the nasal is deleted and the preceding vowel nasalised and lengthened, as with fricatives /s/ and /f/. | |||
===Vowels=== | ===Vowels=== | ||
Vowels in Aeranir underwent the greatest amount of change throughout time. Although the standard is considered to me Classical Aeranir as it was spoken in the 17th and 16th centuries {{Smallcaps|[[New Imperial Age|bnia]]}}, this should not be seen in the context of a sliding historical spectrum. Below are listed three somewhat representative samples that provide a broad overview of general changes. | Vowels in Aeranir underwent the greatest amount of change throughout time. Although the standard is considered to me Classical Aeranir as it was spoken in the 17th and 16th centuries {{Smallcaps|[[New Imperial Age|bnia]]}}, this should not be seen in the context of a sliding historical spectrum. Below are listed three somewhat representative samples that provide a broad overview of general changes. | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;" | {| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;" | ||
|+caption | Old Aeranir vowel phonemes<br>(circa | |+caption | Old Aeranir vowel phonemes<br>(circa 2300{{Smallcaps|bca}}) | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! rowspan="2" | | ||
! Front | ! colspan="2" | Front | ||
! Central | ! colspan="2" | Central | ||
! Back | ! colspan="2" | Back | ||
|- | |||
! <small> short <small> | |||
! <small> long <small> | |||
! <small> short <small> | |||
! <small> long <small> | |||
! <small> short <small> | |||
! <small> long <small> | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
! Close | ! Close | ||
| i | | i | ||
| iː | |||
| u | | | ||
| | |||
| u | |||
| uː | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
! Mid | ! Mid | ||
| e | | e | ||
| o | | eː | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| o | |||
| oː | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
! Open | ! Open | ||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| a | |||
| | | aː | ||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| | |||
|} | |} | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;" | {| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;" | ||
|+caption | Classical Aeranir vowel phonemes<br>(circa 1600{{Smallcaps| | |+caption | Classical and Golden Age Aeranir vowel phonemes<br>(circa 1600{{Smallcaps|bca}}) | ||
|- | |||
! rowspan="3" | | |||
! colspan="4" | Front | |||
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | Central | |||
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | Back | |||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! colspan="2" | <small> plain <small> | ||
! colspan="2" | | ! colspan="2" | <small> rounded <small> | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small> | ! <small> short <small> | ||
! <small> | ! <small> long <small> | ||
! <small> short <small> | |||
! <small> long <small> | |||
! <small> short <small> | |||
! <small> long <small> | |||
! <small> short <small> | |||
! <small> long <small> | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
! Close | ! Close | ||
| | | ɪ | ||
| | | iː | ||
| ʏ | |||
| | | yː | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| ʊ | |||
| uː | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
! Mid-close | ! Mid-close | ||
| | | | ||
| | | eː | ||
| | | | ||
| øː | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| oː | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
! Mid-open | ! Mid-open | ||
| | | ɛ | ||
| ɛː | |||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| | |||
| ɔ | |||
| ɔː | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
! Open | ! Open | ||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| | |||
| | |||
| a | |||
| aː | |||
| | |||
| | |||
|} | |} | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;" | {| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;" | ||
|+caption | Late Aeranir vowel phonemes<br>(circa 1200{{Smallcaps| | |+caption | Late Aeranir vowel phonemes<br>(circa 1200{{Smallcaps|bca}}) | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan="2" | | ! rowspan="2" | | ||
! colspan="2" | Front | ! colspan="2" | Front | ||
! rowspan="2" | Central | ! rowspan="2"| Central | ||
! rowspan="2" | Back | ! rowspan="2"| Back | ||
|- | |- | ||
! plain | ! plain | ||
Line 301: | Line 554: | ||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
! Close | ! Close | ||
| i | | i | ||
| (y | | (y) | ||
| | | | ||
| u | | u | ||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
! Mid-close | ! Mid-close | ||
| e | | e | ||
| ( | | (ø) | ||
| o | | | ||
| o | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
! Mid-open | ! Mid-open | ||
| | | ɛ | ||
| | |||
| | | | ||
| ɔ | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
! Open | ! Open | ||
| | |||
| a | | | ||
| a | |||
| | |||
|} | |} | ||
====Notes on vowels==== | ====Notes on vowels==== | ||
* The short high rounded vowel /ʏ/ is mostly a loan from [[Dalitian]], and is not found in many native words, or words dating back to Old Aeranir. It is usually realised as [ɪ], and is only rounded in educated speech. | |||
* The short high rounded vowel /ʏ/ is a loan from [[Dalitian]], and is not found in | |||
{| class="wikitable floatright" | {| class="wikitable floatright" | ||
|+caption | Vowel change from PME to Late Aeranir (in stessed initial syllables) | |+caption | Vowel change from PME to Late Aeranir (in stessed initial syllables) | ||
Line 332: | Line 587: | ||
! Late | ! Late | ||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
| * | | *u[r₂, r₃, h]i | ||
| → ui /ui̯/ | | → ui /ui̯/ | ||
| rowspan="2" | → y /yː/ | | rowspan="2" | → y /yː/ | ||
| rowspan="4" | → i /i/ | | rowspan="4" | → i /i/ | ||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
| * | | *i[r₂, r₃, h]u | ||
| → iu /iu̯̯/ | | → iu /iu̯̯/ | ||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
Line 344: | Line 599: | ||
| rowspan="2" | → ī /iː/ | | rowspan="2" | → ī /iː/ | ||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
| * | | *i[r₂, r₃, h] | ||
| → ī /iː/ | | → ī /iː/ | ||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
Line 352: | Line 607: | ||
| rowspan="3" | → e /e/ | | rowspan="3" | → e /e/ | ||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
| *oy, * | | *oy, *o[r₂, r₃, h]i, *er₃i,<br>*ōy, *[r₂, r₃, h]oy, *r₃ey | ||
| → oi /oi̯/ | | → oi /oi̯/ | ||
| → oe /øː/ | | → oe /øː/ | ||
Line 363: | Line 618: | ||
| → e /e/ | | → e /e/ | ||
| → e /ɛ/ | | → e /ɛ/ | ||
| rowspan="2" | → | | rowspan="2" | → è /ɛ/ | ||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
| * | | *er₂i, *r₂ey | ||
| → ai /ai̯/ | | → ai /ai̯/ | ||
| → ae /ɛː/ | | → ae /ɛː/ | ||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
| *ow, * | | *ow, *o[r₂, r₃, h]u, *ōw,<br>*[r₂, r₃, h]ow, *r₃ew, *ew,<br>*ehu, *ēw, *hew | ||
| → ou /ou̯̯/ | | → ou /ou̯̯/ | ||
| rowspan="2" | → ū /uː/ | | rowspan="2" | → ū /uː/ | ||
| rowspan="2" | → u /u/ | | rowspan="2" | → u /u/ | ||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
| * | | *u[r₂, r₃, h] | ||
| → ū /uː/ | | → ū /uː/ | ||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
Line 382: | Line 637: | ||
| rowspan="2" | → o /o/ | | rowspan="2" | → o /o/ | ||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
| * | | *o[r₂, r₃, h], *ō, *r₃e[r₂, r₃, h],<br>*r₃ē, *er₃ | ||
| → o /oː/ | | → o /oː/ | ||
| → o /oː/ | | → o /oː/ | ||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
| *o, * | | *o, *r₃e | ||
| → o /o/ | | → o /o/ | ||
| → o /ɔ/ | | → o /ɔ/ | ||
| rowspan="2" | → | | rowspan="2" | → ò /ɔ/ | ||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
| * | | *er₂u, *r₂ew | ||
| → au /au̯̯/ | | → au /au̯̯/ | ||
| → au /ɔː/ | | → au /ɔː/ | ||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
| * | | *er₂, *r₂ē | ||
| → ā /aː/ | | → ā /aː/ | ||
| → ā /aː/ | | → ā /aː/ | ||
| rowspan="2" | → a /a/ | | rowspan="2" | → a /a/ | ||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
| * | | *[r̥₂, r̥₃, h̥] | ||
| → a /a/ | | → a /a/ | ||
| → a /a/ | | → a /a/ | ||
Line 413: | Line 668: | ||
Syllables are divided into one of two categories, or weights. These are '''light''' syllables and '''heavy''' syllables. A light syllable contains a maximum of one short vowel, alone or proceeded by a consonant or consonant cluster, while a heavy syllable may contain a long vowel, a coda consonant, or both. If the penult of a word is heavy, it is stressed. If not, the antipenult is stressed. | Syllables are divided into one of two categories, or weights. These are '''light''' syllables and '''heavy''' syllables. A light syllable contains a maximum of one short vowel, alone or proceeded by a consonant or consonant cluster, while a heavy syllable may contain a long vowel, a coda consonant, or both. If the penult of a word is heavy, it is stressed. If not, the antipenult is stressed. | ||
=== Dialects === | |||
;Pēcilia Cūvae | |||
: The ''pēcilia cūvae'' ('Cuvan swing') refers to the particular musical quality of the Aeranir spoken in the Aes city of Cuva (''cūva'') during the classical and golden age of Aeranid civilisation. It was likened in the earliest records to the ''pēcilia traecōvus'' ('talothic swing'), and occasionally referred to as the ''pōnus traeceus'' ('talothic voice'). However, by the golden age, Talothic had lost its distinct melodious accent, and the these terms fell out of use. This is believed to be the reason that citizens of Cuva were called ''traeceolar'' ('little taloths'), and is the origin of the name of the city Triggiolari, founded as ''Traeceolar''. | |||
: Rather than the stress-accent of standard capitoline Aeranir, the speech of Cuva is marked by a distinctive [[w:Pitch-accent language|pitch accent]]. Pitch in Cuva begins low, and then rises until a [[w:Mora|kernel mora]], after which it immediately falls. Placement of the kernel mora generally falls on the third to last mora. However, the way morae are counted is somewhat complex. A short vowel, either proceeded by a consonant or consonant cluster, or bare, counts as one mora, and a long vowel of (spurious) diphthong counts as two. On top of that, coda consonants, rather singletons or clusters, also count as a mora. So, for example, each syllable of the word ''āctās'' is three morea; ''a-a-c.ta-a-s'' | |||
: Pitch accent manifests differently depending on where the kernel falls. Then the kernel falls on a vowel, there is a [[w:Downstep|downstep]] before it; e.g. ''āctās'': ''a-a-c.<u>ta</u>-a-s'' /àák.tààs/ [ǎːk.tàːs]. | |||
==Syntax== | |||
===Word order=== | |||
Aeranir is generally verb-initial in independent clauses, and verb-final in dependant clauses, including non-finite clauses using the infinitive, participle, gerund, etc.. These rules may be violated in poetry, however it is much more common to violate the former than the later. | |||
:{{interlinear | box=yes | |||
| qurra Rāscānus salvan | |||
| read-3SG.C Rascanus-NOM.SG book-ACC.SG | |||
|'Rascanus is reading a book'}} | |||
:{{interlinear | box=yes | |||
| Rāscānus salvan qurrea | |||
| Rascanus-NOM.SG book-ACC.SG read-SUBJ.3SG.C | |||
|'should Rascanus be reading a book...'}} | |||
:{{interlinear | box=yes | |||
| sircuīva īliō Rāscānus salvan qurrīhā | |||
| tell-PFV.3SG.C Ilius-DAT.SG Rascanus-NOM.SG book-ACC.SG read-INF | |||
|'Rascanus told Ilius that he was reading a book'}} | |||
Nominal clitics attach to the end of verbs in independent clauses, and the beginning of verbs in dependant clauses. | |||
:{{interlinear | box=yes | |||
| taetue ne tīn | |||
| drink-PFV.3SG.E <nowiki>=</nowiki>2SG tea-ACC.SG | |||
|'You drank the tea'}} | |||
:{{interlinear | box=yes | |||
| tīn ni taesun | |||
| tea-NOM.SG 2SG<nowiki>=</nowiki> drink-PFV.PTCP-E.NOM.SG | |||
|'The tea you drank'}} | |||
Word order is much more free for nouns and noun phrases. Adjectives and genitives may either proceed or follow a noun (e.g. '''''formun cōmus''''' or '''''cōmus formun''''', both 'the warm house;' '''''umae menter''''' or '''''menter umae''''', both 'my mother's sibling'), although they adjectives generally follow, whilst genitives generally proceed. Prepositions always proceed their noun, whilst postpositions, which are far less common, always follow. | |||
Due to agreement in gender, case, and number between nouns and adjectives, additional nouns may be inserted between a noun and its adjective without changing the meaning, in what is called [[w:Hyperbaton|hyperbaton]]: | |||
:{{interlinear | box=yes | |||
| ȳrē arte tihī iūre | |||
| listen-IMP person-VOC.SG 1SG.PRO-DAT good-T.VOC.SG | |||
|'Listen to me good fellow!'}} | |||
==Nouns== | ==Nouns== | ||
Line 418: | Line 720: | ||
Aeranir nouns are divided into three [[w:Grammatical Gender|genders]], all of which are directly inherited from late [[Proto-Maro-Ephenian]]. These known as the '''temporary''' ('''{{Smallcaps|t}}'''), '''cyclical''' ('''{{Smallcaps|c}}'''), and '''eternal''' ('''{{Smallcaps|e}}''') genders. The gender of a noun effects the adjectives and verbs that refer to it. | Aeranir nouns are divided into three [[w:Grammatical Gender|genders]], all of which are directly inherited from late [[Proto-Maro-Ephenian]]. These known as the '''temporary''' ('''{{Smallcaps|t}}'''), '''cyclical''' ('''{{Smallcaps|c}}'''), and '''eternal''' ('''{{Smallcaps|e}}''') genders. The gender of a noun effects the adjectives and verbs that refer to it. | ||
{{interlinear| | :{{interlinear | box=yes | ||
| ēs ars raius | |||
| COP.3SG. | | COP.3SG.T wumbo(T)-NOM.SG small-T.NOM.SG | ||
|'It's a small wumbo | |'It's a small wumbo'}} | ||
{{interlinear| | :{{interlinear | box=yes | ||
| sa tlāna raia | |||
| COP.3SG. | | COP.3SG.C flower(C)-NOM.SG small-C.NOM.SG | ||
|'It's a small flower | |'It's a small flower'}} | ||
{{interlinear| | :{{interlinear | box=yes | ||
| sī nātlun raiun | |||
| COP.3SG. | | COP.3SG.E shell(E)-NOM.SG small-E.NOM.SG | ||
|'It's a small shell | |'It's a small shell'}} | ||
The gender of most nouns can be easily inferred from its ending. Furthermore, there is often overlap between meaning and gender. Animate living beings and small, breakable objects are often temporary, while abstract concepts, natural processes, or seasonal plants are usually cyclical, and large, durable, inanimate objects are most likely eternal. However, some nouns have no relation to their gender. Personal names are either temporary or cyclical; eternal names are reserved for gods. | The gender of most nouns can be easily inferred from its ending. Furthermore, there is often overlap between meaning and gender. Animate living beings and small, breakable objects are often temporary, while abstract concepts, natural processes, or seasonal plants are usually cyclical, and large, durable, inanimate objects are most likely eternal. However, some nouns have no relation to their gender. Personal names are either temporary or cyclical; eternal names are reserved for gods. | ||
===Case=== | ===Case=== | ||
Nouns in Aeranir have a series of different forms, called cases of the noun, which have different functions or meanings. For example, the word for 'king' is | Nouns in Aeranir have a series of different forms, called cases of the noun, which have different functions or meanings. For example, the word for 'king' is ''{{term|rēs}}'' when subject of a verb, but ''rēnin'' when it is the object: | ||
* '' | * ''auhēs rēs'' 'the king sees (someone)' ([[w:Nominative case|nominative case]]) | ||
* '' | * ''auhēs rēnin'' '(someone) sees the king' ([[w:Accusative case|accusative case]]) | ||
There are a total of nine cases for most nouns in Aeranir. Outside of the nominative and accusative, they are as the following: | There are a total of nine cases for most nouns in Aeranir. Outside of the nominative and accusative, they are as the following: | ||
* [[w:Vocative case|Vocative]]: | * [[w:Vocative case|Vocative]]: ''rēne iō!'': 'o king!' | ||
* [[w:Essive case|Essive]]: | * [[w:Essive case|Essive]]: ''seū rēnū'': 'as this king' | ||
* [[w:Instrumental case|Instrumental]]: | * [[w:Instrumental case|Instrumental]]: ''seōrun rēnerun'': 'using this king' | ||
* [[w:Genitive case|Genitive]]: | * [[w:Genitive case|Genitive]]: ''sī rēnis'': 'of this king' | ||
* [[w:Dative case|Dative]]: | * [[w:Dative case|Dative]]: ''seō rēnī'': 'to/for this king' | ||
* [[w:Ablative case|Ablative]]: | * [[w:Ablative case|Ablative]]: ''seā rēni'': 'from/by this king' | ||
* [[w:Locative case|Locative]]: | * [[w:Locative case|Locative]]: ''sīs rēnīs'': 'at/with the king' | ||
Sometimes the same endings, e.g. ''-ī'' and ''-ēs'', are used for more than one case. Since the function of a word in Aeranir is shown by ending rather than word order, in theory | Sometimes the same endings, e.g. ''-ī'' and ''-ēs'', are used for more than one case. Since the function of a word in Aeranir is shown by ending rather than word order, in theory ''requor rēnī'' could mean either 'I return to the king' or 'I return from the king.' In practice, however, such ambiguities are rare. | ||
==== Uses of the cases ==== | |||
===== Genitive ===== | |||
The use of the genitive case in subordinate clauses has changed throughout the history of Aeranir, and even within the span of time referred to as 'Golden Age Aeranir,' usage was shifting. In Classical and Golden Age Aeranir the genitive could be used with the active voice to mark the subject of the verb, whilst in the middle voice it marked the object. The later is similar to the use of the genitive as a partitive object in [[Classical Talothic|Talothic]]. Some believe this similarity to be the inherited from [[Proto-Maro-Ephenian]], whilst others claim that it is a case of parallel evolution or mutual influence. | |||
:{{interlinear|box=yes | |||
| tzilla artis auhita | |||
| cat-NOM.SG person-GEN.SG see-PFV.PTCP-C.NOM.SG | |||
| 'The cat the person saw'}} | |||
:{{interlinear|box=yes | |||
| ars tzillae auhitūnus | |||
| person-NOM.SG cat-GEN.SG see-PFV.PTCP-T.NOM.SG | |||
| 'The person who saw the cat'}} | |||
The use of genitive objects dwindled in later Golden Age and Late Aeranir, being replaced by the accusative case with the active voice, or the ablative case with the middle voice, as in independent clauses. However, it remained used to mark the subject of dependent clauses, and in Late Aeranir even began to replace the nominative case in independent ones. | |||
===== Ablative ===== | |||
* '''Ablative of motion''' implies movement away from or out of an object: | |||
:{{interlinear|box=yes | |||
| furuis pālā | |||
| fall-PFV-T.3SG tree-ABL.SG | |||
| 'They fell from the tree'}} | |||
* '''Agentive ablative''' marks the agent by whom the action of a passive verb in performed: | |||
:{{interlinear|box=yes | |||
| īcēlāre pannun Traetiā cnōtun | |||
| eat-PFV-PASS-E.3SG bread-NOM.SG Traetius-ABL.SG last-E.NOM.SG | |||
| 'The last of the bread was eaten by Traetius'}} | |||
===Declensions=== | ===Declensions=== | ||
Line 528: | Line 858: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan="3" colspan="2" | | ! rowspan="3" colspan="2" | | ||
! colspan="4" | ''{{term| | ! colspan="4" | ''{{term|pernus}}''<br>t. storm, chaos | ||
! colspan="4" | ''{{term|nātlun}}''<br>e. shell, carapace | ! colspan="4" | ''{{term|nātlun}}''<br>e. shell, carapace | ||
|- | |- | ||
Line 547: | Line 877: | ||
! rowspan="3" | Primary<br>'''''prīstūmus''''' | ! rowspan="3" | Primary<br>'''''prīstūmus''''' | ||
! scope="row" | Nominative | ! scope="row" | Nominative | ||
| '' | | ''pernus'' | ||
| '''''-us''''' | | '''''-us''''' | ||
| '' | | ''pernur'' | ||
| '''''-ur''''' | | '''''-ur''''' | ||
| rowspan="3" | ''nātlun'' | | rowspan="3" | ''nātlun'' | ||
Line 557: | Line 887: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! scope="row" | Accusative | ! scope="row" | Accusative | ||
| '' | | ''pernun'' | ||
| '''''-un''''' | | '''''-un''''' | ||
| '' | | ''pernī'' | ||
| '''''-ī''''' | | '''''-ī''''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! scope="row" | Vocative | ! scope="row" | Vocative | ||
| '' | | ''perne'' | ||
| '''''-e''''' | | '''''-e''''' | ||
| '' | | ''pernur'' | ||
| '''''-ur''''' | | '''''-ur''''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan="3" | Existential<br>'''''soniāmus''''' | ! rowspan="3" | Existential<br>'''''soniāmus''''' | ||
! scope="row" | Essive | ! scope="row" | Essive | ||
| '' | | ''pernū'' | ||
| '''''-ū''''' | | '''''-ū''''' | ||
| '' | | ''pernur'' | ||
| '''''-ur''''' | | '''''-ur''''' | ||
| ''nātlū'' | | ''nātlū'' | ||
Line 580: | Line 910: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! scope="row" | Instrumental | ! scope="row" | Instrumental | ||
| '' | | ''pernōrun'' | ||
| '''''-ōrun''''' | | '''''-ōrun''''' | ||
| '' | | ''pernōs'' | ||
| '''''-ōs''''' | | '''''-ōs''''' | ||
| ''nātlōrun'' | | ''nātlōrun'' | ||
Line 590: | Line 920: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! scope="row" | Genitive | ! scope="row" | Genitive | ||
| '' | | ''pernī'' | ||
| '''''-ī''''' | | '''''-ī''''' | ||
| '' | | ''pernōvus'' | ||
| '''''- | | '''''-ōvus''''' | ||
| ''nātlī'' | | ''nātlī'' | ||
| '''''-ī''''' | | '''''-ī''''' | ||
| '' | | ''nātlōvus'' | ||
| '''''- | | '''''-ōvus''''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan="3" | Directive<br>'''''satūmus''''' | ! rowspan="3" | Directive<br>'''''satūmus''''' | ||
! scope="row" | Dative | ! scope="row" | Dative | ||
| '' | | ''pernō'' | ||
| '''''-ō''''' | | '''''-ō''''' | ||
| '' | | ''pernōna'' | ||
| '''''-ōna''''' | | '''''-ōna''''' | ||
| ''nātlō'' | | ''nātlō'' | ||
Line 611: | Line 941: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! scope="row" | Ablative | ! scope="row" | Ablative | ||
| '' | | ''pernā'' | ||
| '''''-ā''''' | | '''''-ā''''' | ||
| '' | | ''pernōs'' | ||
| '''''-ōs''''' | | '''''-ōs''''' | ||
| ''nātlā'' | | ''nātlā'' | ||
Line 621: | Line 951: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! scope="row" | Locative | ! scope="row" | Locative | ||
| '' | | ''pernīs'' | ||
| '''''-īs''''' | | '''''-īs''''' | ||
| '' | | ''pernā'' | ||
| '''''-ā''''' | | '''''-ā''''' | ||
| ''nātlīs'' | | ''nātlīs'' | ||
Line 630: | Line 960: | ||
| '''''-ā''''' | | '''''-ā''''' | ||
|} | |} | ||
==Pronouns== | ==Pronouns== | ||
===Personal Pronouns=== | ===Personal Pronouns=== | ||
Line 659: | Line 990: | ||
! rowspan="3" | Primary<br>''prīstūmus'' | ! rowspan="3" | Primary<br>''prīstūmus'' | ||
! Nominative | ! Nominative | ||
| rowspan="2" | | | rowspan="2" | ''aecū'' | ||
| rowspan="7" | ''te'' | | rowspan="7" | ''te'' | ||
| rowspan="2" | | | rowspan="2" | ''eōs'' | ||
| rowspan="7" | ''ī'' | | rowspan="7" | ''ī'' | ||
| rowspan="2" | | | rowspan="2" | ''hanae'' | ||
| rowspan="7" | ''ne'' | | rowspan="7" | ''ne'' | ||
| rowspan="2" | | | rowspan="2" | ''rōs'' | ||
| rowspan="7" | ''er'' | | rowspan="7" | ''er'' | ||
| rowspan="3" | | | rowspan="3" | ''cē'' | ||
| rowspan="7" | ''ce'' | | rowspan="7" | ''ce'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
Line 673: | Line 1,004: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Accusative | ! Accusative | ||
| | | ''tē'' | ||
| | | ''eon'' | ||
| | | ''nē'' | ||
| | | ''ron'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan="2" | Existential<br>''soniāmus'' | ! rowspan="2" | Existential<br>''soniāmus'' | ||
! Essive | ! Essive | ||
| | | ''tōs'' | ||
| | | ''eor'' | ||
| | | ''nōs'' | ||
| | | ''rō'' | ||
| | | ''cū'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Genitive | ! Genitive | ||
| | | ''tī'' | ||
| | | ''īster'' | ||
| | | ''nī'' | ||
| | | ''rester'' | ||
| | | ''cī'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan="2" | Directive<br>''satūmus'' | ! rowspan="2" | Directive<br>''satūmus'' | ||
! Dative | ! Dative | ||
| ''''' | | ''tihī'' | ||
| ''''' | | ''īvīs'' | ||
| ''''' | | ''nivī'' | ||
| ''''' | | ''urvīs'' | ||
| ''''' | | ''civī'' | ||
|- | |||
! Ablative | |||
| ''tētē'' | |||
| ''eōvōs'' | |||
| ''nēnē'' | |||
| ''rōvōs'' | |||
| ''cēcē'' | |||
|} | |||
===Third person pronouns=== | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:autmargin:auto;" | |||
|+caption | Personal pronouns | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | | |||
! colspan="3" | Singular | |||
! colspan="3" | Plural | |||
|- | |||
! Temporary | |||
! Cyclical | |||
! Eternal | |||
! Temporary | |||
! Cyclical | |||
! Eternal | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="3" | Primary<br>''prīstūmus'' | |||
! Nominative | |||
| rowspan="2" | ''us'' | |||
| rowspan="2" | ''va'' | |||
| rowspan="3" | ''um'' | |||
| rowspan="2" | ''ur'' | |||
| rowspan="2" | ''var'' | |||
| rowspan="3" | ''ūns'' | |||
|- | |||
! Vocative | |||
|- | |||
! Accusative | |||
| ''um'' | |||
| ''vam'' | |||
| ''vī'' | |||
| ''vae'' | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="3" | Existential<br>''soniāmus'' | |||
! Essive | |||
| ''ū'' | |||
| ''vau'' | |||
| ''ū'' | |||
| ''ur'' | |||
| ''vur'' | |||
| ''ur'' | |||
|- | |||
! Instrumental | |||
| ''urun'' | |||
| ''vārun'' | |||
| ''urun'' | |||
| ''vēs'' | |||
| ''vōs'' | |||
| ''vēs'' | |||
|- | |||
! Genitive | |||
| ''vis'' | |||
| ''vae'' | |||
| ''vis'' | |||
| ''vus'' | |||
| ''vāvus'' | |||
| ''vus'' | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="3" | Directive<br>''satūmus'' | |||
! Dative | |||
| ''vī'' | |||
| ''vō'' | |||
| ''vī'' | |||
| ''vina'' | |||
| ''vāna'' | |||
| ''vina'' | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Ablative | ! Ablative | ||
| ''''' | | ''vit'' | ||
| ''''' | | ''vā'' | ||
| '''' | | ''vit'' | ||
| '''' | | ''vēs'' | ||
| '''' | | ''vās'' | ||
| ''vēs'' | |||
|- | |||
! Locative | |||
| ''vis'' | |||
| ''vīs'' | |||
| ''vis'' | |||
| ''vā'' | |||
| ''vā'' | |||
| ''vā'' | |||
|} | |} | ||
=== Demonstrative pronouns === | |||
Demonstratives underwent a great deal of change during the latest stages of Classical Aeranir, and much of the older forms were preserved in Golden Age Aeranir alongside their newer counterparts. The Classical Aeranir distal and medial demonstratives were formed from the third person pronoun ''us, va, un'' plus a suffix. This produced a variety of irregular forms, which were regularised in early Golden Age Aeranir. However, which stem was taken to become the new regular form varied between times, locations, and speakers. Generally, two stems were predominant for each demonstrative; with the medial varying between ''ust-'' and ''unt-'' and the distal between ''ūl-'' and ''ull-''. Eventually, the former of the two became more common, although the latter remained in marginal use, even into the Aeranid languages. | |||
<div style="overflow:auto"> | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:autmargin:auto;" | |||
|+caption | Old demonstrative pronouns | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="3" | | |||
! colspan="6" | '''''seus, sea, seun'''''<br>this, this one (proximal) | |||
! colspan="6" | '''''ustus, usta, untun'''''<br>that of yours (medial) | |||
! colspan="6" | '''''ūlus, ūla, ūllun'''''<br>that, that one (distal) | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="3" | Singular | |||
! colspan="3" | Plural | |||
! colspan="3" | Singular | |||
! colspan="3" | Plural | |||
! colspan="3" | Singular | |||
! colspan="3" | Plural | |||
|- | |||
! Temporary | |||
! Cyclical | |||
! Eternal | |||
! Temporary | |||
! Cyclical | |||
! Eternal | |||
! Temporary | |||
! Cyclical | |||
! Eternal | |||
! Temporary | |||
! Cyclical | |||
! Eternal | |||
! Temporary | |||
! Cyclical | |||
! Eternal | |||
! Temporary | |||
! Cyclical | |||
! Eternal | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! Nominative | |||
| ''seus'' | |||
| ''sea'' | |||
| rowspan="3" | ''seun'' | |||
| ''seur'' | |||
| ''sear'' | |||
| rowspan="3" | ''seunt'' | |||
| ''ustus'' | |||
| ''usta'' | |||
| rowspan="3" | ''untun'' | |||
| ''urtur'' | |||
| ''urtar'' | |||
| rowspan="3" | ''untunt'' | |||
| ''ūlus'' | |||
| ''ūla'' | |||
| rowspan="3" | ''ullun'' | |||
| ''ullur'' | |||
| ''ullar'' | |||
| rowspan="3" | ''ullunt'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! Accusative | |||
| ''seun'' | |||
| ''sean'' | |||
| ''sī'' | |||
| ''seae'' | |||
| ''untun'' | |||
| ''untan'' | |||
| ''vītī'' | |||
| ''vītae'' | |||
| ''ullun'' | |||
| ''ullan'' | |||
| ''vīlī'' | |||
| ''vīlae'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! Vocative | |||
| ''sē'' | |||
| ''sea'' | |||
| ''seur'' | |||
| ''sear'' | |||
| ''uste'' | |||
| ''usta'' | |||
| ''urtur'' | |||
| ''urtar'' | |||
| ''ūle'' | |||
| ''ūla'' | |||
| ''ullur'' | |||
| ''ullar'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! Essive | |||
| ''seū'' | |||
| ''seau'' | |||
| ''seū'' | |||
| colspan="3" | ''seur'' | |||
| ''ūtū'' | |||
| ''ūtau'' | |||
| ''ūtū'' | |||
| colspan="3" | ''urtur'' | |||
| ''ūlū'' | |||
| ''ūlau'' | |||
| ''ūlū'' | |||
| colspan="3" | ''ullur'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! Instrumental | |||
| ''seōrun'' | |||
| ''seārun'' | |||
| ''seōrun'' | |||
| colspan="3" | ''seōs'' | |||
| ''untōrun'' | |||
| ''untārun'' | |||
| ''untōrun'' | |||
| colspan="3" | ''vēstōs'' | |||
| ''ullōrun'' | |||
| ''ullārun'' | |||
| ''ullōrun'' | |||
| colspan="3" | ''vēlōs'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! Genitive | |||
| ''sī'' | |||
| ''seae'' | |||
| ''sī'' | |||
| ''seōvus'' | |||
| ''seāvus'' | |||
| ''seōvus'' | |||
| ''vistī'' | |||
| ''vistae'' | |||
| ''vistī'' | |||
| ''vustōvus'' | |||
| ''vustāvus'' | |||
| ''vustōvus'' | |||
| ''vīlī'' | |||
| ''vīlae'' | |||
| ''vīlī'' | |||
| ''vūlōvus'' | |||
| ''vūlāvus'' | |||
| ''vūlōvus'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! Dative | |||
| colspan="3" | ''seō'' | |||
| ''seōna'' | |||
| ''seāna'' | |||
| ''seōna'' | |||
| colspan="3" | ''vītō'' | |||
| ''vintōna'' | |||
| ''vintāna'' | |||
| ''vintōna'' | |||
| colspan="3" | ''vīlō'' | |||
| ''villōna'' | |||
| ''villāna'' | |||
| ''villōna'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! Ablative | |||
| colspan="3" | ''seā'' | |||
| ''seōs'' | |||
| ''seās'' | |||
| ''seōs'' | |||
| colspan="3" | ''vistā'' | |||
| ''vēstōs'' | |||
| ''vēstās'' | |||
| ''vēstōs'' | |||
| colspan="3" | ''vīlā'' | |||
| ''vēlōs'' | |||
| ''vēlās'' | |||
| ''vēlōs'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! Locative | |||
| colspan="3" | ''sīs'' | |||
| colspan="3" | ''seā'' | |||
| colspan="3" | ''vistīs'' | |||
| colspan="3" | ''vātā'' | |||
| colspan="3" | ''vīlīs'' | |||
| colspan="3" | ''vālā'' | |||
|} | |||
</div> | |||
Even after the new regular demonstratives had been widely adopted, the old ones continued to be used for stylistic purposes, and where considered more proper for official writing, speech, and communication. | |||
In Classical Aeranir, demonstratives could stand for a person or thing, but also a place—there was no distinction between 'this' and 'here.' However, in Golden Age Aeranir, another one of the old stems was generalised to create dedicated locative pronouns '''''vistus, vista, vistun''''' 'there (near you),' and '''''vīlus, vīla, vīlun''''' 'there (far away).' By analogy, the proximal locative demonstrative '''''viseus, visea, viseun''''' 'here' was also created. These were used along side the regular demonstratives to express location. | |||
===Possessive pronouns=== | ===Possessive pronouns=== | ||
Possessive pronouns in Aeranir distinguish between many more different types of possession than ordinary nouns, which use only the genitive to mark possession, ownership, association, etc. Pronouns distinguish both alienable and inalienable possession | Possessive pronouns in Aeranir distinguish between many more different types of possession than ordinary nouns, which use only the genitive to mark possession, ownership, association, etc. Pronouns distinguish both alienable and inalienable possession. | ||
{| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;" | {| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;" | ||
Line 737: | Line 1,325: | ||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
! inalienable | ! inalienable | ||
| ''tī''<br>'' | | ''tī''<br>''te'' | ||
| ''īster'' | | ''īster'' | ||
| ''nī''<br>'' | | ''nī''<br>''ne'' | ||
| ''rester'' | | ''rester'' | ||
| ''sī''<br>'' | | ''sī''<br>''se'' | ||
| '' | | ''seōvus'' | ||
| ''ūlī'' | | ''ūlī'' | ||
| '' | | ''ūlōvus'' | ||
| ''ustī'' | | ''ustī'' | ||
| '' | | ''ustōvus'' | ||
| ''cī''<br>'' | | ''cī''<br>''ce'' | ||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
! alienable | ! alienable | ||
Line 754: | Line 1,342: | ||
| ''nuius'' | | ''nuius'' | ||
| ''ruius'' | | ''ruius'' | ||
| | | colspan="2" | ''seius'' | ||
| '' | | colspan="2" | ''ūleius'' | ||
| | | colspan="2" | ''usteius'' | ||
| '' | |||
| | |||
| '' | |||
| ''cuius'' | | ''cuius'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
Objects of inalienable possession are marked with the genitive of a personal or demonstrative pronoun. These include body parts, kinship and familiarity terms, personal attributes, emotions, or thoughts. These pronouns generally proceed the possessee, although that is not always the case, especially in poety. Singular pronouns ''tī'', ''nī'', ''cī'', ''sī'', ''ustī'', and ''ūlī'' may be appear as ''tei'', ''nei'', ''cei'', ''sei'', ''usti'', ''ūli'' before words starting with a vowel, and ''te'', ''ne'', ''ce'', ''se'', ''ust'', ''ūl'' before words starting with ''i''. | Objects of inalienable possession are marked with the genitive of a personal or demonstrative pronoun. These include body parts, kinship and familiarity terms, personal attributes, emotions, or thoughts. These pronouns generally proceed the possessee, although that is not always the case, especially in poety. Singular pronouns ''tī'', ''nī'', ''cī'', ''sī'', ''ustī'', and ''ūlī'' may be appear as ''tei'', ''nei'', ''cei'', ''sei'', ''usti'', ''ūli'' before words starting with a vowel, and ''te'', ''ne'', ''ce'', ''se'', ''ust'', ''ūl'' before words starting with ''i''. | ||
{{interlinear| | :{{interlinear | box=yes | ||
| | | se incus | ||
| | | this-T.GEN.SG head-NOM.SG | ||
|'this one's head'}} | |'this one's head'}} | ||
Alienable possession, including essentially all other categories, is marked via possessive adjectives. These adjective may appear either before or after the possessee, but usually come afterwards. Oftentimes, the different use of alienable/inalienable pronouns may hint at a difference in meaning. The word '''''indus''''', for example, may mean 'head,' but also 'capital' or 'leader.' With inalienable pronouns, however, it always means 'head,' versus with alienable pronouns, it means 'capital,' or 'leader' because while a head is inalienable, a capital or leader is not. However, this might not always be the case, depending on the possessor and context. | Alienable possession, including essentially all other categories, is marked via possessive adjectives. These adjective may appear either before or after the possessee, but usually come afterwards. Oftentimes, the different use of alienable/inalienable pronouns may hint at a difference in meaning. The word '''''indus''''', for example, may mean 'head,' but also 'capital' or 'leader.' With inalienable pronouns, however, it always means 'head,' versus with alienable pronouns, it means 'capital,' or 'leader' because while a head is inalienable, a capital or leader is not. However, this might not always be the case, depending on the possessor and context. | ||
{{interlinear| | :{{interlinear | box=yes | ||
| ēs incus telūhramir tuius | |||
| COP.3SG.T head -NOM.SG mesa -ESS.SG = | | COP.3SG.T head-NOM.SG mesa-ESS.SG<nowiki>=</nowiki>hram-GEN.PL mine-T.NOM.SG | ||
|'My capital is | |'My capital is Telhramir'}} | ||
{{interlinear| | :{{interlinear | box=yes | ||
| ēs ūlae (tlānae aerānihae) incus telūrhamir | |||
| COP.3SG.T that_one's-C.GEN.SG (flower-GEN.SG Aeranid-C.GEN.SG) head-NOM.SG mesa-ESS.SG=rham-GEN.PL | | COP.3SG.T that_one's-C.GEN.SG (flower-GEN.SG Aeranid-C.GEN.SG) head-NOM.SG mesa-ESS.SG<nowiki>=</nowiki>rham-GEN.PL | ||
|' | |'Its (the Aeranid Empire's) capital is Telrhamir'}} | ||
==Adverbs== | |||
Adverbs in Aeranir are used to modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs indicating time, manner, or place. | |||
Most adjectives are formed from nouns or adjectives, although they can be derived from some verbs, especially stative verbs. There are a variety of different formulation strategies, depending on the class of the noun/adjective/verb. | |||
*''formus'' ("warm" 1st-2nd declension adjective) → '''''formē''''' ("warmly") | |||
*''aerās'' ("an Aeran" 3rd declension noun) → '''''aerāne''''' ("like an Aeran") | |||
*''raelis'' ("a child" 3rd declension i-stem noun) → '''''raeliter''''' ("like a child") | |||
*''vȳlēs'' ("three days from now" 4th declension noun) → '''''vȳlē''''' ("every three days") | |||
*''sacus'' ("a pin" 5th declension noun) → '''''saciter''''' ("sharply, like a pin") | |||
One of the most notable uses of the adverbial form is with verbs like ''ficitz'' ("it makes me"), ''fitz'' ("I become"), and ''caitz'' ("I change into"). Adverbs can be used to denote the result of a change of state in such a clause. | |||
:{{interlinear | box=yes | |||
| fīx prīstus pāliōne Boezymiae | |||
| make.PFV-3SG.T first-NOM.SG provincial_governor-ADV Boezymia-GEN.SG | |||
|'The First Senator made them provincial governor of Boezymia'}} | |||
:{{interlinear | box=yes | |||
| sa Īliō qūria tzillē cainnī | |||
| COP-3SG.C Ilius-DAT.SG power-NOM.SG cat-ADV change_form-GER-GEN | |||
|'Ilius has the power to turn into a cat'}} | |||
==Verbs== | ==Verbs== | ||
Line 816: | Line 1,393: | ||
'''P''' represents the [[w:Patient (grammar)|patient]] of a [[w:Transitive verb|transitive verb]], or the person or thing towhich the verb is done, also called the '''direct object''', such as ‘the book’ in ‘the child reads the book.’ '''T''' represents the '''theme''', or the object that is given to someone or something, such as ‘the milk’ in ‘the senator gave the cat some milk.’ These two roles make up the '''accusative argument''', which is marked with the [[w:Accusative case|accusative case]]. Finally, '''R''' represents the '''recipient''', or the person who recieves the theme from the donor, or benefits from the donor's action, with a [[w:Ditransitive verb|ditransitive verb]], also commonly called the '''indirect object''', such as 'the cat' in 'the senator gave the cate some milk.' | '''P''' represents the [[w:Patient (grammar)|patient]] of a [[w:Transitive verb|transitive verb]], or the person or thing towhich the verb is done, also called the '''direct object''', such as ‘the book’ in ‘the child reads the book.’ '''T''' represents the '''theme''', or the object that is given to someone or something, such as ‘the milk’ in ‘the senator gave the cat some milk.’ These two roles make up the '''accusative argument''', which is marked with the [[w:Accusative case|accusative case]]. Finally, '''R''' represents the '''recipient''', or the person who recieves the theme from the donor, or benefits from the donor's action, with a [[w:Ditransitive verb|ditransitive verb]], also commonly called the '''indirect object''', such as 'the cat' in 'the senator gave the cate some milk.' | ||
Aeranir verbs conjugate their endings to agree with the most oblique argument in a clause. That means the '''subject''' of an '''intransitive verb''' (e.g. ''''' | Aeranir verbs conjugate their endings to agree with the most oblique argument in a clause. That means the '''subject''' of an '''intransitive verb''' (e.g. '''''claut<u>itz</u>'''''; '<u>I</u> laugh'), the '''patient''' of a '''transitive verb''' (e.g. '''''auh<u>en</u>te'''''; 'I look at <u>you</u>'), or the '''recipient''' of a '''ditransitive verb''' (e.g. '''''tzav<u>ī</u>'r salvae'''''; 'you all gave <u>me</u> the books'). | ||
:{{interlinear | box=yes | |||
| mollī cōmus | |||
| leak-<u>3SG.E</u> <u>house</u>-NOM.SG | |||
|'The house is leaking'}} | |||
:{{interlinear | box=yes | |||
| requis te coptin nuiun | |||
| return-<u>3SG.C</u> <nowiki>=</nowiki>1SG <u>hat</u>-ACC.SG 2SG.POS.PRO-T.ACC.SG | |||
|'I'm giving back your hat'}} | |||
:{{interlinear | box=yes | |||
| imptās ne mu sōlī nomī Sētīlī | |||
| send-POT.<u>3SG.T</u> <nowiki>=</nowiki>2SG <nowiki>=</nowiki>INTERR clothing-ACC.PL new-IPFV.PTCP-T.ACC.SG <u>Setil</u>-DAT.SG | |||
|'Can you send Setil the new clothes?'}} | |||
It should be noted that a verb in the [[w:Active voice|active voice]] must always have the maximum number of arguments according to its inherent transitivity. This means, for example, that one can never say 'John eats.' Because 'to eat' is transitive, there must be a patient, or direct object, e.g. 'John eats food.' However, there are a number of valancy dropping operations available in Aeranir to allow various arguments to be dropped, which are discussed in the section on [[w:Voice (grammar)|voice]]. | |||
Additional arguments can be expressed with [[w:Clitic|pronominal clitics]] attached to the end of a verb in independant clauses and to the beginning in dependant ones (e.g.''''' | Additional arguments can be expressed with [[w:Clitic|pronominal clitics]] attached to the end of a verb in independant clauses and to the beginning in dependant ones (e.g.'''''auhen<u>te</u>'''''; '<u>I</u> look at you,' '''''tzāvī<u>'r</u> salvae'''''; '<u>you all</u> gave me the books'), however these are not considered part of a verbs conjugation, and are optional, especially if the information can be assumed or is known between speakers. | ||
====Number of Conjugations==== | ====Number of Conjugations==== | ||
Line 839: | Line 1,433: | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Active | ! Active | ||
| ''' | | '''aehatz'''<br>They love me | ||
| ''' | | '''aehet'''<br>They should love me | ||
| ''' | | '''aehārit'''<br>They want to love me | ||
| ''' | | '''aehātatz'''<br>They can love me | ||
| ''' | | '''aehāvī'''<br>They loved me | ||
| ''' | | '''aehēvī'''<br>They should have loved me | ||
| ''' | | '''aehāruī'''<br>They wanted to love me | ||
| ''' | | '''aehātāvī'''<br>They could have loved me | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Middle | ! Middle | ||
| ''' | | '''aehor'''<br>I love | ||
| ''' | | '''aeheō'''<br>I should love | ||
| ''' | | '''aehārō'''<br>I want to love | ||
| ''' | | '''aehātor'''<br>I can love | ||
| ''' | | '''aehāvō'''<br>I loved | ||
| ''' | | '''aehēvō'''<br>I should have loved | ||
| ''' | | '''aehāruō'''<br>I wanted to love | ||
| ''' | | '''aehātāvō'''<br>I could have loved | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Passive | ! Passive | ||
| ''' | | '''aehālō'''<br>I am loved | ||
| ''' | | '''aehēlō'''<br>I should be loved | ||
| ''' | | '''aehārēlō'''<br>I want to be loved | ||
| ''' | | '''aehātālō'''<br>I can be loved | ||
| ''' | | '''aehāvēlō'''<br>I was loved | ||
| ''' | | '''aehēvēlō'''<br>I should have been loved | ||
| ''' | | '''aehāruēlō'''<br>I wanted to be loved | ||
| ''' | | '''aehātāvēlō'''<br>I could have been loved | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Causative | ! Causative | ||
| ''' | | '''aehātitz'''<br>They let me love them | ||
| ''' | | '''aehātiat'''<br>They should let me love them | ||
| ''' | | '''aehātīrit'''<br>They want to let me love them | ||
| ''' | | '''aehāssītatz'''<br>They can let me love them | ||
| ''' | | '''aehātīvī'''<br>They have let me love them | ||
| ''' | | '''aehātiāvī'''<br>They should have let me love them | ||
| ''' | | '''aehātīruī'''<br>They wanted to let me love them | ||
| ''' | | '''aehāssītāvī'''<br>They could have let me love them | ||
|} | |} | ||
==== Conjugation formation ==== | |||
<div class="toccolours mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width:100%; overflow:auto;"> | |||
<div style="font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;"> Conjugation formation </div> | |||
<div class="mw-collapsible-content"> | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:autmargin:auto;" | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | {{gcl|IPFV|}} | |||
! colspan ="2" | A-grade | |||
! colspan="2" | I-grade | |||
! colspan="2" | E-grade | |||
! colspan ="2" | Null-grade | |||
|- | |||
! ''strong'' | |||
! ''weak'' | |||
! ''strong'' | |||
! ''weak'' | |||
! ''strong'' | |||
! ''weak'' | |||
! ''strong'' | |||
! ''weak'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! rowspan="4" | {{gcl|ACT|}} | |||
! {{gcl|IND|}} | |||
| colspan="2" | ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ā-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| colspan="2" | ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ī-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| colspan="2" | ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ē-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| colspan="2" | ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! {{gcl|SUBJ|}} | |||
| colspan="2" | ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ē-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| colspan="2" | ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-iā-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| colspan="2" | ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-eā-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| colspan="2" | ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ē-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! {{gcl|DES|}} | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-s-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ār-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-s-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-er/īr-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-s-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-er/īr-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-s-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-er-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! {{gcl|POT|}} | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tā-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ātā-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tā-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itā/ītā-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tā-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itā/ītā-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tā-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itā-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! rowspan="4" | {{gcl|MID|}} | |||
! {{gcl|IND|}} | |||
| colspan="2" | ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ā-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| colspan="2" | ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ī-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| colspan="2" | ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ē-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| colspan="2" | ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! {{gcl|SUBJ|}} | |||
| colspan="2" | ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ē-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| colspan="2" | ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-iā-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| colspan="2" | ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-eā-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| colspan="2" | ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ē-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! {{gcl|DES|}} | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-s-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ār-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-s-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-er/īr-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-s-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-er/īr-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-s-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-er-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! {{gcl|POT|}} | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tā-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ātā-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tā-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itā/ītā-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tā-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itā/ītā-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tā-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itā-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! rowspan="4" | {{gcl|PAS|}} | |||
! {{gcl|IND|}} | |||
| colspan="2" | ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ā-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| colspan="2" | ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ī-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| colspan="2" | ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ē-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| colspan="2" | ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! {{gcl|SUBJ|}} | |||
| colspan="2" | ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ē-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| colspan="2" | ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-iā-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| colspan="2" | ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-eā-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| colspan="2" | ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ā-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! {{gcl|DES|}} | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-s-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ār-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-s-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-er/īr-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-s-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-er/īr-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-s-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-er-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! {{gcl|POT|}} | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tā-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ātā-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tā-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itā/ītā-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tā-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itā/ītā-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tā-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itā-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! rowspan="4" | {{gcl|CAUS|}} | |||
! {{gcl|IND|}} | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tī-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ātī-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tī-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itī/ītī-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tī-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itī/ītī-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tī-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itī-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! {{gcl|SUBJ|}} | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tiā-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ātiā-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tiā-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itiā/ītiā-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tiā-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itiā/itiā-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tiā-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itiā-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! {{gcl|DES|}} | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tier-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ātier-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tier-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itier/ītier-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tier-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itier/ītier-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tier-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itier-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! {{gcl|POT|}} | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-sītā-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-āsītā-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-sītā-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-issītā/īsītā-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-sītā-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-issītā/īsītā-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-sītā-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-issītā-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | {{gcl|PFV|}} | |||
! colspan ="2" | A-grade | |||
! colspan="2" | I-grade | |||
! colspan="2" | E-grade | |||
! colspan ="2" | Null-grade | |||
|- | |||
! ''strong'' | |||
! ''weak'' | |||
! ''strong'' | |||
! ''weak'' | |||
! ''strong'' | |||
! ''weak'' | |||
! ''strong'' | |||
! ''weak'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! rowspan="4" | {{gcl|ACT|}} | |||
! {{gcl|IND|}} | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-u/āv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-u/īv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-u/ēv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-u-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! {{gcl|SUBJ|}} | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ē-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-uē/ēv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ē-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|IPFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-uē/iāv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ē-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-uē/eāv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ē-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-uē-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! {{gcl|DES|}} | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-su-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-āru-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-su-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-eru/īru-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-s-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-eru/īru-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-su-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-eru-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! {{gcl|POT|}} | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tāv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ātāv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tāv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itāv/ītāv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tāv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itāv/ītāv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tāv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itāv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! rowspan="4" | {{gcl|MID|}} | |||
! {{gcl|IND|}} | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-u/āv-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-u/īv-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-u/ēv-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-u-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! {{gcl|SUBJ|}} | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ē-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-uē/ēv-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ē-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-uē/iā-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ē-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-uē/eā-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ē-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-uē-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! {{gcl|DES|}} | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-su-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-āru-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-su-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-eru/īru-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-su-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-eru/īru-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-su-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-eru-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! {{gcl|POT|}} | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tāv-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ātāv-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tāv-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itāv/ītāv-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tāv-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itāv/ītāv-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tāv-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itāv-{{gcl|MID|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! rowspan="4" | {{gcl|PAS|}} | |||
! {{gcl|IND|}} | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-u/āv-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-u/īv-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-u/ēv-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-u-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! {{gcl|SUBJ|}} | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-uē/ēv-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-uē/iāv-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-uē/eā-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-uē-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! {{gcl|DES|}} | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-su-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-āru-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-su-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-eru/īru-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-su-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-eru/īru-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-su-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-eru-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! {{gcl|POT|}} | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tāv-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ātāv-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tāv-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itāv/ītāv-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tāv-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itāv/ītāv-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tāv-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itāv-{{gcl|PAS|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! rowspan="4" | {{gcl|CAUS|}} | |||
! {{gcl|IND|}} | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tīv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ātīv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tīv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itīv/ītīv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tīv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itīv/ītīv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tīv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itīv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! {{gcl|SUBJ|}} | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tiāv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ātiāv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tiāv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itiāv/ītiāv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tiāv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itiāv/itiāv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tiāv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itiāv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! {{gcl|DES|}} | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tieru-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-ātieru-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tieru-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itieru/ītieru-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tieru-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itieru/ītieru-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-tieru-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-itieru-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! {{gcl|POT|}} | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-sītāv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-āsītāv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-sītāv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-issītāv/īsītāv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-sītāv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-issītāv/īsītāv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-sītāv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
| ''{{gcl|ROOT|root}}-issītāv-{{gcl|ACT|}}.{{gcl|PFV|}}'' | |||
|} | |||
</div></div> | |||
====Principle Parts==== | ====Principle Parts==== | ||
The verb in Aeranir is primarily made of three parts: '''root''', '''theme''', and '''ending''', with an optional forth category, the '''suffix''', for forming the perfective. The root and theme combine to form the '''stem'''. The root carries the semantic content of the word, and can also be conjugated to carry modal imformation. The theme describes how the stem interacts with the ending, and can also be changed, along with the stem and endings, to express a variety of different grammatical meanings. Endings indicate the voice, aspect, person, number, and gender of the most oblique argument in the DGA scheme. | |||
{| class="wikitable | {| class="wikitable" style="margin:autmargin:auto;" | ||
|+caption | Basic verb endings | |+caption | Basic verb endings | ||
|- | |- | ||
Line 898: | Line 1,835: | ||
! rowspan="5" | Singular | ! rowspan="5" | Singular | ||
! colspan="2" | 1st Person | ! colspan="2" | 1st Person | ||
| ''- | | ''-itz/-it'' | ||
| ''-ī'' | | ''-ī'' | ||
| ''-or/-ō'' | | ''-or/-ō'' | ||
Line 909: | Line 1,846: | ||
| ''-in'' | | ''-in'' | ||
| ''-istī'' | | ''-istī'' | ||
| ''- | | ''-ist'' | ||
| ''-ēlāstī'' | | ''-ēlāstī'' | ||
| ''- | | ''-ēlast'' | ||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
! rowspan="3" | 3rd Person | ! rowspan="3" | 3rd Person | ||
Line 925: | Line 1,862: | ||
| ''-a'' | | ''-a'' | ||
| ''-a'' | | ''-a'' | ||
| ''- | | ''-era'' | ||
| ''- | | ''-ēlāra'' | ||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
! <small> ''eternal'' <small> | ! <small> ''eternal'' <small> | ||
Line 946: | Line 1,883: | ||
| ''-itis'' | | ''-itis'' | ||
| ''-ite'' | | ''-ite'' | ||
| ''-itur'' | |||
| ''-itur'' | |||
| ''-ēlātur'' | |||
| ''-ēlāte'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |- style="text-align:center;" | ||
! colspan="2" | 3rd Person | ! colspan="2" | 3rd Person | ||
| ''- | | ''-intz/-int'' | ||
| ''- | | ''-int'' | ||
| ''-intur'' | |||
| ''-intur'' | |||
| ''-ēlantur'' | |||
| ''-ēlante'' | |||
|} | |} | ||
The way in which a verb will conjugate can be determined from how it forms the following five constructions: | The way in which a verb will conjugate can be determined from how it forms the following five constructions: | ||
Line 973: | Line 1,914: | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''-m-'' | | ''-m-'' | ||
| → '''''- | | → '''''-mpt-''''' | ||
| rowspan="3" | → '''''-s-*''''' | | rowspan="3" | → '''''-s-*''''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
Line 980: | Line 1,921: | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''-ñ-'' | | ''-ñ-'' | ||
| → '''''- | | → '''''-ñct-''''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''-p-'' | | ''-p-'' | ||
| → '''''- | | → '''''-pt-''''' | ||
| → '''''- | | → '''''-ps-''''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''-t-'' | | ''-t-'' | ||
Line 992: | Line 1,933: | ||
| ''-tl-'' | | ''-tl-'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''- | | ''-tz-'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''-c-'' | | ''-c-'' | ||
| rowspan="2" | → '''''- | | rowspan="2" | → '''''-ct-''''' | ||
| rowspan="2" | → '''''-x-''''' | | rowspan="2" | → '''''-x-''''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
Line 1,002: | Line 1,943: | ||
| ''-q-'' | | ''-q-'' | ||
| rowspan="2" | → '''''-qt-''''' | | rowspan="2" | → '''''-qt-''''' | ||
| rowspan="2" | → '''''- | | rowspan="2" | → '''''-qs-''''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''-qu-'' | | ''-qu-'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''-s-'' | | ''-s-'' | ||
Line 1,032: | Line 1,961: | ||
| ''-v-'' | | ''-v-'' | ||
| → '''''-ut-'''''‡<br>→ '''''-ct-'''''*††<br>→ '''''-qt-'''''*†† | | → '''''-ut-'''''‡<br>→ '''''-ct-'''''*††<br>→ '''''-qt-'''''*†† | ||
| → '''''-ur-'''''‡<br>→ '''''-x-'''''*††<br>→ '''''- | | → '''''-ur-'''''‡<br>→ '''''-x-'''''*††<br>→ '''''-qs-'''''*†† | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''-i-'' | | ''-i-'' | ||
| rowspan="2" | → '''''-ct-'''''*<br>→ '''''-qt-'''''*†† | | rowspan="2" | → '''''-ct-'''''*<br>→ '''''-qt-'''''*†† | ||
| rowspan="2" | → '''''-x-'''''*<br>→ '''''- | | rowspan="2" | → '''''-x-'''''*<br>→ '''''-qs-'''''*†† | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''- | | ''-h-'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''-V-'' | | ''-V-'' | ||
Line 1,055: | Line 1,984: | ||
! ''-ī-'' | ! ''-ī-'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! ''- | ! ''-itz'' | ||
| → ''- | | → ''-atz'' | ||
| → ''- | | → ''-etz'' | ||
| → ''- | | → ''-itz'' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! ''-is'' | ! ''-is'' | ||
Line 1,090: | Line 2,019: | ||
| → ''-iēlō'' | | → ''-iēlō'' | ||
|} | |} | ||
The second two determine a | The second two determine a verb's '''t-stem''' and '''s-stem'''. These stem alterations are used for further conjugation, the t-stem forming the ''active'' and ''middle perfective participles'', the ''causative voice'', and the ''potential mood'', and the s-stem forming the ''desiderative''. The t- and s-forms often are identical, however meaning is useally further differentiated by thematic vowels, so completely identical forms are rare. | ||
The final form determines how a verb with form the perfective aspect. Generally, there are three main strategies for this: the application of suffix '''''-u-''''' directly after the stem (e.g. '''''{{term| | The final form determines how a verb with form the perfective aspect. Generally, there are three main strategies for this: the application of suffix '''''-u-''''' directly after the stem (e.g. '''''{{term|oelitz}}''''' ("I work") → '''''oeluī''''' ("I worked")), the appication of the suffix '''''-v-''''' after a theme vowel (e.g. '''''{{term|aehatz}}''''' ("they love me") → '''''aehāvī''''' ("they loved me")), or no suffix, with lengthening of the root vowel (e.g. '''''{{term|lecitz}}''''' ("I choose") → '''''lēcī''''' ("I chose")). It should be noted that the perfective is always followed by weak endings. | ||
Occassionally, a thematic vowel, weak or strong, may be inserted before the t- or s-stem. This is most common in verbs with a base thematic ''-ā-'', which often functions as a part of the stem (e.g. ''''' | Occassionally, a thematic vowel, weak or strong, may be inserted before the t- or s-stem. This is most common in verbs with a base thematic ''-ā-'', which often functions as a part of the stem (e.g. '''''aehatz''''' → '''''aehātus''''' ("that loved") '''''aehārit''''' ("they want to love me") vs. '''''{{term|mavatz}}''''' ("I wander") → '''''mautus''''' ("that wandered") '''''maurit''''' ("I want to wander)). This may occur with other theme classes, although it should be noted that ''-ē-'' is never used, and is always replaced with ''-ī-''. | ||
===Aspect=== | ===Aspect=== | ||
Line 1,106: | Line 2,035: | ||
There are a variety of different strategies to form the perfective. Many of them involve the ''suffix'', which takes the form of ''-v-'' between vowels and ''-u-'' after consonants. All of them take the perfective endings. | There are a variety of different strategies to form the perfective. Many of them involve the ''suffix'', which takes the form of ''-v-'' between vowels and ''-u-'' after consonants. All of them take the perfective endings. | ||
:*Attachment of the suffix directly to the stem. | :*Attachment of the suffix directly to the stem. | ||
:::'''''{{term| | :::'''''{{term|mentitz}}''''' ("they are healing me") → '''''mentuī''''' ("they healed me") | ||
:::'''''{{term| | :::'''''{{term|saepitz}}''''' ("they are cutting me") → '''''saepuī''''' ("they cut me") | ||
:*Attachment of the suffix after base thematic vowel. | :*Attachment of the suffix after base thematic vowel. | ||
:::'''''{{term| | :::'''''{{term|sircuitz}}''''' ("they are speaking me") → '''''sircīvī''''' ("they spoke me") | ||
:::'''''{{term| | :::'''''{{term|auhetz}}''''' ("they are looking at me") → '''''auhēvī''''' ("they looked at me") | ||
:*No suffix; perfective endings attached directly to the stem, with root vowel lengthening. | :*No suffix; perfective endings attached directly to the stem, with root vowel lengthening. | ||
:::'''''{{term| | :::'''''{{term|iuvatz}}''''' ("they are writing me") → '''''iūvī''''' ("they wrote me") | ||
:::'''''{{term| | :::'''''{{term|vehitz}}''''' ("they are carrying me") → '''''vēhī''''' ("they carried me") | ||
===Mood=== | ===Mood=== | ||
Line 1,130: | Line 2,059: | ||
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | Weak Verbs | ! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | Weak Verbs | ||
| ''-ø-'' → '''''-ē-''''' | | ''-ø-'' → '''''-ē-''''' | ||
| '' | | ''meñitz'' → '''''meñet''''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''-ē-'' → '''''-ā-''''' | | ''-ē-'' → '''''-ā-''''' | ||
| '' | | ''meñēlō'' → '''''meñālō''''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan="4" | Strong<br>Verbs | ! rowspan="4" | Strong<br>Verbs | ||
! <small> a-stem <small> | ! <small> a-stem <small> | ||
| ''-ā-'' → '''''-ē-''''' | | ''-ā-'' → '''''-ē-''''' | ||
| '' | | ''aehatz'' → '''''aehet'''''<br>''aehālō'' → '''''aehēlō''''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan="2" | <small> i-stem <small> | ! rowspan="2" | <small> i-stem <small> | ||
| ''-ī-'' → '''''-iā-''''' | | ''-ī-'' → '''''-iā-''''' | ||
| '' | | ''sēpitz'' → '''''sēpiat''''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
| ''-iē-'' → '''''-iā-''''' | | ''-iē-'' → '''''-iā-''''' | ||
| '' | | ''sēpiēlō'' → '''''sēpiālō''''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
! <small> e-stem <small> | ! <small> e-stem <small> | ||
| ''-ē-'' → '''''-eā-''''' | | ''-ē-'' → '''''-eā-''''' | ||
| '' | | ''cōretz'' → '''''cōreat'''''<br>''cōrēlō'' → '''''cōreālō''''' | ||
|} | |} | ||
=====Forming the subjunctive===== | =====Forming the subjunctive===== | ||
The subjunctive is formed by shifting a verb's base theme vowel, as described by the table to the left. This shift happens after the stem, but may be either before or after the suffix, depending on whether or not there is a theme vowel before the suffix in the indicative. So the perfective of ''''' | The subjunctive is formed by shifting a verb's base theme vowel, as described by the table to the left. This shift happens after the stem, but may be either before or after the suffix, depending on whether or not there is a theme vowel before the suffix in the indicative. So the perfective of '''''aehēs''''' ("they should love it") is '''''aehēvis''''' (from indicative '''''aehāvis''''') but '''''sēpiās''''' ("they should cut it") is '''''sēpuēs''''' (from indicative '''''sēpuis'''''), not **''aehāvēs'' or **''sēpēvis''. Although these forms are occasionally found in non-standard writing, they are considered incorrect my grammaticians. | ||
The imperfective subjunctive uses the 1st person sungular ''-it'' instead of ''- | The imperfective subjunctive uses the 1st person sungular ''-it'' instead of ''-itz'', and ''-ō'' instead of ''-or'': '''''{{term|pacitz}}''''', '''''pacior''''' ("they take me, I take") become '''''paciat''''', '''''paciō''''' ("they should take me, I should take"). | ||
The 1st person subjunctive perfective in verbs that have no theme vowel before the suffix and does not extend the root vowel is identical to the indicative, and the mood must be inferred through conext: '''''saepuī''''' may be either "they cut me" or "They should cut me." The 3rd person active cyclical singulars in verbs with base theme vowels ''-ī-'' and ''-ē-'' are also identical, e.g. both '''''pacia''''' ("they take it/they should take it"), ''''' | The 1st person subjunctive perfective in verbs that have no theme vowel before the suffix and does not extend the root vowel is identical to the indicative, and the mood must be inferred through conext: '''''saepuī''''' may be either "they cut me" or "They should cut me." The 3rd person active cyclical singulars in verbs with base theme vowels ''-ī-'' and ''-ē-'' are also identical, e.g. both '''''pacia''''' ("they take it/they should take it"), '''''auhea''''' ("they see it/they should see it"). | ||
=====Uses of the subjunctive===== | =====Uses of the subjunctive===== | ||
Line 1,163: | Line 2,092: | ||
One use of the subjunctive is the '''speculative subjunction''', used when the speaker imagines what potentially may, might, would, or could happen in the present or future or might have happened in the past. Negation for this type uses '''''{{term|mū}}'''''. | One use of the subjunctive is the '''speculative subjunction''', used when the speaker imagines what potentially may, might, would, or could happen in the present or future or might have happened in the past. Negation for this type uses '''''{{term|mū}}'''''. | ||
{{interlinear| | :{{interlinear | box=yes | ||
| auheārur seun oeliun stērē | |||
| see - | | see-MID.SUBJ.3SG.E this-E.NOM.SG job-NOM.SG hard-ADV | ||
|'This job seems difficult | |'This job ''seems'' difficult'}} | ||
{{interlinear| | :{{interlinear | box=yes | ||
| moeiea Osculan tzānū salva | |||
| please - | | please-SUBJ.3SG.C Little.Oscus-ACC.SG gift-ESS.SG book-NOM.SG | ||
|'Little Oscus may like a book as a gift | |'Little Oscus ''may'' like a book as a gift'}} | ||
The subjunctive may also be used as the '''optative subjunctive''', expressing what the speaker wishes may happen, or wishes had happened. These expresses a weaker or more generalised desire, as opposed to the desiderative mood. Negation for this type uses '''''{{term|mū}}'''''. | The subjunctive may also be used as the '''optative subjunctive''', expressing what the speaker wishes may happen, or wishes had happened. These expresses a weaker or more generalised desire, as opposed to the desiderative mood. Negation for this type uses '''''{{term|mū}}'''''. | ||
{{interlinear| | :{{interlinear | box=yes | ||
| ciāvis mū seus incerī pernus | |||
| come - | | come-PFV.SUBJ.3SG.T NEG this-T.NOM.SG capital-DAT.SG storm-NOM.SG | ||
|'If only this storm hadn't come to the capital!'}} | |<nowiki>'</nowiki>''If only'' this storm hadn't come to the capital!'}} | ||
The '''jussive subjunctive''' can be used for commands or suggestions for what should happen. It is less direct and far more common than the '''imperative'''. Negation for this type uses '''''{{term|mīm}}'''''. | The '''jussive subjunctive''' can be used for commands or suggestions for what should happen. It is less direct and far more common than the '''imperative'''. Negation for this type uses '''''{{term|mīm}}'''''. | ||
{{interlinear| | :{{interlinear | box=yes | ||
| ven hānō ē vecō veniennō | |||
| go - | | go-SUBJ.2SG temple-DAT.SG against curse-DAT.SG win-GER-DAT | ||
|'You should go to the temple to prevail against the curse | |<nowiki>'</nowiki>You ''should'' go to the temple to prevail against the curse'}} | ||
Perhaps the most common use of the subjunctive is the '''conditional subjunctive'''. When the subjunctive is used in a subordinate clause (with the verb moving to the final position), it may carry the meaning 'if, when, should, etc..' This can be used both in finite verb forms, and with participles, the former being more popular in Old inscriptions and the later in Classical ones. Negation for this type uses '''''{{term|mīm}}'''''. | Perhaps the most common use of the subjunctive is the '''conditional subjunctive'''. When the subjunctive is used in a subordinate clause (with the verb moving to the final position), it may carry the meaning 'if, when, should, etc..' This can be used both in finite verb forms, and with participles, the former being more popular in Old inscriptions and the later in Classical ones. Negation for this type uses '''''{{term|mīm}}'''''. | ||
====Desiderative==== | ====Desiderative==== | ||
The desiderative is used primarily to express wants or desires. While the subjunctive may be used for this as well (see ''optative subjunctive''), the desiderative is considered less abstract or wishful, signalling concrete and actionable wants. It is formed from the s-stem of a verb, with no theme vowel between it and the ending, and using the secondary first person singular and third person plural markers (e.g. ''-it'' and ''-end'' vs. primary ''- | The desiderative is used primarily to express wants or desires. While the subjunctive may be used for this as well (see ''optative subjunctive''), the desiderative is considered less abstract or wishful, signalling concrete and actionable wants. It is formed from the s-stem of a verb, with no theme vowel between it and the ending, and using the secondary first person singular and third person plural markers (e.g. ''-it'' and ''-end'' vs. primary ''-itz'' and ''-entz''). Verbs generally follow three patterns to form the s-stem; | ||
:*''-s-'' is appended to the root, causing no other alteration to the root. | :*''-s-'' is appended to the root, causing no other alteration to the root. | ||
::: '''''{{term| | ::: '''''{{term|requitz}}''''' ("they return me") → '''''reqsit''''' ("they want to return me") | ||
:::'''''{{term| | :::'''''{{term|saepitz}}''''' ("they are cutting me") → '''''saepsit''''' ("they want to cut me") | ||
:*''-s-'' is appended after a theme vowel, causing ''-s-'' to become ''-r-''. | :*''-s-'' is appended after a theme vowel, causing ''-s-'' to become ''-r-''. | ||
:::'''''{{term| | :::'''''{{term|sircuitz}}''''' ("they are speaking me") → '''''sircuerit''''' ("they want to speak me") | ||
:::'''''{{term| | :::'''''{{term|auhetz}}''''' ("they are looking at me") → '''''auherit''''' ("they want to look at me") | ||
:*''-s-'' is appended to the root, causing some alteration to the root, and perhaps the ''-s-'' augment as well. | :*''-s-'' is appended to the root, causing some alteration to the root, and perhaps the ''-s-'' augment as well. | ||
:::'''''{{term| | :::'''''{{term|iuvatz}}''''' ("they are writing me") → '''''iūrit''''' ("they want to write me") | ||
:::'''''{{term| | :::'''''{{term|mentitz}}''''' ("they are healing me") → '''''mēnsit''''' ("they want to heal me") | ||
====Potential==== | ====Potential==== | ||
Line 1,206: | Line 2,135: | ||
:*''-t-'' is appended to the root, causing no other alteration to the root. | :*''-t-'' is appended to the root, causing no other alteration to the root. | ||
::: '''''{{term| | ::: '''''{{term|requitz}}''''' ("they return me") → '''''reqtatz''''' ("they can return me") | ||
:::'''''{{term| | :::'''''{{term|saepitz}}''''' ("they are cutting me") → '''''saebtatz''''' ("they can cut me") | ||
:*''-t-'' is appended after a theme vowel. | :*''-t-'' is appended after a theme vowel. | ||
:::'''''{{term| | :::'''''{{term|sircuitz}}''''' ("they are speaking me") → '''''sircuitatz''''' ("they can speak me") | ||
:::'''''{{term| | :::'''''{{term|auhetz}}''''' ("they are looking at me") → '''''auhitatz''''' ("they can look at me") | ||
:*''-t-'' is appended to the root, causing some alteration to the root, and perhaps the ''-t-'' augment as well. | :*''-t-'' is appended to the root, causing some alteration to the root, and perhaps the ''-t-'' augment as well. | ||
:::'''''{{term| | :::'''''{{term|iuvatz}}''''' ("they are writing me") → '''''iūtatz''''' ("they can write me") | ||
:::'''''{{term| | :::'''''{{term|mentitz}}''''' ("they are healing me") → '''''mēnsatz''''' ("they can heal me") | ||
It should be noted that in the causative voice of the potential mood, the first ''-t-'' augment often dissimilates to ''-s/ss-''; | It should be noted that in the causative voice of the potential mood, the first ''-t-'' augment often dissimilates to ''-s/ss-''; | ||
*''''' | *'''''auhititz''''' ("they let me look at it") → ''**auhitītatz'' → '''''auhissītatz''''' ("they can let me look at it") | ||
*''''' | *'''''reqtitz''''' ("they let me return it") → ''**reqtītatz'' → '''''reqsītatz''''' ("they can let me return it") | ||
===Voice=== | ===Voice=== | ||
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The '''middle voice''' (also called the [[w:Mediopassive voice|mediopassive voice]]) is in the middle between the active and the passive voices, as the subject often cannot be categorised as either agent or patient but may have elements of both. The middle voice is usually inherently intransitive, and transitive or ditransitive verbs conjugated into the middle voice usually become intransitive themselves. It is formed by attaching the '''middle verb endings''' to the root of a verb. | The '''middle voice''' (also called the [[w:Mediopassive voice|mediopassive voice]]) is in the middle between the active and the passive voices, as the subject often cannot be categorised as either agent or patient but may have elements of both. The middle voice is usually inherently intransitive, and transitive or ditransitive verbs conjugated into the middle voice usually become intransitive themselves. It is formed by attaching the '''middle verb endings''' to the root of a verb. | ||
The meaning of a verb in the middle voice often depends on the context of the sentence and the lexical properties of the word itself. In its most basic sense, it may be used simply as a valancy decreasing operation. As transitive verbs require an object in the active voice (because transitive verbs must agree with the object), the middle voice may be used merely to omit an object, to highlight the subject or some other part of the sentence, or to simply make a blanket statement. | The meaning of a verb in the middle voice often depends on the context of the sentence and the lexical properties of the word itself. In its most basic sense, it may be used simply as a valancy decreasing operation. As transitive verbs require an object in the active voice (because transitive verbs must agree with the object), the middle voice may be used merely to omit an object, to highlight the subject or some other part of the sentence, or to simply make a blanket statement. | ||
* ''''' | * '''''aeh<u>atz</u>''''' 'they love <u>me</u>' (''active'') → '''''aeh<u>or</u>''''' '<u>I</u> love' (''middle'') | ||
* ''''' | * '''''lec<u>is</u>''''' 'they<sub>i</sub> choose <u>them<sub>j</sub></u>' (''active'') → '''''lec<u>erur</u>''''' '<u>they<sub>j</sub></u> choose' (''middle'') | ||
[[w:Animacy|Animacy]] can play a major role in the meaning of a verb in the middle voice. Verbs with more animate subjects, such as people, animals, gods, etc., may be interpreted as more towards an active meaning, whilst less animate subjects, like inanimate objects or possessions, may be interpreted as more passive in meaning. | [[w:Animacy|Animacy]] can play a major role in the meaning of a verb in the middle voice. Verbs with more animate subjects, such as people, animals, gods, etc., may be interpreted as more towards an active meaning, whilst less animate subjects, like inanimate objects or possessions, may be interpreted as more passive in meaning. | ||
{{interlinear| | :{{interlinear | box=yes | ||
| auhērur seus ars | |||
|see - | | see-MID.3SG.T this-T.NOM.SG wumbo-NOM.SG | ||
|'That wumbo sees' | |'That wumbo sees' | ||
|c1 = (''more animate'')}} | |c1 = (''more animate'')}} | ||
{{interlinear| | :{{interlinear | box=yes | ||
| auhēra sea salva | |||
|see - | |see-MID.3SG.C this-C.NOM.SG book-NOM.SG | ||
|'That book is seen' | |'That book is seen' | ||
|c1 = (''less animate'')}} | |c1 = (''less animate'')}} | ||
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Sometimes, it may have a '''reflexive''' meaning, or the sense of doing something for ones own benefit. | Sometimes, it may have a '''reflexive''' meaning, or the sense of doing something for ones own benefit. | ||
{{interlinear| | :{{interlinear | box=yes | ||
| | | vascit vominis | ||
|wash -ACT.1SG river -LOC.SG | |wash-ACT.1SG river-LOC.SG | ||
|'They wash me in a river' | |'They wash me in a river' | ||
|c1 = (''active voice'')}} | |c1 = (''active voice'')}} | ||
{{interlinear| | :{{interlinear | box=yes | ||
| | | vascor vominis | ||
|wash - | |wash-MID.1SG river-LOC.SG | ||
|'I washed (myself) in a river' | |'I washed (myself) in a river' | ||
|c1 = (''middle voice'')}} | |c1 = (''middle voice'')}} | ||
{{interlinear| | :{{interlinear | box=yes | ||
| | | hastās Oscus aprun | ||
|sacrifice -ACT.3SG.T Oscus -NOM.SG fish -ACC.SG | |sacrifice-ACT.3SG.T Oscus-NOM.SG fish-ACC.SG | ||
|'Oscus sacrificed a fish' | |'Oscus sacrificed a fish' | ||
|c1 = (''active voice'')}} | |c1 = (''active voice'')}} | ||
{{interlinear| | :{{interlinear | box=yes | ||
| | | hastārur Oscus aprōrun | ||
|sacrifice - | |sacrifice-MID.3SG.T Oscus-NOM.SG fish-INSTR.SG | ||
|'Oscus sacrificed a fish (for their benefit)' | |'Oscus sacrificed a fish (for their benefit)' | ||
|c1 = (''middle voice'')}} | |c1 = (''middle voice'')}} | ||
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Another important use of the middle voice is the '''experiential middle voice'''. When used with sensory verbs the middle voice may be used to differentiate experiential, nonvolitional sensation (''see, hear, smell, feel, know, etc.''), as opposed to active, volitional sensation (''look, listen, sniff, touch, understand, etc.'') Often times, the object of the sensory verb will be expressed using an oblique case, usually the ablative. | Another important use of the middle voice is the '''experiential middle voice'''. When used with sensory verbs the middle voice may be used to differentiate experiential, nonvolitional sensation (''see, hear, smell, feel, know, etc.''), as opposed to active, volitional sensation (''look, listen, sniff, touch, understand, etc.'') Often times, the object of the sensory verb will be expressed using an oblique case, usually the ablative. | ||
{{interlinear| | :{{interlinear | box=yes | ||
| | | ȳrēs te ponun carīnī hellē | ||
|hear/listen -ACT.3SG.T <nowiki>=</nowiki>1SG.NOM voice -ACC.SG friend -GEN.SG happily | |hear/listen-ACT.3SG.T <nowiki>=</nowiki>1SG.NOM voice-ACC.SG friend-GEN.SG happily | ||
|'I like to listen to (my) friend's voice' | |'I like to listen to (my) friend's voice' | ||
|c1 = (''active voice'')}} | |c1 = (''active voice'')}} | ||
{{interlinear| | :{{interlinear | box=yes | ||
| ȳreor ponā carīnī hellē | |||
|hear/listen - | |hear/listen-MID.1SG voice-ABL.SG friend-GEN.SG happily | ||
|'I like to hear (my) friend's voice' | |'I like to hear (my) friend's voice' | ||
|c1 = (''middle voice'')}} | |c1 = (''middle voice'')}} | ||
The middle voice may also be used with a variety of verbal compliments—usually adverbs—which describe the quality of the subject, or the result of the action. Often times such constructions may be expressed in English as ''adjective to verb'', e.g. 'easy to love'. | |||
:{{interlinear | box=yes | |||
| qurrera salva hēs collēcta aplīdiāna iūs | |||
| read-MID.3SG.C book-NOM.SG matters-NOM.SG gather-PFV.PTCP-C.NOM.SG of_Avrid-C.NOM.SG well | |||
|'The book "Collected Matters of Avrid" is a good read' (lit. '~reads well')}} | |||
:{{interlinear | box=yes | |||
| taetuere tīn īvīs lȳrīs saltīs ni fictun satun iūs | |||
| drink-PFV.MID.3SG.E tea-NOM.SG 1PL.PRO-DAT time-LOC.SG pass-PFV.PTCP-T.LOC.SG 2SG<nowiki>=</nowiki> make-PFV.PTCP-E.NOM.SG pour-PFV.PTCP-E.NOM.SG well | |||
|'The tea you made us last time was delicious' (lit. '~drank well')}} | |||
====Passive==== | ====Passive==== | ||
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Unlike the middle voice, the passive is not used for verbal complements, and it cannot take the agent of a verb as its subject. It is never used in verbal complements. | Unlike the middle voice, the passive is not used for verbal complements, and it cannot take the agent of a verb as its subject. It is never used in verbal complements. | ||
{{interlinear| | :{{interlinear | box=yes | ||
| taeterur seun tīn iūs | |||
|drink -MID.3SG.E this -E.NOM.SG tea -NOM.SG well | |drink-MID.3SG.E this-E.NOM.SG tea-NOM.SG well | ||
|'This tea tastes good (lit. 'it drinks well') | |'This tea tastes good' (lit. 'it drinks well')}} | ||
{{interlinear| | :{{interlinear | box=yes | ||
| taetēlārur seun tīn iūs | |||
|drink - | |drink-PAS.3SG.E this-E.NOM.SG tea-NOM.SG well | ||
|'This tea is drunk often | |'This tea is drunk often'}} | ||
While the agent may be dropped in a passive clause, it may also be included, using the [[w:Ablative case|ablative case]]. | While the agent may be dropped in a passive clause, it may also be included, using the [[w:Ablative case|ablative case]]. | ||
{{interlinear| | :{{interlinear | box=yes | ||
| praestrōcuēlāre ūlun Cavā Īliānā hānun | |||
|rebuild - | |rebuild-PFV.PAS.3SG.E yonder-E.NOM.SG Cava-ABL.SG Ilianus-C.ABL.SG temple-NOM.SG | ||
|'This temple was rebuilt by Cava Iliana | |'This temple was rebuilt by Cava Iliana'}} | ||
The passive can also be especially with intransitive verbs to form denote an '''unspecified/generic subject'''. This structure may is used to make general statements or observations. Negation for this type uses '''''{{term|mū}}'''''. | The passive can also be especially with intransitive verbs to form denote an '''unspecified/generic subject'''. This structure may is used to make general statements or observations. Negation for this type uses '''''{{term|mū}}'''''. | ||
{{interlinear| | :{{interlinear | box=yes | ||
| | | miquientur | ||
|die -MID.3PL.T | |die-MID.3PL.T | ||
|'They are dead/dying.'}} | |'They are dead/dying.'}} | ||
{{interlinear| | :{{interlinear | box=yes | ||
| | | miquiēlantur | ||
| | |die-PAS.3PL.T | ||
|' | |'There are people dead/dying'}} | ||
:{{interlinear | box=yes | |||
| mūhera (sea) artina inceris alta | |||
|not.enough-MID.3SG.C (this-C.NOM.SG) wumbo-DAT.PL capital-GEN.SG water-NOM.SG | |||
|'This is not enough water for the people of the capital'}} | |||
:{{interlinear | box=yes | |||
| mūhēlāra artina inceris alta | |||
|not.enough-PAS.3SG.C wumbo-DAT.PL capital-GEN.SG water-NOM.SG | |||
|'There is not enough water for the people of the capital'}} | |||
Similarly, the passive can be used to form the ''aversive passive'', denoting an undesirable event or outcome. The affecting action may happen directly to the subject, or to another person or thing. | |||
:{{interlinear | box=yes | |||
| cōmerī requintus furuēlō sopere | |||
|home-DAT return-IPFV.PTCP-T.NOM.SG fall-PFV.PAS.1SG snow-ABL.SG | |||
|'Walking home I got snowed on'}} | |||
{{interlinear| | :{{interlinear | box=yes | ||
| | | miquīvēlast apiesterā | ||
| | | die-PFV-PAS.2SG master-ABL.SG | ||
|' | |'Your master has died on you' (i.e., died and it negatively affects you)}} | ||
In some uses of the aversive passive, the subject of the sentence may be difficult to ascertain. For example, the sentence '''''furuī pālā''''' 'I fell from the tree' can be expressed in using the aversive passive, because the action is undesirable. However, the straight aversive passive, '''''furuēlō pālā''''', is ambiguous; it could mean either 'I fell from the tree' (using the ''ablative of motion'') or 'The tree fell on me' (using the ''agentive ablative''). | |||
In the first interpretation, the first person argument is the semantic subject of the clause, whilst in the second it is the tree. In order to emphasise that the semantic subject and syntactic arguments are the same (i.e. it is ''I'' who fell from the tree), the reflexive pronoun ''cē'' may be used; e.g. ''furuī pālā'' ('I fell from the tree') → '''''furuēlō cē pālā''''' ('I fell from the tree, and it negatively affected me' ''lit.'' 'I fell myself from the tree'). | |||
====Causative==== | ====Causative==== | ||
===Non-finite forms=== | |||
====The infinitive==== | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;" | |||
|+caption | Aeranir infinitives | |||
|- | |||
! rowspan="2" | | |||
! colspan="3" | Imperfective | |||
! colspan="3" | Perfective | |||
|- | |||
! accusative | |||
! oblique | |||
! meaning | |||
! accusative | |||
! oblique | |||
! meaning | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! Active | |||
| '''''aehāhā'''''<br>''-hā'' | |||
| '''''aehāri'''''<br>''-ri'' | |||
| ''to love<br>(someone)'' | |||
| '''''aehāhī'''''<br>''-hī'' | |||
| '''''aehārī'''''<br>''-rī'' | |||
| ''to have loved<br>(someone)'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! Middle | |||
| '''''aehāssi'''''<br>''-ssi'' | |||
| '''''aehāiēs'''''<br>''-iēs'' | |||
| ''to love'' | |||
| '''''aehāssī'''''<br>''-ssī'' | |||
| '''''aehāiērī'''''<br>''-iērī'' | |||
| ''to have loved'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! Passive | |||
| '''''aehātus sinhā'''''<br>''<small>{{Smallcaps|PFV.PTCP}}</small> + sinhā'' | |||
| '''''aehātus fiēs'''''<br>''<small>{{Smallcaps|PFV.PTCP}}</small> + fiēs'' | |||
| ''to be loved'' | |||
| '''''aehātus fūhī'''''<br>''<small>{{Smallcaps|PFV.PTCP}}</small> + fūhī'' | |||
| '''''aehātus fiērī'''''<br>''<small>{{Smallcaps|PFV.PTCP}}</small> + fiērī'' | |||
| ''to have been<br>loved'' | |||
|- style="text-align:center;" | |||
! Causative | |||
| '''''aehātīhā'''''<br>''-tīhā'' | |||
| '''''aehātīri'''''<br>''-tīri'' | |||
| ''to make (someone)<br>love (someone)'' | |||
| '''''aehātīhī'''''<br>''-tīhī'' | |||
| '''''aehātīrī'''''<br>''-tīrī'' | |||
| ''to have made<br>(someone) love<br>(someone)'' | |||
|} | |||
The infinitive in Aeranir is a special verbal form used to form complement clauses. | |||
=====Uses of the infinitive===== | |||
The infinitive in Aeranir can be used to report indirect speech, hearsay, speculation, or sensation. | |||
:{{interlinear | box=yes | |||
| pēra tihī incerī ni cīhī | |||
| pass-PFV.3SG.C 1SG.PRO-DAT capital-DAT.SG 2SG<nowiki>=</nowiki> come-PFV.INF | |||
|'They told me that you'd come to the capital'}} | |||
:{{interlinear | box=yes | |||
| ȳrēva te Mussā Limī carīnōvus quo neme cōmus strōcēhā | |||
| hear-PFV.3SG.C <nowiki>=</nowiki>1SG Mussa-ABL.SG Limius-GEN.SG friend-GEN.PL <nowiki>=</nowiki>and newly home-ACC.SG build-INF | |||
|'I heard from Mussa that Limius and their friends are building a new house'}} | |||
==== The gerund ==== | |||
The gerund in Aeranir is a infinite verb form which displays characteristics of both a noun and a verb. It declines for a limited scope of cases (although not for gender nor number), but can take object and adjunct arguments like a verb. It usually has an adverbial/adjectival meaning, and never agrees with the main verb. | |||
===== Forming the gerund ===== | |||
* Null-grade verbs: {{gcl|ROOT|root}}''-innū''; e.g. ''taetihan'' ('to drink') → '''''taetinnū''''' ('whilst drinking'). | |||
* A-grade verbs: {{gcl|ROOT|root}}''-annū''; e.g. ''iuvāhan'' ('to write') → '''''iuvannū''''' ('whilst writing'). | |||
* I-grade verbs: {{gcl|ROOT|root}}''-iennū''; e.g. ''cītīhan'' ('to cut') → '''''cītiennū''''' ('whilst cutting'). | |||
* E-grade verbs: {{gcl|ROOT|root}}''-ennū''; e.g. ''aquēhan'' ('to be open') → '''''aquennū''''' ('whilst open'). | |||
===== Uses of the gerund ===== | |||
The meaning of the gerund changes depending on its case. The essive and locative can be used to indicate temporal action in relation to the main action of a sentence. The essive indicates simultaneous action, i.e. two actions that cooccur. This may be relayed in English via the conjunction 'whilst.' | |||
:{{interlinear | box=yes | |||
| murran travannū pērintur pāliō mater | |||
| wall-ACC.SG walk-GER.ESS converse.PFV-MID.3PL governor-NOM.SG senator-NOM.SG | |||
|'Whilst they walked along the wall, the governor and senator conversed'}} | |||
This overlaps with certain uses of the imperfective participle (see [[Aeranir#Uses of the participle|§ uses of the participle]]), e.g. ''murran travantur pērintur pāliō mater'' is synonymous with the above example. In contrast, the locative gerund is used to show actions beginning at the same time. This may be relayed with English 'when' or 'as.' | |||
:{{interlinear | box=yes | |||
| pāsillan cītiennīs auhēva sartī tūī cōrēssī | |||
| fireword-ACC.SG cut-GER.LOC see-PFV-C.3SG knife-GEN.SG mine-T.GEN.SG break-PFV.MID.ACC.INF | |||
|'As I (began to) cut the firewood, I saw that my knife was broken'}} | |||
This differs from usage of the perfective participle, which signals the main action starting at the end of the dependant one, i.e. ''pāsillan cīsus auhēva sartī tūī cōrēssī'' 'having cut the firewood I saw that my knife was broken.' | |||
In addition, the essive gerund may be used with the verb ''rēhan'' ('to do') in order to express an attempt, goal, or aim. In the perfective aspect, this is usually interpreted as a failed attempt. | |||
:{{interlinear | box=yes | |||
| rēvō salvan ā vitlās Īliānōvus iuvannū | |||
| do-PFV-MID.1SG book-ACC.SG over life-ABL.PL Ilian-GEN.PL write-GER.ESS | |||
|'I tried (but failed) to write a book about the lives of the Ilians.'}} | |||
The genitive and dative cases of the gerund are used to express aim, goal, or purpose. The genitive gerund marks the purpose or use of a noun, whilst the dative gerund marks the purpose of a verb or action. | |||
:{{interlinear | box=yes | |||
| pea cūran vecunt inceris moñennī | |||
| grow-C.3SG herb-ACC.SG illness-ACC.PL head-GEN.SG heal-GER.GEN | |||
|'They grow an herb for healing illnesses of the head'}} | |||
:{{interlinear | box=yes | |||
| serue te Caescārin mumae ūī sihinnō pāliōna | |||
| order-PFV.E.3SG <nowiki>=</nowiki>1SG Caescar-ACC.SG mother-ACC.PL their-T.ACC.PL sate-GER.DAT post-DAT.PL | |||
|'I ordered Caescar to the boarder to appease their parents'}} | |||
Furthermore, the dative gerund may be used with the middle voice of the verb ''rēhan'' ('to do') in a similar way to the essive, however in this case denoting intent, plans, will, or conjecture. | |||
:{{interlinear | box=yes | |||
| reor cartō cur Mussiō vannō | |||
| do-MID.1SG dance-DAT.SG with Mussius-DAT.SG go-GER-DAT | |||
|'I intend to go to the dance with Mussius'}} | |||
:{{interlinear | box=yes | |||
| reāvere seō scericca ciennō | |||
| do-MID.SUBJ.PFV-3SG this-DAT.SG undertaker-NOM.SG come-GER-DAT | |||
|'The undertaker should have come here (they planned to do so)'}} | |||
The ablative and instrumental cases of the gerund can be used to express cause, i.e. 'by doing x,' or 'because x.' The ablative generally marks unintentional or natural causes, whilst the instrumental marks intentional cause. | |||
:{{interlinear | box=yes | |||
| tlānae ustae quo peannā rēve cōmus pūterē | |||
| flower-ACC.PL that(medial)-C.ACC.PL <nowiki>=</nowiki>and plant-GER-ABL do-PFV-E.3SG house-ACC.SG beautiful-ADV | |||
|'By planting all these flowers you've made the house beautiful'}} | |||
:{{interlinear | box=yes | |||
| ustam prī tētē harēnam matrī iminnōrun restērāvist pāliōnū gaeticae | |||
| that(medial)-C.ACC.SG before 1SG-ABL paper-ACC.SG senator-DAT.SG send-GER-INSTR assure-PFV-MID.2SG governor-ESS.SG Gaetica-GEN.SG | |||
|'By sending the senator that letter before me, you've assured your place as governor of Gaetica'}} | |||
==Semantics== | |||
=== Temporal expressions === | |||
The ancient Aerans divided the day from noon to noon into one hundred '''''lammar''''' (sg. ''lamma'') of equal length, roughly 14.4 minutes long. The daytime was divided into sixteen '''''lȳrar''''' (sg. ''lȳra''), and night into four or five '''''volar''''' (sg. ''vola'') depending on the season. Time was kept on a device called a '''''lammāriun''''', a type of clock. Early ''lammāriunt'' only measured ''lammar'', and one had to consult an almanac ('''''lȳrāriun''''') to determine the length and starting time of each ''lȳra'' or ''vola'' on a given day. | |||
The verb '''''spurhan''''' ('to hang (trans.)') is used to denote spending or taking time; | |||
:{{interlinear | box = yes | |||
| spurra sau īma lamma āmātiō vannō | |||
| hang-MID.C.3SG only one-C.NOM.SG lamma-NOM.SG market-DAT.SG go-GER-DAT | |||
| 'It only takes one ''lamma'' to get to the market'}} | |||
:{{interlinear | box = yes | |||
| qurrintus spūrint te volae mōrī | |||
| read-PTCP-T.NOM.SG hang.PFV-3PL <nowiki>=</nowiki>1SG vola-ACC.PL three-C.ACC.PL | |||
| 'I spent three ''volar'' reading'}} | |||
To denote the amount of time spent on an action, without regard for whether or not the activity was completed or reached its end goal (i.e. atelic action) the essive case is used. To signify the amount of time spent or necessary to spend to complete an activity (i.e. telic action) the instrumental case is used. | |||
:{{interlinear | box = yes | |||
| iūvint te harēnae īmau lȳrau | |||
| write.PFV-3PL <nowiki>=</nowiki>1SG letter-ACC.SG one-C.ESS.SG lyra-ESS.SG | |||
| 'I wrote letters for an hour'}} | |||
:{{interlinear | box = yes | |||
| iūva te harēna īmārun lȳrārun | |||
| write.PFV-C.3SG <nowiki>=</nowiki>1SG letter-ACC.SG one-C.INSTR.SG lyra-INSTR.SG | |||
| 'I wrote the letter in an hour'}} | |||
=== Possession === | |||
There are a number of different strategies in Aeranir to signify possession. Aeranir lacks a [[w:Possession_(linguistics)#Possession_verbs|possession verb]] analogous to English 'to have,' and instead usually signifies possession through different types of [[w:Existential_clause|existential clauses]]. For example, the sentence 'I have a friend' can be expressed by the sentence '''''ēs carīnus tihī''''', which literally means 'there is a friend to me.' | |||
The case of the possessor changes depending its relationship with the possessed: | |||
* '''Locative case''': used for personal possessions that are currently on the person; | |||
:{{interlinear | box = yes | |||
| ēs iarius taurātīs | |||
| COP-T.3SG spear-NOM.SG soldier-LOC.SG | |||
|'The soldier has a spear (on them)' | |||
|c2 = ''lit. 'at the soldier is a spear<nowiki>'</nowiki>''}} | |||
* '''Dative case''': used for personal possessions that are not currently on the person, or for affiliation with persons or people; | |||
:{{interlinear | box = yes | |||
| sintz iariur vulhur taurātiō | |||
| COP-T.3PL spear-NOM.PL many-T.NOM.PL soldier-DAT.SG | |||
|'The soldier has many spears (at home)' | |||
|c2 = ''lit. 'to the soldier are many spears<nowiki>'</nowiki>''}} | |||
:{{interlinear | box = yes | |||
| sintz menterur tihī octzuin | |||
| COP-T.3PL sibling-NOM.PL 1SG-DAT six | |||
|'I have six siblings' | |||
|c2 = ''lit. 'to me are six siblings<nowiki>'</nowiki>''}} | |||
* '''Ablative case''': used for parts of a whole, or body parts; | |||
:{{interlinear | box = yes | |||
| sī incus iūrun nēnē | |||
| COP-E.3SG head-NOM.SG good-E.NOM.SG 1SG-ABL | |||
|'You have a good head (i.e. are smart)' | |||
|c2 = ''lit. 'from you is a good head<nowiki>'</nowiki>''}} | |||
For metaphorical possession or possession of abstract concepts, such as leadership, power, knowledge, etc., any of these three may be used, for different rhetorical purposes. For example, using the locative implies an immediacy to the possession; that it is in hand, ready to be used. Using the dative implies that the possession is not immediate, but rather something that can be drawn upon, perhaps too vast to 'carry' on one person. This can be more humble or polite than the locative. Using the locative implies that the trait is a fundamental, inalienable, and inherent part of the possessor, rather than something gained or worked for. | |||
=== Conditionals === | |||
Aeranir has a number of ways of expressing [[w:Conditional sentence|conditional sentences]], depending on the type of condition, as well as the register of speech. Colloquial or spontaneous speech tends to favour the use of finite dependant clauses for the '''''protasis''''' (conditional clause, as opposed to the '''''apodosis''''', or consequence), where as practiced or refined speech, or writing, tend to favour non-finite dependant clauses (this represents a general trend in writing to 'nominalise' all but the most central verb in a sentence, and sometimes the central verb too is made non-finite). | |||
:{{interlinear | box = yes | |||
| sopis furea requeō cōmerī | |||
| snow-NOM.SG fall-SUBJ.C.3SG return-MID.SUBJ.1SG home-DAT.SG | |||
|'If it snows I'm going home' | |||
|c1 = ''(more informal)''}} | |||
:{{interlinear | box = yes | |||
| soperis furentīs requeō cōmerī | |||
| snow-GEN.SG fall-SUBJ.PTCP-T.LOC.SG return-MID.SUBJ.1SG home-DAT.SG | |||
|'If it snows I'm going home' | |||
|c1 = ''(more formal)''}} | |||
When a non-finite clause is used for a conditional, the verb of the ''protasis'' usually appears in the locative case (an expression of ''time-is-space'' metaphor), unless the two clauses share an argument (e.g. subject, object, etc.) in which case the ''protasis'' takes the same case marking as the shared argument. | |||
Conditional sentences in Aeranir are formed purely through juxtaposition—that is, the placing of two clauses side by side, the verb of the ''protasis'' moved to clause-final position or put into a non-finite form to mark it as dependant. No conjunctive particles like 'if' or 'when' are required. The ''protasis'' takes the subjunctive mood, whilst the mood of the ''apodosis'' indicates the certainty of the conclusion. Aspect, meanwhile, can be used to indicate the certainty of the condition. This distinction may be approximated in English by 'if' versus 'when' | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;" | |||
|+ Mood and aspect of conditional sentences | |||
|- | |||
! | |||
! ''Protasis'' certain | |||
! ''Protasis'' uncertain | |||
|- | |||
! ''Apodosis'' certain | |||
| if [''perfective aspect''] then [''indicative mood'']<br>e.g. ''intlae furītīs mollintz tahrer''—'when it rains, the shingles will leak' | |||
| if [''imperfective aspect''] then [''indicative mood'']<br>e.g. ''intlae furentīs mollintz tahrer''—'if it rains, the shingles will leak' | |||
|- | |||
! ''Apodosis'' uncertain | |||
| if [''perfective aspect''] then [''subjunctive mood'']<br>e.g. ''intlae furītīs mollent tahrer''—'when it rains, the shingles might leak' | |||
| if [''imperfective aspect''] then [''subjunctive mood'']<br>e.g. ''intlae furentīs mollent tahrer''—'if it rains, the shingles might leak' | |||
|} | |||
== Numbers == | |||
<div style="overflow:auto"> | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;" | |||
|+caption | Aeranir numbers 1-400 | |||
|- | |||
! # | |||
! Cardinal | |||
! Ordinal | |||
! Adverbial | |||
! # | |||
! Cardinal | |||
! Ordinal | |||
! Adverbial | |||
! # | |||
! Cardinal | |||
! Ordinal | |||
! Adverbial | |||
! # | |||
! Cardinal | |||
! Ordinal | |||
! Adverbial | |||
|- | |||
! 1 | |||
| ''īmus'' | |||
| ''prīstus'' | |||
| ''temper'' | |||
! 11 | |||
| ''īnhīntur'' | |||
| ''īnhīnsus'' | |||
| ''īnhīntin'' | |||
! 21 | |||
| ''calhier īmus'' | |||
| ''calhitus prīstus'' | |||
| ''calhin temper'' | |||
! 120 | |||
| ''octzāculhier'' | |||
| ''octzāculhitus'' | |||
| ''octzāculhin'' | |||
|- | |||
! 2 | |||
| ''sēr'' | |||
| ''metzumnus'' | |||
| ''vēriēs'' | |||
! 12 | |||
| ''verhīntur'' | |||
| ''verhīnsus'' | |||
| ''verhīntin'' | |||
! 22 | |||
| ''calhier sēr'' | |||
| ''calhitus metzumnus'' | |||
| ''calhin vēriēs'' | |||
! 140 | |||
| ''nāculhier'' | |||
| ''nāculhitus'' | |||
| ''nāculhin'' | |||
|- | |||
! 3 | |||
| ''morier'' | |||
| ''moritus'' | |||
| ''moriēs'' | |||
! 13 | |||
| ''prōhīntur'' | |||
| ''prōhīnsus'' | |||
| ''prōhīntin'' | |||
! 30 | |||
| ''calhier qehentzier'' | |||
| ''calhitus qehēnsus'' | |||
| ''calhin qehen'' | |||
! 160 | |||
| ''nāquenculhier'' | |||
| ''nāquenculhitus'' | |||
| ''nāquenculhin'' | |||
|- | |||
! 4 | |||
| ''quatlur'' | |||
| ''quallus'' | |||
| ''quatziēs'' | |||
! 14 | |||
| ''quatlāhīntur'' | |||
| ''quatlāhīnsus'' | |||
| ''quatlāhīntin'' | |||
! 40 | |||
| ''verculhier'' | |||
| ''verculhitus'' | |||
| ''verculhin'' | |||
! 180 | |||
| ''nātlicculhier'' | |||
| ''nātlicculhitus'' | |||
| ''nātlicculhin'' | |||
|- | |||
! 5 | |||
| ''quiquier'' | |||
| ''quiqtus'' | |||
| ''quiquin'' | |||
! 15 | |||
| ''quihīntur'' | |||
| ''quihīnsus'' | |||
| ''quihīntin'' | |||
! 50 | |||
| ''verculhier qehentzier'' | |||
| ''verculhitus qehēnsus'' | |||
| ''verculhin qehen'' | |||
! 200 | |||
| ''tammīttler'' | |||
| ''tammīttus'' | |||
| ''tammīttziēs'' | |||
|- | |||
! 6 | |||
| ''octzuer'' | |||
| ''octzūmus'' | |||
| ''octzuin'' | |||
! 16 | |||
| ''octzāhīntur'' | |||
| ''octzāhīnsus'' | |||
| ''octzāhīntin'' | |||
! 60 | |||
| ''prōculhier'' | |||
| ''prōculhitus'' | |||
| ''prōculhin'' | |||
! 220 | |||
| ''tammīttler calhier'' | |||
| ''tammīttus calhitus'' | |||
| ''tammīttziēs calhin'' | |||
|- | |||
! 7 | |||
| ''nāier'' | |||
| ''nāntus'' | |||
| ''nāhin'' | |||
! 17 | |||
| ''nāhīntur'' | |||
| ''nāhīnsus'' | |||
| ''nāhīntin'' | |||
! 70 | |||
| ''prōculhier qehentzier'' | |||
| ''prōculhitus qehēnsus'' | |||
| ''prōculhin qehen'' | |||
! 240 | |||
| ''tammīttler verculhier'' | |||
| ''tammīttus verculhitus'' | |||
| ''tammīttziēs verculhin'' | |||
|- | |||
! 8 | |||
| ''nāquemur'' | |||
| ''nāquemmus'' | |||
| ''nāquemin'' | |||
! 18 | |||
| ''sērēsculhier'' | |||
| ''sērēsculhitus'' | |||
| ''sērēsculhin'' | |||
! 80 | |||
| ''quatlāculhier'' | |||
| ''quatlāculhitus'' | |||
| ''quatlāculhin'' | |||
! 260 | |||
| ''tammīttler prōculhier'' | |||
| ''tammīttus prōculhitus'' | |||
| ''tammīttziēs prōculhin'' | |||
|- | |||
! 9 | |||
| ''nātlittzier'' | |||
| ''nātlittzitus'' | |||
| ''nātlittzin'' | |||
! 19 | |||
| ''īmāculhier'' | |||
| ''īmāculhitus'' | |||
| ''īmāculhin'' | |||
! 90 | |||
| ''quatlāculhier qehentzier'' | |||
| ''quatlāculhitus qehēnsus'' | |||
| ''quatlāculhin qehen'' | |||
! 280 | |||
| ''tammīttler quatlāculhier'' | |||
| ''tammīttus quatlāculhitus'' | |||
| ''tammīttziēs quatlāculhin'' | |||
|- | |||
! 10 | |||
| ''qehentzier'' | |||
| ''qehēnsus'' | |||
| ''qehen'' | |||
! 20 | |||
| ''calhier'' | |||
| ''calhitus'' | |||
| ''calhin'' | |||
! 100 | |||
| ''quicculhier'' | |||
| ''quicculhitus'' | |||
| ''quicculhin'' | |||
! 400 | |||
| ''mīttler'' | |||
| ''mīttus'' | |||
| ''mīttziēs'' | |||
|} | |||
</div> | |||
<div style="overflow:auto"> | |||
{| class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;" | |||
|+caption | Aeranir numbers 400-64,000,000 | |||
|- | |||
! # | |||
! Cardinal | |||
! Ordinal | |||
! Adverbial | |||
! # | |||
! Cardinal | |||
! Ordinal | |||
! Adverbial | |||
! # | |||
! Cardinal | |||
! Ordinal | |||
! Adverbial | |||
! # | |||
! Cardinal | |||
! Ordinal | |||
! Adverbial | |||
|- | |||
! 800 | |||
| ''vermīttler'' | |||
| ''vermīttus'' | |||
| ''vermīttziēs'' | |||
! 16,000 | |||
| ''verittuer'' | |||
| ''verittūtus'' | |||
| ''verittuin'' | |||
! 320,000 | |||
| ''verōtluar attuer'' | |||
| ''verōtluus attūtus'' | |||
| ''verōtlua attuin'' | |||
! 6,400,000 | |||
| ''verictzuōner'' | |||
| ''verictzuōnitus'' | |||
| ''verictzuō'' | |||
|- | |||
! 1,200 | |||
| ''prōmīttler'' | |||
| ''prōmīttus'' | |||
| ''prōmīttziēs'' | |||
! 24,000 | |||
| ''prōttuer'' | |||
| ''prōttūtus'' | |||
| ''prōttuin'' | |||
! 480,000 | |||
| ''prōtluar attuer'' | |||
| ''prōtluus attūtus'' | |||
| ''prōtlua attuin'' | |||
! 9,600,000 | |||
| ''prōctzuōner'' | |||
| ''prōctzuōnitus'' | |||
| ''prōctzuō'' | |||
|- | |||
! 1,600 | |||
| ''quatlāmīttler'' | |||
| ''quatlāmīttus'' | |||
| ''quatlāmīttziēs'' | |||
! 32,000 | |||
| ''quatlāttuer'' | |||
| ''quatlāttūtus'' | |||
| ''quatlāttuin'' | |||
! 640,000 | |||
| ''quatlōtluar attuer'' | |||
| ''quatlōtluus attūtus'' | |||
| ''quatlōtlua attuin'' | |||
! 12,800,000 | |||
| ''quatlictzuōner'' | |||
| ''quatlictzuōnitus'' | |||
| ''quatlictzuō'' | |||
|- | |||
! 2,000 | |||
| ''quimīttler'' | |||
| ''quimīttus'' | |||
| ''quimīttziēs'' | |||
! 40,000 | |||
| ''quiquittuer'' | |||
| ''quiquittūtus'' | |||
| ''quiquittuin'' | |||
! 800,000 | |||
| ''quiqōtluar attuer'' | |||
| ''quiqōtluus attūtus'' | |||
| ''quiqōtlua attuin'' | |||
! 16,000,000 | |||
| ''quictzuōner'' | |||
| ''quictzuōnitus'' | |||
| ''quictzuō'' | |||
|- | |||
! 2,400 | |||
| ''octzāmīttler'' | |||
| ''octzāmīttus'' | |||
| ''octzāmīttziēs'' | |||
! 48,000 | |||
| ''octzāttuer'' | |||
| ''octzāttūtus'' | |||
| ''octzāttuin'' | |||
! 960,000 | |||
| ''octzōtluar attuer'' | |||
| ''octzōtluus attūtus'' | |||
| ''octzōtlua attuin'' | |||
! 19,200,000 | |||
| ''vulhiāhur'' | |||
| ''vulhiātus'' | |||
| ''vulhiāhin'' | |||
|- | |||
! 2,800 | |||
| ''nāmīttler'' | |||
| ''nāmīttus'' | |||
| ''nāmīttziēs'' | |||
! 56,000 | |||
| ''nāttuer'' | |||
| ''nāttūtus'' | |||
| ''nāttuin'' | |||
! 1,120,000 | |||
| ''nōtluar attuer'' | |||
| ''nōtluus attūtus'' | |||
| ''nōtlua attuin'' | |||
! 22,400,000 | |||
| ''nōctzuōner'' | |||
| ''nōctzuōnitus'' | |||
| ''nōctzuō'' | |||
|- | |||
! 3,200 | |||
| ''nāquemīttler'' | |||
| ''nāquemīttus'' | |||
| ''nāquemīttziēs'' | |||
! 64,000 | |||
| ''nāquemittuer'' | |||
| ''nāquemittūtus'' | |||
| ''nāquemittuin'' | |||
! 1,280,000 | |||
| ''nāquemōtluar attuer'' | |||
| ''nāquemōtluus attūtus'' | |||
| ''nāquemōtlua attuin'' | |||
! 25,600,000 | |||
| ''nāquemictzuōner'' | |||
| ''nāquemictzuōnitus'' | |||
| ''nāquemictzuō'' | |||
|- | |||
! 3,600 | |||
| ''nātlimīttler'' | |||
| ''nātlimīttus'' | |||
| ''nātlimīttziēs'' | |||
! 72,000 | |||
| ''nātlittzittuer'' | |||
| ''nātlittzittūtus'' | |||
| ''nātlittzittuin'' | |||
! 1,440,000 | |||
| ''nātlittzōtluar attuer'' | |||
| ''nātlittzōtluus attūtus'' | |||
| ''nātlittzōtlua attuin'' | |||
! 28,800,000 | |||
| ''nātlictzuōner'' | |||
| ''nātlictzuōnitus'' | |||
| ''nātlictzuō'' | |||
|- | |||
! 4,000 | |||
| ''tamittuer'' | |||
| ''tamittūtus'' | |||
| ''tamittuin'' | |||
! 80,000 | |||
| ''tamōtluar attuer'' | |||
| ''tamōtluus attūtus'' | |||
| ''tamōtlua attuin'' | |||
! 1,600,000 | |||
| ''tamictzuōner'' | |||
| ''tamictzuōnitus'' | |||
| ''tamictzuō'' | |||
! 32,000,000 | |||
| ''tamōtluar octzuōner'' | |||
| ''tamōtluus octzuōnitus'' | |||
| ''tamōtlua octzuō'' | |||
|- | |||
! 8,000 | |||
| ''attuer'' | |||
| ''attūtus'' | |||
| ''attuin'' | |||
! 160,000 | |||
| ''ōtlua attuer'' | |||
| ''ōtlua attūtus'' | |||
| ''ōtlua attuin'' | |||
! 3,200,000 | |||
| ''octzuōner'' | |||
| ''octzuōnitus'' | |||
| ''octzuō'' | |||
! 64,000,000 | |||
| ''ōtlua octzuōner'' | |||
| ''ōtlua octzuōnitus'' | |||
| ''ōtlua octzuō'' | |||
|} | |||
</div> | |||
==Late Aeranir inovations== | |||
===Applicative voices=== | |||
Whilst Classical Aeranir was more permissive of adding additional arguments to a clause, so long as the verb's core transitivity were met. Late Aeranir, however, tended to be more restrictive, and required valency increasing operations to express benefactive, comitative, and locative meanings. These applicative morphemes take the form of verbal prefixes. | |||
==Lexicon== | ==Lexicon== |
Latest revision as of 12:25, 15 July 2021
This article is a construction site. This project is currently undergoing significant construction and/or revamp. By all means, take a look around, thank you. |
Aeranir | |
---|---|
coeñar aerānir coeñar inceris | |
Pronunciation | [ˈk̟øː.ɲar ˈɪ̃ŋ̟.k̟ɛ.rɪs̠] [ˈk̟øː.ɲar ɛːˈraː.nɪr] |
Created by | Limius |
Setting | Avrid |
Native to | Telrhamir, Iscaria, Aeranid Empire |
Ethnicity | Aeran |
Maro-Ephenian
| |
Early forms | |
Official status | |
Official language in | Aeranid Empire |
Recognised minority language in | |
Language codes | |
CLCR | qco |
Aeranir, also known as coeñar aerānir (language of the Aerans), or coeñar inceris (language of the capital), is an Iscaric language in the Maro-Ephenian language group. It was originally spoken by the Aerans, developed in the deserts of Northern Iscaria in the city of Telrhamir, and spread with the expanse of the Aeranid Empire throughout Ephenia, as well as parts of Eubora and Syra. It later developed into the Aeranid languages, such as Dalot, Ilesse, Iscariano, Îredese, S'entigneis, and Tevrés. It is still used throughout Ephenia as a language of theology, science, medicine, literature, and law.
Aeranir had been standardised into Classical Aeranir by the time of the Early Empire, around the second millennia BNIA by the writer and educator Limius. The period before that is generally referred to as Old Aeranir. The language spoken between the 15th and 12th centuries BNIA is generally referred to Late Aeranir. This shift is marked by several grammatical and phonetic shifts. After that period, Aeranir began to splinter off into the various Aeranid languages. A form of Classical Aeranir called New Aeranir or Medieval Aeranir remained in use in official writings even after this period.
Aeranir is a highly inflective and fusional language, with three distinct genders, nine cases, two aspects, four moods, three persons, two or three voices, and two numbers.
History
Periodisation
The Aeranir language is descended from Proto-Iscaric, a theoretical reconstruction, which is in turn descended from Proto-Maro-Ephenian. This makes Aeranir a member of the Maro-Ephenian language family, along with Talothic, Fyrdan, and Marian. Because neither of these two proto-languages are attested in writing, it can be difficult to say when they were spoken, and when one transitioned into the other, but scholars generally agree that there was something that could be called Proto-Iscaric around the end of the 4th millennium BCA.
Proto-Iscaric was spoken by numerous Maro-Ephenian tribes which settled in Iscaria at the end of the 4th millennium. This evolved into numerous attested Iscaric languages, of which the language of the Aerans, who settled the region known as Aes, was but one. The oldest evidence of their language is found dating well after the founding of their most famous city, Telhramir, around 2500 BCA. This phase of the language, from around then to the later years of the Aeranid Kingdom, is known as Old Aeranir (called coeñar accuiha aerānir or aerānir accuiha by Classical and Golden Age sources).
Phonology
Consonants
The following is a table of phonemes in Aeranir. This analysis is based on Classical Aeranir, as it was used during the hight of the Aeranid Empire. The phonology, especially the number of vowel phonemes, varied greatly time, but this is seen as the standard version of the language.
Labial | Coronal | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
central | lateral | plain | labial | plain | labial | ||||
Nasal | m | n | ɲ | ||||||
Stop | p | t | k | kʷ | q | qʷ | |||
Affricate | ts | tɬ | |||||||
Fricative | f | s | h | ||||||
Liquid | r | l | j | w | ɦ |
Labial | Coronal | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
central | lateral | plain | labial | plain | labial | |||||
Nasal | m | n | ɲ | |||||||
Stop | aspirated | (pʰ) | (tʰ) | kʰ | qʰ | |||||
plain | p | t | k | kʷ | q | qʷ | ||||
voiced | (b) | (d) | (g) | |||||||
Affricate | voiceless | ts | tɬ | |||||||
voiced | (dz~z) | |||||||||
Fricative | f | s | h | |||||||
Liquid | ʋ | r | l | j | ɦ |
Labial | Coronal | Palatal | Velar | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
central | lateral | plain | labial | ||||
Nasal | m | n | ɲ | ||||
Stop | voiceless | p | t | c | k | kʷ | |
voiced | b | d | ɟ | g | |||
Affricate | ts | tɬ | |||||
Fricative | f | s | |||||
Liquid | r | l | j |
Notes on consonants
- The clusters /rh/, /nh/, and /lh/ vary greatly between dialects; [rɦ nɦ ɫɦ ~ rg ŋg ɫg ~ ʀː ŋː ʟː].
- The sequence /ks/ is written in the romanisation as x.
- The nasal consonant /n/ assimilates to the place of articulation of the following stop, so that /nk/ or /nqʷ/ for example become /ŋk/ and /ɴʷqʷ/. Before fricatives, /n/ is deleted, and the proceeding vowel is lengthened and nasalised. These processes apply between word boundries as well. Word final /n/ as part of case and personal markers is elided before a word starting with a vowel, fricative, approximate, or before a pausa. It often served as a shibboleth for discerning one's origins or social circles.
- The velar, labio-velar, and labio-uvular consonants /k/, /kʷ/, /q/, and /qʷ/ are palatalised before front vowels and /j/ to [k̟], [kᶣ], [k̠] and [k̠ᶣ] respectively. Futhermore, dental consonants /n/ and /t/ are palatalised before /j/ to [ɲ̟], and [tʲ]. The glottal fricative /h/ is also palatalised to [ç] before high front vowels and /j/. Some dialects also palatalise the postalveolar consonants /s/ and /ts/ to [ɕ] and [tɕ] before front vowels and /j/.
- The labialised consonants /kʷ/, and /qʷ/ are pronounced as truly labialised, rather than a sequence of two consonants, i.e. /kw/, /qw/. The voiced labiovelar stop only occurs after a nasal consonant.
- All consonants, with the exception of /ʋ/, can be geminated between vowels. This is denoted orthographically by doubling of the first letter of the phoneme, i.e. ⟨cc⟩, ⟨ff⟩, ⟨hh⟩, etc. The palatal approximate /j/ is always geminated to [jː] between vowels, but is written with a simple ⟨i⟩. Fricative /hː/ is usually realised as [çː]. In dialects that palatalise /s/ and /ts/, [çː] often becomes [ɕː], merging in some environments with /sː/.
- The lateral approximate /l/ has two allophones in Classical Aeranir; [l] before close front vowels, /j/, and when geminated, and [ɫ] elsewhere.
- The fricative /s/ is often pronounced further back in the mouth, closer to [s̠].
- The phoneme /h/ has two distinct allophones following the nasal /n/. When this cluster occurs natively within a word, /h/ is voiced and velarised to [g]. Nasal /n/ is likewise velarised to [ŋ]. Dialectically, the cluster /ŋg/ may be fortified to [gː] or lenited to [ŋː]. Before front vowels and /j/, these may appear as [ɲʝ], [ŋ˖g˖], [g˖ː], or [ŋ˖ː]. When the cluster /nh/ occurs where /h/ was once word initial, as result of a prefix, the nasal is deleted and the preceding vowel nasalised and lengthened, as with fricatives /s/ and /f/.
Vowels
Vowels in Aeranir underwent the greatest amount of change throughout time. Although the standard is considered to me Classical Aeranir as it was spoken in the 17th and 16th centuries bnia, this should not be seen in the context of a sliding historical spectrum. Below are listed three somewhat representative samples that provide a broad overview of general changes.
Front | Central | Back | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
short | long | short | long | short | long | |
Close | i | iː | u | uː | ||
Mid | e | eː | o | oː | ||
Open | a | aː |
Front | Central | Back | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
plain | rounded | |||||||
short | long | short | long | short | long | short | long | |
Close | ɪ | iː | ʏ | yː | ʊ | uː | ||
Mid-close | eː | øː | oː | |||||
Mid-open | ɛ | ɛː | ɔ | ɔː | ||||
Open | a | aː |
Front | Central | Back | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
plain | round | |||
Close | i | (y) | u | |
Mid-close | e | (ø) | o | |
Mid-open | ɛ | ɔ | ||
Open | a |
Notes on vowels
- The short high rounded vowel /ʏ/ is mostly a loan from Dalitian, and is not found in many native words, or words dating back to Old Aeranir. It is usually realised as [ɪ], and is only rounded in educated speech.
PME | Old | Classical | Late |
---|---|---|---|
*u[r₂, r₃, h]i | → ui /ui̯/ | → y /yː/ | → i /i/ |
*i[r₂, r₃, h]u | → iu /iu̯̯/ | ||
*ey, *ehi, *ēy, *hey | → ei /ei̯/ | → ī /iː/ | |
*i[r₂, r₃, h] | → ī /iː/ | ||
*i | → i /i/ | → i /ɪ/ | → e /e/ |
*oy, *o[r₂, r₃, h]i, *er₃i, *ōy, *[r₂, r₃, h]oy, *r₃ey |
→ oi /oi̯/ | → oe /øː/ | |
*eh, *ē | → e /eː/ | → e /eː/ | |
*e | → e /e/ | → e /ɛ/ | → è /ɛ/ |
*er₂i, *r₂ey | → ai /ai̯/ | → ae /ɛː/ | |
*ow, *o[r₂, r₃, h]u, *ōw, *[r₂, r₃, h]ow, *r₃ew, *ew, *ehu, *ēw, *hew |
→ ou /ou̯̯/ | → ū /uː/ | → u /u/ |
*u[r₂, r₃, h] | → ū /uː/ | ||
*u | → u /u/ | → u /ʊ/ | → o /o/ |
*o[r₂, r₃, h], *ō, *r₃e[r₂, r₃, h], *r₃ē, *er₃ |
→ o /oː/ | → o /oː/ | |
*o, *r₃e | → o /o/ | → o /ɔ/ | → ò /ɔ/ |
*er₂u, *r₂ew | → au /au̯̯/ | → au /ɔː/ | |
*er₂, *r₂ē | → ā /aː/ | → ā /aː/ | → a /a/ |
*[r̥₂, r̥₃, h̥] | → a /a/ | → a /a/ |
- Most non-intial short vowels in Proto-Iscairc were reduced to /i/ by the time of Old Aeranir. Many of these were then further reduced in Classical Aeranir (as discussed above), to the vowels represented by diaeresis. These merged in Late Aeranir to a schwa, but this schwa was deleted in many environments.
- Old Aeranir diphthongs /ei̯/ and /ou̯̯/ may have been realised as hightened pure vowels [eː~e̝ː] and [oː~o̝ː]. Before other vowels, /ei̯/ becomes simple [e] in Classical Aeranir. Likewise, Classical /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ rise to [e] and [o] before another vowel. These were then simplified into glides [j] and [w] in Late Aeranir.
- There are two realisations of high short vowels /ɪ/ and /ʊ/ before another vowel, depending on whether the proceeding syllable it light or heavy. Following a light syllable, the become glides [j] and [w]. Follwing a heavy syllable, an anaptyctic vowel is inserted, becoming [ɪj] and [ʊw]. These vowels are not represented in the orthography.
- Some peripheral dialects of Late Aeranir retained rounded front vowels /y/ and /ø/, while in most, including the speech of Telrhamir, they merged with their plain counterparts /i/ and /e/ respectively.
Stress
Syllable stress in Old Aeranir fell uniformly on the first syllable of a word. However, by the time of Classical Aeranir, stress had shifted to a more complex paradigm, generally falling on the penult (the second to last syllable) or the antipenult (the third to last syllable). Which one was determined by the weight of the penult.
Syllables are divided into one of two categories, or weights. These are light syllables and heavy syllables. A light syllable contains a maximum of one short vowel, alone or proceeded by a consonant or consonant cluster, while a heavy syllable may contain a long vowel, a coda consonant, or both. If the penult of a word is heavy, it is stressed. If not, the antipenult is stressed.
Dialects
- Pēcilia Cūvae
- The pēcilia cūvae ('Cuvan swing') refers to the particular musical quality of the Aeranir spoken in the Aes city of Cuva (cūva) during the classical and golden age of Aeranid civilisation. It was likened in the earliest records to the pēcilia traecōvus ('talothic swing'), and occasionally referred to as the pōnus traeceus ('talothic voice'). However, by the golden age, Talothic had lost its distinct melodious accent, and the these terms fell out of use. This is believed to be the reason that citizens of Cuva were called traeceolar ('little taloths'), and is the origin of the name of the city Triggiolari, founded as Traeceolar.
- Rather than the stress-accent of standard capitoline Aeranir, the speech of Cuva is marked by a distinctive pitch accent. Pitch in Cuva begins low, and then rises until a kernel mora, after which it immediately falls. Placement of the kernel mora generally falls on the third to last mora. However, the way morae are counted is somewhat complex. A short vowel, either proceeded by a consonant or consonant cluster, or bare, counts as one mora, and a long vowel of (spurious) diphthong counts as two. On top of that, coda consonants, rather singletons or clusters, also count as a mora. So, for example, each syllable of the word āctās is three morea; a-a-c.ta-a-s
- Pitch accent manifests differently depending on where the kernel falls. Then the kernel falls on a vowel, there is a downstep before it; e.g. āctās: a-a-c.ta-a-s /àák.tààs/ [ǎːk.tàːs].
Syntax
Word order
Aeranir is generally verb-initial in independent clauses, and verb-final in dependant clauses, including non-finite clauses using the infinitive, participle, gerund, etc.. These rules may be violated in poetry, however it is much more common to violate the former than the later.
qurra
read-3SG.C
Rāscānus
Rascanus-NOM.SG
salvan
book-ACC.SG
'Rascanus is reading a book'
Rāscānus
Rascanus-NOM.SG
salvan
book-ACC.SG
qurrea
read-SUBJ.3SG.C
'should Rascanus be reading a book...'
sircuīva
tell-PFV.3SG.C
īliō
Ilius-DAT.SG
Rāscānus
Rascanus-NOM.SG
salvan
book-ACC.SG
qurrīhā
read-INF
'Rascanus told Ilius that he was reading a book'
Nominal clitics attach to the end of verbs in independent clauses, and the beginning of verbs in dependant clauses.
taetue
drink-PFV.3SG.E
ne
=2SG
tīn
tea-ACC.SG
'You drank the tea'
tīn
tea-NOM.SG
ni
2SG=
taesun
drink-PFV.PTCP-E.NOM.SG
'The tea you drank'
Word order is much more free for nouns and noun phrases. Adjectives and genitives may either proceed or follow a noun (e.g. formun cōmus or cōmus formun, both 'the warm house;' umae menter or menter umae, both 'my mother's sibling'), although they adjectives generally follow, whilst genitives generally proceed. Prepositions always proceed their noun, whilst postpositions, which are far less common, always follow.
Due to agreement in gender, case, and number between nouns and adjectives, additional nouns may be inserted between a noun and its adjective without changing the meaning, in what is called hyperbaton:
ȳrē
listen-IMP
arte
person-VOC.SG
tihī
1SG.PRO-DAT
iūre
good-T.VOC.SG
'Listen to me good fellow!'
Nouns
Gender
Aeranir nouns are divided into three genders, all of which are directly inherited from late Proto-Maro-Ephenian. These known as the temporary (t), cyclical (c), and eternal (e) genders. The gender of a noun effects the adjectives and verbs that refer to it.
ēs
COP.3SG.T
ars
wumbo(T)-NOM.SG
raius
small-T.NOM.SG
'It's a small wumbo'
sa
COP.3SG.C
tlāna
flower(C)-NOM.SG
raia
small-C.NOM.SG
'It's a small flower'
sī
COP.3SG.E
nātlun
shell(E)-NOM.SG
raiun
small-E.NOM.SG
'It's a small shell'
The gender of most nouns can be easily inferred from its ending. Furthermore, there is often overlap between meaning and gender. Animate living beings and small, breakable objects are often temporary, while abstract concepts, natural processes, or seasonal plants are usually cyclical, and large, durable, inanimate objects are most likely eternal. However, some nouns have no relation to their gender. Personal names are either temporary or cyclical; eternal names are reserved for gods.
Case
Nouns in Aeranir have a series of different forms, called cases of the noun, which have different functions or meanings. For example, the word for 'king' is rēs when subject of a verb, but rēnin when it is the object:
- auhēs rēs 'the king sees (someone)' (nominative case)
- auhēs rēnin '(someone) sees the king' (accusative case)
There are a total of nine cases for most nouns in Aeranir. Outside of the nominative and accusative, they are as the following:
- Vocative: rēne iō!: 'o king!'
- Essive: seū rēnū: 'as this king'
- Instrumental: seōrun rēnerun: 'using this king'
- Genitive: sī rēnis: 'of this king'
- Dative: seō rēnī: 'to/for this king'
- Ablative: seā rēni: 'from/by this king'
- Locative: sīs rēnīs: 'at/with the king'
Sometimes the same endings, e.g. -ī and -ēs, are used for more than one case. Since the function of a word in Aeranir is shown by ending rather than word order, in theory requor rēnī could mean either 'I return to the king' or 'I return from the king.' In practice, however, such ambiguities are rare.
Uses of the cases
Genitive
The use of the genitive case in subordinate clauses has changed throughout the history of Aeranir, and even within the span of time referred to as 'Golden Age Aeranir,' usage was shifting. In Classical and Golden Age Aeranir the genitive could be used with the active voice to mark the subject of the verb, whilst in the middle voice it marked the object. The later is similar to the use of the genitive as a partitive object in Talothic. Some believe this similarity to be the inherited from Proto-Maro-Ephenian, whilst others claim that it is a case of parallel evolution or mutual influence.
tzilla
cat-NOM.SG
artis
person-GEN.SG
auhita
see-PFV.PTCP-C.NOM.SG
'The cat the person saw'
ars
person-NOM.SG
tzillae
cat-GEN.SG
auhitūnus
see-PFV.PTCP-T.NOM.SG
'The person who saw the cat'
The use of genitive objects dwindled in later Golden Age and Late Aeranir, being replaced by the accusative case with the active voice, or the ablative case with the middle voice, as in independent clauses. However, it remained used to mark the subject of dependent clauses, and in Late Aeranir even began to replace the nominative case in independent ones.
Ablative
- Ablative of motion implies movement away from or out of an object:
furuis
fall-PFV-T.3SG
pālā
tree-ABL.SG
'They fell from the tree'
- Agentive ablative marks the agent by whom the action of a passive verb in performed:
īcēlāre
eat-PFV-PASS-E.3SG
pannun
bread-NOM.SG
Traetiā
Traetius-ABL.SG
cnōtun
last-E.NOM.SG
'The last of the bread was eaten by Traetius'
Declensions
Class I
salva c. book, tome | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | ||||
word | ending | word | ending | ||
Primary prīstūmus |
Nominative | salva | -a | salvar | -ar |
Accusative | salvan | -an | salvae | -ae | |
Vocative | salva | -a | salvar | -ar | |
Existential soniāmus |
Essive | salvau | -au | salvur | -ur |
Instrumental | salvārun | -ārun | salvōs | -ōs | |
Genitive | salvae | -ae | salvābus | -ābus | |
Directive satūmus |
Dative | salvō | -ō | salvāna | -āna |
Ablative | salvā | -ā | salvās | -ās | |
Locative | salvīs | -īs | salvā | -ā |
Class II
pernus t. storm, chaos |
nātlun e. shell, carapace | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | ||||||
word | ending | word | ending | word | ending | word | ending | ||
Primary prīstūmus |
Nominative | pernus | -us | pernur | -ur | nātlun | -un | nātlunt | -unt |
Accusative | pernun | -un | pernī | -ī | |||||
Vocative | perne | -e | pernur | -ur | |||||
Existential soniāmus |
Essive | pernū | -ū | pernur | -ur | nātlū | -ū | nātlur | -ur |
Instrumental | pernōrun | -ōrun | pernōs | -ōs | nātlōrun | -ōrun | nātlōs | -ōs | |
Genitive | pernī | -ī | pernōvus | -ōvus | nātlī | -ī | nātlōvus | -ōvus | |
Directive satūmus |
Dative | pernō | -ō | pernōna | -ōna | nātlō | -ō | nātlōna | -ōna |
Ablative | pernā | -ā | pernōs | -ōs | nātlā | -ā | nātlōs | -ōs | |
Locative | pernīs | -īs | pernā | -ā | nātlīs | -īs | nātlā | -ā |
Pronouns
Personal Pronouns
First person | Second person | Reflexive | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
singular I |
plural we |
singular you |
plural y'all |
singular/plural himself/herself/ itself/themselves | |||||||||
full | clitic | full | clitic | full | clitic | full | clitic | full | clitic | ||||
Primary prīstūmus |
Nominative | aecū | te | eōs | ī | hanae | ne | rōs | er | cē | ce | ||
Vocative | |||||||||||||
Accusative | tē | eon | nē | ron | |||||||||
Existential soniāmus |
Essive | tōs | eor | nōs | rō | cū | |||||||
Genitive | tī | īster | nī | rester | cī | ||||||||
Directive satūmus |
Dative | tihī | īvīs | nivī | urvīs | civī | |||||||
Ablative | tētē | eōvōs | nēnē | rōvōs | cēcē |
Third person pronouns
Singular | Plural | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Temporary | Cyclical | Eternal | Temporary | Cyclical | Eternal | ||
Primary prīstūmus |
Nominative | us | va | um | ur | var | ūns |
Vocative | |||||||
Accusative | um | vam | vī | vae | |||
Existential soniāmus |
Essive | ū | vau | ū | ur | vur | ur |
Instrumental | urun | vārun | urun | vēs | vōs | vēs | |
Genitive | vis | vae | vis | vus | vāvus | vus | |
Directive satūmus |
Dative | vī | vō | vī | vina | vāna | vina |
Ablative | vit | vā | vit | vēs | vās | vēs | |
Locative | vis | vīs | vis | vā | vā | vā |
Demonstrative pronouns
Demonstratives underwent a great deal of change during the latest stages of Classical Aeranir, and much of the older forms were preserved in Golden Age Aeranir alongside their newer counterparts. The Classical Aeranir distal and medial demonstratives were formed from the third person pronoun us, va, un plus a suffix. This produced a variety of irregular forms, which were regularised in early Golden Age Aeranir. However, which stem was taken to become the new regular form varied between times, locations, and speakers. Generally, two stems were predominant for each demonstrative; with the medial varying between ust- and unt- and the distal between ūl- and ull-. Eventually, the former of the two became more common, although the latter remained in marginal use, even into the Aeranid languages.
seus, sea, seun this, this one (proximal) |
ustus, usta, untun that of yours (medial) |
ūlus, ūla, ūllun that, that one (distal) | ||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |||||||||||||
Temporary | Cyclical | Eternal | Temporary | Cyclical | Eternal | Temporary | Cyclical | Eternal | Temporary | Cyclical | Eternal | Temporary | Cyclical | Eternal | Temporary | Cyclical | Eternal | |
Nominative | seus | sea | seun | seur | sear | seunt | ustus | usta | untun | urtur | urtar | untunt | ūlus | ūla | ullun | ullur | ullar | ullunt |
Accusative | seun | sean | sī | seae | untun | untan | vītī | vītae | ullun | ullan | vīlī | vīlae | ||||||
Vocative | sē | sea | seur | sear | uste | usta | urtur | urtar | ūle | ūla | ullur | ullar | ||||||
Essive | seū | seau | seū | seur | ūtū | ūtau | ūtū | urtur | ūlū | ūlau | ūlū | ullur | ||||||
Instrumental | seōrun | seārun | seōrun | seōs | untōrun | untārun | untōrun | vēstōs | ullōrun | ullārun | ullōrun | vēlōs | ||||||
Genitive | sī | seae | sī | seōvus | seāvus | seōvus | vistī | vistae | vistī | vustōvus | vustāvus | vustōvus | vīlī | vīlae | vīlī | vūlōvus | vūlāvus | vūlōvus |
Dative | seō | seōna | seāna | seōna | vītō | vintōna | vintāna | vintōna | vīlō | villōna | villāna | villōna | ||||||
Ablative | seā | seōs | seās | seōs | vistā | vēstōs | vēstās | vēstōs | vīlā | vēlōs | vēlās | vēlōs | ||||||
Locative | sīs | seā | vistīs | vātā | vīlīs | vālā |
Even after the new regular demonstratives had been widely adopted, the old ones continued to be used for stylistic purposes, and where considered more proper for official writing, speech, and communication.
In Classical Aeranir, demonstratives could stand for a person or thing, but also a place—there was no distinction between 'this' and 'here.' However, in Golden Age Aeranir, another one of the old stems was generalised to create dedicated locative pronouns vistus, vista, vistun 'there (near you),' and vīlus, vīla, vīlun 'there (far away).' By analogy, the proximal locative demonstrative viseus, visea, viseun 'here' was also created. These were used along side the regular demonstratives to express location.
Possessive pronouns
Possessive pronouns in Aeranir distinguish between many more different types of possession than ordinary nouns, which use only the genitive to mark possession, ownership, association, etc. Pronouns distinguish both alienable and inalienable possession.
1st person | 2nd person | 3rd person | reflexive | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
proximal | distal | medial | |||||||||
singular | plural | singular | plural | singular | plural | singular | plural | singular | plural | ||
inalienable | tī te |
īster | nī ne |
rester | sī se |
seōvus | ūlī | ūlōvus | ustī | ustōvus | cī ce |
alienable | tuius | eius | nuius | ruius | seius | ūleius | usteius | cuius |
Objects of inalienable possession are marked with the genitive of a personal or demonstrative pronoun. These include body parts, kinship and familiarity terms, personal attributes, emotions, or thoughts. These pronouns generally proceed the possessee, although that is not always the case, especially in poety. Singular pronouns tī, nī, cī, sī, ustī, and ūlī may be appear as tei, nei, cei, sei, usti, ūli before words starting with a vowel, and te, ne, ce, se, ust, ūl before words starting with i.
se
this-T.GEN.SG
incus
head-NOM.SG
'this one's head'
Alienable possession, including essentially all other categories, is marked via possessive adjectives. These adjective may appear either before or after the possessee, but usually come afterwards. Oftentimes, the different use of alienable/inalienable pronouns may hint at a difference in meaning. The word indus, for example, may mean 'head,' but also 'capital' or 'leader.' With inalienable pronouns, however, it always means 'head,' versus with alienable pronouns, it means 'capital,' or 'leader' because while a head is inalienable, a capital or leader is not. However, this might not always be the case, depending on the possessor and context.
ēs
COP.3SG.T
incus
head-NOM.SG
telūhramir
mesa-ESS.SG=hram-GEN.PL
tuius
mine-T.NOM.SG
'My capital is Telhramir'
ēs
COP.3SG.T
ūlae
that_one's-C.GEN.SG
(tlānae
(flower-GEN.SG
aerānihae)
Aeranid-C.GEN.SG)
incus
head-NOM.SG
telūrhamir
mesa-ESS.SG=rham-GEN.PL
'Its (the Aeranid Empire's) capital is Telrhamir'
Adverbs
Adverbs in Aeranir are used to modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs indicating time, manner, or place. Most adjectives are formed from nouns or adjectives, although they can be derived from some verbs, especially stative verbs. There are a variety of different formulation strategies, depending on the class of the noun/adjective/verb.
- formus ("warm" 1st-2nd declension adjective) → formē ("warmly")
- aerās ("an Aeran" 3rd declension noun) → aerāne ("like an Aeran")
- raelis ("a child" 3rd declension i-stem noun) → raeliter ("like a child")
- vȳlēs ("three days from now" 4th declension noun) → vȳlē ("every three days")
- sacus ("a pin" 5th declension noun) → saciter ("sharply, like a pin")
One of the most notable uses of the adverbial form is with verbs like ficitz ("it makes me"), fitz ("I become"), and caitz ("I change into"). Adverbs can be used to denote the result of a change of state in such a clause.
fīx
make.PFV-3SG.T
prīstus
first-NOM.SG
pāliōne
provincial_governor-ADV
Boezymiae
Boezymia-GEN.SG
'The First Senator made them provincial governor of Boezymia'
sa
COP-3SG.C
Īliō
Ilius-DAT.SG
qūria
power-NOM.SG
tzillē
cat-ADV
cainnī
change_form-GER-GEN
'Ilius has the power to turn into a cat'
Verbs
Conjugation
Agreement
![](/w/images/thumb/8/86/Dga_pyramid.png/250px-Dga_pyramid.png)
Verbs in Aeranir are conjugated to agree with the number, the person, and in the third person singular, the gender of the most oblique argument given a word's valency, as defined by the DGA pyramid[1]. Here, S represents the subject of an intransitive verb, such as 'the person' in 'the person laughed.' A represents the agent of a transitive verb (also occasually called the subject), or the person or thing that does the action of the verb, such as 'the child' in 'the child reads the book.' D marks the donor, a special type of agent, who gives something or does a the action of a verb for the benefit of another, such as ‘the senator’ in ‘the senator gave the cat some milk.’ These are collectively called the nominative argument, and are expressed usually with the nominative case, but also occasionally with the genitive case in dependant clauses.
P represents the patient of a transitive verb, or the person or thing towhich the verb is done, also called the direct object, such as ‘the book’ in ‘the child reads the book.’ T represents the theme, or the object that is given to someone or something, such as ‘the milk’ in ‘the senator gave the cat some milk.’ These two roles make up the accusative argument, which is marked with the accusative case. Finally, R represents the recipient, or the person who recieves the theme from the donor, or benefits from the donor's action, with a ditransitive verb, also commonly called the indirect object, such as 'the cat' in 'the senator gave the cate some milk.'
Aeranir verbs conjugate their endings to agree with the most oblique argument in a clause. That means the subject of an intransitive verb (e.g. clautitz; 'I laugh'), the patient of a transitive verb (e.g. auhente; 'I look at you'), or the recipient of a ditransitive verb (e.g. tzavī'r salvae; 'you all gave me the books').
mollī
leak-3SG.E
cōmus
house-NOM.SG
'The house is leaking'
requis
return-3SG.C
te
=1SG
coptin
hat-ACC.SG
nuiun
2SG.POS.PRO-T.ACC.SG
'I'm giving back your hat'
imptās
send-POT.3SG.T
ne
=2SG
mu
=INTERR
sōlī
clothing-ACC.PL
nomī
new-IPFV.PTCP-T.ACC.SG
Sētīlī
Setil-DAT.SG
'Can you send Setil the new clothes?'
It should be noted that a verb in the active voice must always have the maximum number of arguments according to its inherent transitivity. This means, for example, that one can never say 'John eats.' Because 'to eat' is transitive, there must be a patient, or direct object, e.g. 'John eats food.' However, there are a number of valancy dropping operations available in Aeranir to allow various arguments to be dropped, which are discussed in the section on voice.
Additional arguments can be expressed with pronominal clitics attached to the end of a verb in independant clauses and to the beginning in dependant ones (e.g.auhente; 'I look at you,' tzāvī'r salvae; 'you all gave me the books'), however these are not considered part of a verbs conjugation, and are optional, especially if the information can be assumed or is known between speakers.
Number of Conjugations
Aspect → | Imperfective | Perfective | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mood → Voice ↓ |
Indicative | Subjunctive | Desiderative | Potential | Indicative | Subjunctive | Desiderative | Potential |
Active | aehatz They love me |
aehet They should love me |
aehārit They want to love me |
aehātatz They can love me |
aehāvī They loved me |
aehēvī They should have loved me |
aehāruī They wanted to love me |
aehātāvī They could have loved me |
Middle | aehor I love |
aeheō I should love |
aehārō I want to love |
aehātor I can love |
aehāvō I loved |
aehēvō I should have loved |
aehāruō I wanted to love |
aehātāvō I could have loved |
Passive | aehālō I am loved |
aehēlō I should be loved |
aehārēlō I want to be loved |
aehātālō I can be loved |
aehāvēlō I was loved |
aehēvēlō I should have been loved |
aehāruēlō I wanted to be loved |
aehātāvēlō I could have been loved |
Causative | aehātitz They let me love them |
aehātiat They should let me love them |
aehātīrit They want to let me love them |
aehāssītatz They can let me love them |
aehātīvī They have let me love them |
aehātiāvī They should have let me love them |
aehātīruī They wanted to let me love them |
aehāssītāvī They could have let me love them |
Conjugation formation
IPFV | A-grade | I-grade | E-grade | Null-grade | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
strong | weak | strong | weak | strong | weak | strong | weak | ||
ACT | IND | ROOT-ā-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-ī-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-ē-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-ACT.IPFV | ||||
SUBJ | ROOT-ē-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-iā-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-eā-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-ē-ACT.IPFV | |||||
DES | ROOT-s-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-ār-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-s-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-er/īr-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-s-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-er/īr-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-s-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-er-ACT.IPFV | |
POT | ROOT-tā-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-ātā-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-tā-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-itā/ītā-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-tā-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-itā/ītā-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-tā-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-itā-ACT.IPFV | |
MID | IND | ROOT-ā-MID.IPFV | ROOT-ī-MID.IPFV | ROOT-ē-MID.IPFV | ROOT-MID.IPFV | ||||
SUBJ | ROOT-ē-MID.IPFV | ROOT-iā-MID.IPFV | ROOT-eā-MID.IPFV | ROOT-ē-MID.IPFV | |||||
DES | ROOT-s-MID.IPFV | ROOT-ār-MID.IPFV | ROOT-s-MID.IPFV | ROOT-er/īr-MID.IPFV | ROOT-s-MID.IPFV | ROOT-er/īr-MID.IPFV | ROOT-s-MID.IPFV | ROOT-er-MID.IPFV | |
POT | ROOT-tā-MID.IPFV | ROOT-ātā-MID.IPFV | ROOT-tā-MID.IPFV | ROOT-itā/ītā-MID.IPFV | ROOT-tā-MID.IPFV | ROOT-itā/ītā-MID.IPFV | ROOT-tā-MID.IPFV | ROOT-itā-MID.IPFV | |
PAS | IND | ROOT-ā-PAS.IPFV | ROOT-ī-PAS.IPFV | ROOT-ē-PAS.IPFV | ROOT-PAS.IPFV | ||||
SUBJ | ROOT-ē-PAS.IPFV | ROOT-iā-PAS.IPFV | ROOT-eā-PAS.IPFV | ROOT-ā-PAS.IPFV | |||||
DES | ROOT-s-PAS.IPFV | ROOT-ār-PAS.IPFV | ROOT-s-PAS.IPFV | ROOT-er/īr-PAS.IPFV | ROOT-s-PAS.IPFV | ROOT-er/īr-PAS.IPFV | ROOT-s-PAS.IPFV | ROOT-er-PAS.IPFV | |
POT | ROOT-tā-PAS.IPFV | ROOT-ātā-PAS.IPFV | ROOT-tā-PAS.IPFV | ROOT-itā/ītā-PAS.IPFV | ROOT-tā-PAS.IPFV | ROOT-itā/ītā-PAS.IPFV | ROOT-tā-PAS.IPFV | ROOT-itā-PAS.IPFV | |
CAUS | IND | ROOT-tī-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-ātī-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-tī-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-itī/ītī-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-tī-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-itī/ītī-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-tī-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-itī-ACT.IPFV |
SUBJ | ROOT-tiā-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-ātiā-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-tiā-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-itiā/ītiā-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-tiā-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-itiā/itiā-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-tiā-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-itiā-ACT.IPFV | |
DES | ROOT-tier-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-ātier-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-tier-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-itier/ītier-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-tier-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-itier/ītier-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-tier-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-itier-ACT.IPFV | |
POT | ROOT-sītā-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-āsītā-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-sītā-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-issītā/īsītā-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-sītā-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-issītā/īsītā-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-sītā-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-issītā-ACT.IPFV | |
PFV | A-grade | I-grade | E-grade | Null-grade | |||||
strong | weak | strong | weak | strong | weak | strong | weak | ||
ACT | IND | ROOT-ACT.PFV | ROOT-u/āv-ACT.PFV | ROOT-ACT.PFV | ROOT-u/īv-ACT.PFV | ROOT-ACT.PFV | ROOT-u/ēv-ACT.PFV | ROOT-ACT.PFV | ROOT-u-ACT.PFV |
SUBJ | ROOT-ē-ACT.PFV | ROOT-uē/ēv-ACT.PFV | ROOT-ē-ACT.IPFV | ROOT-uē/iāv-ACT.PFV | ROOT-ē-ACT.PFV | ROOT-uē/eāv-ACT.PFV | ROOT-ē-ACT.PFV | ROOT-uē-ACT.PFV | |
DES | ROOT-su-ACT.PFV | ROOT-āru-ACT.PFV | ROOT-su-ACT.PFV | ROOT-eru/īru-ACT.PFV | ROOT-s-ACT.PFV | ROOT-eru/īru-ACT.PFV | ROOT-su-ACT.PFV | ROOT-eru-ACT.PFV | |
POT | ROOT-tāv-ACT.PFV | ROOT-ātāv-ACT.PFV | ROOT-tāv-ACT.PFV | ROOT-itāv/ītāv-ACT.PFV | ROOT-tāv-ACT.PFV | ROOT-itāv/ītāv-ACT.PFV | ROOT-tāv-ACT.PFV | ROOT-itāv-ACT.PFV | |
MID | IND | ROOT-MID.PFV | ROOT-u/āv-MID.PFV | ROOT-MID.PFV | ROOT-u/īv-MID.PFV | ROOT-MID.PFV | ROOT-u/ēv-MID.PFV | ROOT-MID.PFV | ROOT-u-MID.PFV |
SUBJ | ROOT-ē-MID.PFV | ROOT-uē/ēv-MID.PFV | ROOT-ē-MID.PFV | ROOT-uē/iā-MID.PFV | ROOT-ē-MID.PFV | ROOT-uē/eā-MID.PFV | ROOT-ē-MID.PFV | ROOT-uē-MID.PFV | |
DES | ROOT-su-MID.PFV | ROOT-āru-MID.PFV | ROOT-su-MID.PFV | ROOT-eru/īru-MID.PFV | ROOT-su-MID.PFV | ROOT-eru/īru-MID.PFV | ROOT-su-MID.PFV | ROOT-eru-MID.PFV | |
POT | ROOT-tāv-MID.PFV | ROOT-ātāv-MID.PFV | ROOT-tāv-MID.PFV | ROOT-itāv/ītāv-MID.PFV | ROOT-tāv-MID.PFV | ROOT-itāv/ītāv-MID.PFV | ROOT-tāv-MID.PFV | ROOT-itāv-MID.PFV | |
PAS | IND | ROOT-PAS.PFV | ROOT-u/āv-PAS.PFV | ROOT-PAS.PFV | ROOT-u/īv-PAS.PFV | ROOT-PAS.PFV | ROOT-u/ēv-PAS.PFV | ROOT-PAS.PFV | ROOT-u-PAS.PFV |
SUBJ | ROOT-PAS.PFV | ROOT-uē/ēv-PAS.PFV | ROOT-PAS.PFV | ROOT-uē/iāv-PAS.PFV | ROOT-PAS.PFV | ROOT-uē/eā-PAS.PFV | ROOT-PAS.PFV | ROOT-uē-PAS.PFV | |
DES | ROOT-su-PAS.PFV | ROOT-āru-PAS.PFV | ROOT-su-PAS.PFV | ROOT-eru/īru-PAS.PFV | ROOT-su-PAS.PFV | ROOT-eru/īru-PAS.PFV | ROOT-su-PAS.PFV | ROOT-eru-PAS.PFV | |
POT | ROOT-tāv-PAS.PFV | ROOT-ātāv-PAS.PFV | ROOT-tāv-PAS.PFV | ROOT-itāv/ītāv-PAS.PFV | ROOT-tāv-PAS.PFV | ROOT-itāv/ītāv-PAS.PFV | ROOT-tāv-PAS.PFV | ROOT-itāv-PAS.PFV | |
CAUS | IND | ROOT-tīv-ACT.PFV | ROOT-ātīv-ACT.PFV | ROOT-tīv-ACT.PFV | ROOT-itīv/ītīv-ACT.PFV | ROOT-tīv-ACT.PFV | ROOT-itīv/ītīv-ACT.PFV | ROOT-tīv-ACT.PFV | ROOT-itīv-ACT.PFV |
SUBJ | ROOT-tiāv-ACT.PFV | ROOT-ātiāv-ACT.PFV | ROOT-tiāv-ACT.PFV | ROOT-itiāv/ītiāv-ACT.PFV | ROOT-tiāv-ACT.PFV | ROOT-itiāv/itiāv-ACT.PFV | ROOT-tiāv-ACT.PFV | ROOT-itiāv-ACT.PFV | |
DES | ROOT-tieru-ACT.PFV | ROOT-ātieru-ACT.PFV | ROOT-tieru-ACT.PFV | ROOT-itieru/ītieru-ACT.PFV | ROOT-tieru-ACT.PFV | ROOT-itieru/ītieru-ACT.PFV | ROOT-tieru-ACT.PFV | ROOT-itieru-ACT.PFV | |
POT | ROOT-sītāv-ACT.PFV | ROOT-āsītāv-ACT.PFV | ROOT-sītāv-ACT.PFV | ROOT-issītāv/īsītāv-ACT.PFV | ROOT-sītāv-ACT.PFV | ROOT-issītāv/īsītāv-ACT.PFV | ROOT-sītāv-ACT.PFV | ROOT-issītāv-ACT.PFV |
Principle Parts
The verb in Aeranir is primarily made of three parts: root, theme, and ending, with an optional forth category, the suffix, for forming the perfective. The root and theme combine to form the stem. The root carries the semantic content of the word, and can also be conjugated to carry modal imformation. The theme describes how the stem interacts with the ending, and can also be changed, along with the stem and endings, to express a variety of different grammatical meanings. Endings indicate the voice, aspect, person, number, and gender of the most oblique argument in the DGA scheme.
Active | Middle | Passive | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Imperfective | Perfective | Imperfective | Perfective | Imperfective | Perfective | |||
Singular | 1st Person | -itz/-it | -ī | -or/-ō | -ō | -ēlō | -ēlō | |
2nd Person | -in | -in | -istī | -ist | -ēlāstī | -ēlast | ||
3rd Person | temporary | -is | -is | -erur | -ere | -ēlārur | -ēlāre | |
cyclical | -a | -a | -era | -ēlāra | ||||
eternal | -ī | -e | -erur | -ēlārur | ||||
Plural | 1st Person | -imus | -ime | -imur | -imur | -ēlāmur | -ēlāme | |
2nd Person | -itis | -ite | -itur | -itur | -ēlātur | -ēlāte | ||
3rd Person | -intz/-int | -int | -intur | -intur | -ēlantur | -ēlante |
The way in which a verb will conjugate can be determined from how it forms the following five constructions:
- the active idicative imperfective first person singular
- the active imperfective accusative infinitive
- the active perfective participle
- the active desiderative imperfective first person singular
- the active indicative perfective first person singular
These five forms are refered to as a verb's reference forms. They are often shortend to first person singular (1p.sg), accusative infinitive (acc.inf), perfective participle (pfv.ptcp), desiderative first person singular (des.1p.sg), and perfective first person singular (pfv.1p.sg) respectively.
The first two of these reference forms determines a verb's base theme vowel, or what vowel is used in its indicative imperfective forms. There are four main thematic classes; one weak or null class, wherein the ending is applied directly to the stem, and three strong classes, wherein a thematic vowel is inserted between the stem and the ending.
t-stem | s-stem | |
---|---|---|
-m- | → -mpt- | → -s-* |
-n- | → -nt- | |
-ñ- | → -ñct- | |
-p- | → -pt- | → -ps- |
-t- | → -ss- → -s-** |
→ -ss- → -s-** |
-tl- | ||
-tz- | ||
-c- | → -ct- | → -x- |
-cu- | ||
-q- | → -qt- | → -qs- |
-qu- | ||
-s- | → -st- | → -ss- → -s-** |
-r- | → -st- → -s-** → -rt-†† |
→ -ss- → -s-** → -rr-†† |
-l- | → -s-** → -lt-†† |
→ -s-** → -ll-†† |
-v- | → -ut-‡ → -ct-*†† → -qt-*†† |
→ -ur-‡ → -x-*†† → -qs-*†† |
-i- | → -ct-* → -qt-*†† |
→ -x-* → -qs-*†† |
-h- | ||
-V- | → -Vt- | → -Vr- |
Ending | Theme | ||
---|---|---|---|
-ā- | -ē- | -ī- | |
-itz | → -atz | → -etz | → -itz |
-is | → -ās | → -ēs | → -īs |
-a | → -a | → -ea | → -ia |
-ī | → -ae | → -ī | → -ī |
-imus | → -āmus | → -ēmus | → -īmus |
-or | → -or | → -eor | → -ior |
-ēlō | → -ālō | → -ēlō | → -iēlō |
The second two determine a verb's t-stem and s-stem. These stem alterations are used for further conjugation, the t-stem forming the active and middle perfective participles, the causative voice, and the potential mood, and the s-stem forming the desiderative. The t- and s-forms often are identical, however meaning is useally further differentiated by thematic vowels, so completely identical forms are rare.
The final form determines how a verb with form the perfective aspect. Generally, there are three main strategies for this: the application of suffix -u- directly after the stem (e.g. oelitz ("I work") → oeluī ("I worked")), the appication of the suffix -v- after a theme vowel (e.g. aehatz ("they love me") → aehāvī ("they loved me")), or no suffix, with lengthening of the root vowel (e.g. lecitz ("I choose") → lēcī ("I chose")). It should be noted that the perfective is always followed by weak endings.
Occassionally, a thematic vowel, weak or strong, may be inserted before the t- or s-stem. This is most common in verbs with a base thematic -ā-, which often functions as a part of the stem (e.g. aehatz → aehātus ("that loved") aehārit ("they want to love me") vs. mavatz ("I wander") → mautus ("that wandered") maurit ("I want to wander)). This may occur with other theme classes, although it should be noted that -ē- is never used, and is always replaced with -ī-.
Aspect
Aeranir verbs have two basic aspects, which express how the verb extends over time. Aspect differs from tense in that it deals with the completion or continuity of an action or state, rather than the absolute timeframe inwhich it took place. Each aspect may be in any voice and/or mood. Aspect is expressed primarily through endings, and secondarily through the suffix, as discussed above.
Imperfective
The imperfective aspect describes a situation viewed with interior composition. It describes ongoing, habitual, or repeated situations, rather or not they occured in the past, present, or future. The imperfective aspect is considered the most basic, unmarked aspect of a verb. The stem is uninflected, and endings are attached directly to the verb's basic theme vowel.
Pefective
The perfective aspect in Aeranir describes situations viewed with exterior composition, which is to say actions which are completed and viewed as a unified whole, whether thet take place in the past present, or future, although this construction is very rarely used in for the future.
There are a variety of different strategies to form the perfective. Many of them involve the suffix, which takes the form of -v- between vowels and -u- after consonants. All of them take the perfective endings.
- Attachment of the suffix directly to the stem.
- Attachment of the suffix after base thematic vowel.
- No suffix; perfective endings attached directly to the stem, with root vowel lengthening.
Mood
Indicative
The indicative mood is the baseline grammatical mood in Aeranir. It is used in declarative statements, to express statements or facts, of what the speaker considers true or known. It is the least marked mood of a verb, taking endings directly to the base theme vowel, stem, or suffix.
Subjunctive
The subjunctive mood (subj) has numerous, but genreally speaking is used to express such nuances as 'would,' 'should,' or 'may.' It can be used to refer to information that the speaker is unsure about, such as hearsay, or for theoretical or hypotherical situations. It is often found in subordinate clauses, annd may be used for conditional statements (e.g. if..., when...).
Type | Change | Example | |
---|---|---|---|
Weak Verbs | -ø- → -ē- | meñitz → meñet | |
-ē- → -ā- | meñēlō → meñālō | ||
Strong Verbs |
a-stem | -ā- → -ē- | aehatz → aehet aehālō → aehēlō |
i-stem | -ī- → -iā- | sēpitz → sēpiat | |
-iē- → -iā- | sēpiēlō → sēpiālō | ||
e-stem | -ē- → -eā- | cōretz → cōreat cōrēlō → cōreālō |
Forming the subjunctive
The subjunctive is formed by shifting a verb's base theme vowel, as described by the table to the left. This shift happens after the stem, but may be either before or after the suffix, depending on whether or not there is a theme vowel before the suffix in the indicative. So the perfective of aehēs ("they should love it") is aehēvis (from indicative aehāvis) but sēpiās ("they should cut it") is sēpuēs (from indicative sēpuis), not **aehāvēs or **sēpēvis. Although these forms are occasionally found in non-standard writing, they are considered incorrect my grammaticians.
The imperfective subjunctive uses the 1st person sungular -it instead of -itz, and -ō instead of -or: pacitz, pacior ("they take me, I take") become paciat, paciō ("they should take me, I should take").
The 1st person subjunctive perfective in verbs that have no theme vowel before the suffix and does not extend the root vowel is identical to the indicative, and the mood must be inferred through conext: saepuī may be either "they cut me" or "They should cut me." The 3rd person active cyclical singulars in verbs with base theme vowels -ī- and -ē- are also identical, e.g. both pacia ("they take it/they should take it"), auhea ("they see it/they should see it").
Uses of the subjunctive
The subjunctive has numerous uses, ranging from what potentially might be true to what the speaker wishes or commands should happen. It is often translated with 'should', 'could', 'would', 'may' and so on, but in certain contexts it is translated as if it were an ordinary indicative verb.
One use of the subjunctive is the speculative subjunction, used when the speaker imagines what potentially may, might, would, or could happen in the present or future or might have happened in the past. Negation for this type uses mū.
auheārur
see-MID.SUBJ.3SG.E
seun
this-E.NOM.SG
oeliun
job-NOM.SG
stērē
hard-ADV
'This job seems difficult'
moeiea
please-SUBJ.3SG.C
Osculan
Little.Oscus-ACC.SG
tzānū
gift-ESS.SG
salva
book-NOM.SG
'Little Oscus may like a book as a gift'
The subjunctive may also be used as the optative subjunctive, expressing what the speaker wishes may happen, or wishes had happened. These expresses a weaker or more generalised desire, as opposed to the desiderative mood. Negation for this type uses mū.
ciāvis
come-PFV.SUBJ.3SG.T
mū
NEG
seus
this-T.NOM.SG
incerī
capital-DAT.SG
pernus
storm-NOM.SG
'If only this storm hadn't come to the capital!'
The jussive subjunctive can be used for commands or suggestions for what should happen. It is less direct and far more common than the imperative. Negation for this type uses mīm.
ven
go-SUBJ.2SG
hānō
temple-DAT.SG
ē
against
vecō
curse-DAT.SG
veniennō
win-GER-DAT
'You should go to the temple to prevail against the curse'
Perhaps the most common use of the subjunctive is the conditional subjunctive. When the subjunctive is used in a subordinate clause (with the verb moving to the final position), it may carry the meaning 'if, when, should, etc..' This can be used both in finite verb forms, and with participles, the former being more popular in Old inscriptions and the later in Classical ones. Negation for this type uses mīm.
Desiderative
The desiderative is used primarily to express wants or desires. While the subjunctive may be used for this as well (see optative subjunctive), the desiderative is considered less abstract or wishful, signalling concrete and actionable wants. It is formed from the s-stem of a verb, with no theme vowel between it and the ending, and using the secondary first person singular and third person plural markers (e.g. -it and -end vs. primary -itz and -entz). Verbs generally follow three patterns to form the s-stem;
- -s- is appended to the root, causing no other alteration to the root.
- -s- is appended after a theme vowel, causing -s- to become -r-.
- -s- is appended to the root, causing some alteration to the root, and perhaps the -s- augment as well.
Potential
The potential mood indicates that, in the opinion of the speaker, one has the ability or capability to do something. It should not be confused with the subjunctive mood, which may be used to express that something is likely or possible to occur. The potential always deals with ability. It may be formed from the t-stem of a verb, plus the thematic vowel -a- (as opposed to the causative voice, which is formed with the t-stem plus the thematic vowel -i-). Like the desiderative, there are three main paradigms by which the t-stem of a verb is formed;
- -t- is appended to the root, causing no other alteration to the root.
- -t- is appended after a theme vowel.
- -t- is appended to the root, causing some alteration to the root, and perhaps the -t- augment as well.
It should be noted that in the causative voice of the potential mood, the first -t- augment often dissimilates to -s/ss-;
- auhititz ("they let me look at it") → **auhitītatz → auhissītatz ("they can let me look at it")
- reqtitz ("they let me return it") → **reqtītatz → reqsītatz ("they can let me return it")
Voice
Active
Middle
The middle voice (also called the mediopassive voice) is in the middle between the active and the passive voices, as the subject often cannot be categorised as either agent or patient but may have elements of both. The middle voice is usually inherently intransitive, and transitive or ditransitive verbs conjugated into the middle voice usually become intransitive themselves. It is formed by attaching the middle verb endings to the root of a verb.
The meaning of a verb in the middle voice often depends on the context of the sentence and the lexical properties of the word itself. In its most basic sense, it may be used simply as a valancy decreasing operation. As transitive verbs require an object in the active voice (because transitive verbs must agree with the object), the middle voice may be used merely to omit an object, to highlight the subject or some other part of the sentence, or to simply make a blanket statement.
- aehatz 'they love me' (active) → aehor 'I love' (middle)
- lecis 'theyi choose themj' (active) → lecerur 'theyj choose' (middle)
Animacy can play a major role in the meaning of a verb in the middle voice. Verbs with more animate subjects, such as people, animals, gods, etc., may be interpreted as more towards an active meaning, whilst less animate subjects, like inanimate objects or possessions, may be interpreted as more passive in meaning.
auhērur
see-MID.3SG.T
seus
this-T.NOM.SG
ars
wumbo-NOM.SG
(more animate)
'That wumbo sees'
auhēra
see-MID.3SG.C
sea
this-C.NOM.SG
salva
book-NOM.SG
(less animate)
'That book is seen'
Sometimes, it may have a reflexive meaning, or the sense of doing something for ones own benefit.
vascit
wash-ACT.1SG
vominis
river-LOC.SG
(active voice)
'They wash me in a river'
vascor
wash-MID.1SG
vominis
river-LOC.SG
(middle voice)
'I washed (myself) in a river'
hastās
sacrifice-ACT.3SG.T
Oscus
Oscus-NOM.SG
aprun
fish-ACC.SG
(active voice)
'Oscus sacrificed a fish'
hastārur
sacrifice-MID.3SG.T
Oscus
Oscus-NOM.SG
aprōrun
fish-INSTR.SG
(middle voice)
'Oscus sacrificed a fish (for their benefit)'
Another important use of the middle voice is the experiential middle voice. When used with sensory verbs the middle voice may be used to differentiate experiential, nonvolitional sensation (see, hear, smell, feel, know, etc.), as opposed to active, volitional sensation (look, listen, sniff, touch, understand, etc.) Often times, the object of the sensory verb will be expressed using an oblique case, usually the ablative.
ȳrēs
hear/listen-ACT.3SG.T
te
=1SG.NOM
ponun
voice-ACC.SG
carīnī
friend-GEN.SG
hellē
happily
(active voice)
'I like to listen to (my) friend's voice'
ȳreor
hear/listen-MID.1SG
ponā
voice-ABL.SG
carīnī
friend-GEN.SG
hellē
happily
(middle voice)
'I like to hear (my) friend's voice'
The middle voice may also be used with a variety of verbal compliments—usually adverbs—which describe the quality of the subject, or the result of the action. Often times such constructions may be expressed in English as adjective to verb, e.g. 'easy to love'.
qurrera
read-MID.3SG.C
salva
book-NOM.SG
hēs
matters-NOM.SG
collēcta
gather-PFV.PTCP-C.NOM.SG
aplīdiāna
of_Avrid-C.NOM.SG
iūs
well
'The book "Collected Matters of Avrid" is a good read' (lit. '~reads well')
taetuere
drink-PFV.MID.3SG.E
tīn
tea-NOM.SG
īvīs
1PL.PRO-DAT
lȳrīs
time-LOC.SG
saltīs
pass-PFV.PTCP-T.LOC.SG
ni
2SG=
fictun
make-PFV.PTCP-E.NOM.SG
satun
pour-PFV.PTCP-E.NOM.SG
iūs
well
'The tea you made us last time was delicious' (lit. '~drank well')
Passive
The passive voice in Aeranir shares many traits with the middle voice, and often times the distinction between the two can be subtle, nuanced, or obscure. The passive was rare in Old Aeranir and even in the Classical period remained unusual, with the middle voice still preferred for passive clauses. It only began to rise in popularity in Late Aeranir. In its most basic form, the grammatical subject (nominative argument) expresses the theme or patient of the main verb – that is, the person or thing that undergoes the action or has its state changed. This is opposed to the active voice, where the nominative argument expresses the agent of a transitive clause or subject of an intransitive one, and the middle voice, which has traits of both.
Uses of the passive
Unlike the middle voice, the passive is not used for verbal complements, and it cannot take the agent of a verb as its subject. It is never used in verbal complements.
taeterur
drink-MID.3SG.E
seun
this-E.NOM.SG
tīn
tea-NOM.SG
iūs
well
'This tea tastes good' (lit. 'it drinks well')
taetēlārur
drink-PAS.3SG.E
seun
this-E.NOM.SG
tīn
tea-NOM.SG
iūs
well
'This tea is drunk often'
While the agent may be dropped in a passive clause, it may also be included, using the ablative case.
praestrōcuēlāre
rebuild-PFV.PAS.3SG.E
ūlun
yonder-E.NOM.SG
Cavā
Cava-ABL.SG
Īliānā
Ilianus-C.ABL.SG
hānun
temple-NOM.SG
'This temple was rebuilt by Cava Iliana'
The passive can also be especially with intransitive verbs to form denote an unspecified/generic subject. This structure may is used to make general statements or observations. Negation for this type uses mū.
miquientur
die-MID.3PL.T
'They are dead/dying.'
miquiēlantur
die-PAS.3PL.T
'There are people dead/dying'
mūhera
not.enough-MID.3SG.C
(sea)
(this-C.NOM.SG)
artina
wumbo-DAT.PL
inceris
capital-GEN.SG
alta
water-NOM.SG
'This is not enough water for the people of the capital'
mūhēlāra
not.enough-PAS.3SG.C
artina
wumbo-DAT.PL
inceris
capital-GEN.SG
alta
water-NOM.SG
'There is not enough water for the people of the capital'
Similarly, the passive can be used to form the aversive passive, denoting an undesirable event or outcome. The affecting action may happen directly to the subject, or to another person or thing.
cōmerī
home-DAT
requintus
return-IPFV.PTCP-T.NOM.SG
furuēlō
fall-PFV.PAS.1SG
sopere
snow-ABL.SG
'Walking home I got snowed on'
miquīvēlast
die-PFV-PAS.2SG
apiesterā
master-ABL.SG
'Your master has died on you' (i.e., died and it negatively affects you)
In some uses of the aversive passive, the subject of the sentence may be difficult to ascertain. For example, the sentence furuī pālā 'I fell from the tree' can be expressed in using the aversive passive, because the action is undesirable. However, the straight aversive passive, furuēlō pālā, is ambiguous; it could mean either 'I fell from the tree' (using the ablative of motion) or 'The tree fell on me' (using the agentive ablative).
In the first interpretation, the first person argument is the semantic subject of the clause, whilst in the second it is the tree. In order to emphasise that the semantic subject and syntactic arguments are the same (i.e. it is I who fell from the tree), the reflexive pronoun cē may be used; e.g. furuī pālā ('I fell from the tree') → furuēlō cē pālā ('I fell from the tree, and it negatively affected me' lit. 'I fell myself from the tree').
Causative
Non-finite forms
The infinitive
Imperfective | Perfective | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
accusative | oblique | meaning | accusative | oblique | meaning | |
Active | aehāhā -hā |
aehāri -ri |
to love (someone) |
aehāhī -hī |
aehārī -rī |
to have loved (someone) |
Middle | aehāssi -ssi |
aehāiēs -iēs |
to love | aehāssī -ssī |
aehāiērī -iērī |
to have loved |
Passive | aehātus sinhā PFV.PTCP + sinhā |
aehātus fiēs PFV.PTCP + fiēs |
to be loved | aehātus fūhī PFV.PTCP + fūhī |
aehātus fiērī PFV.PTCP + fiērī |
to have been loved |
Causative | aehātīhā -tīhā |
aehātīri -tīri |
to make (someone) love (someone) |
aehātīhī -tīhī |
aehātīrī -tīrī |
to have made (someone) love (someone) |
The infinitive in Aeranir is a special verbal form used to form complement clauses.
Uses of the infinitive
The infinitive in Aeranir can be used to report indirect speech, hearsay, speculation, or sensation.
pēra
pass-PFV.3SG.C
tihī
1SG.PRO-DAT
incerī
capital-DAT.SG
ni
2SG=
cīhī
come-PFV.INF
'They told me that you'd come to the capital'
ȳrēva
hear-PFV.3SG.C
te
=1SG
Mussā
Mussa-ABL.SG
Limī
Limius-GEN.SG
carīnōvus
friend-GEN.PL
quo
=and
neme
newly
cōmus
home-ACC.SG
strōcēhā
build-INF
'I heard from Mussa that Limius and their friends are building a new house'
The gerund
The gerund in Aeranir is a infinite verb form which displays characteristics of both a noun and a verb. It declines for a limited scope of cases (although not for gender nor number), but can take object and adjunct arguments like a verb. It usually has an adverbial/adjectival meaning, and never agrees with the main verb.
Forming the gerund
- Null-grade verbs: ROOT-innū; e.g. taetihan ('to drink') → taetinnū ('whilst drinking').
- A-grade verbs: ROOT-annū; e.g. iuvāhan ('to write') → iuvannū ('whilst writing').
- I-grade verbs: ROOT-iennū; e.g. cītīhan ('to cut') → cītiennū ('whilst cutting').
- E-grade verbs: ROOT-ennū; e.g. aquēhan ('to be open') → aquennū ('whilst open').
Uses of the gerund
The meaning of the gerund changes depending on its case. The essive and locative can be used to indicate temporal action in relation to the main action of a sentence. The essive indicates simultaneous action, i.e. two actions that cooccur. This may be relayed in English via the conjunction 'whilst.'
murran
wall-ACC.SG
travannū
walk-GER.ESS
pērintur
converse.PFV-MID.3PL
pāliō
governor-NOM.SG
mater
senator-NOM.SG
'Whilst they walked along the wall, the governor and senator conversed'
This overlaps with certain uses of the imperfective participle (see § uses of the participle), e.g. murran travantur pērintur pāliō mater is synonymous with the above example. In contrast, the locative gerund is used to show actions beginning at the same time. This may be relayed with English 'when' or 'as.'
pāsillan
fireword-ACC.SG
cītiennīs
cut-GER.LOC
auhēva
see-PFV-C.3SG
sartī
knife-GEN.SG
tūī
mine-T.GEN.SG
cōrēssī
break-PFV.MID.ACC.INF
'As I (began to) cut the firewood, I saw that my knife was broken'
This differs from usage of the perfective participle, which signals the main action starting at the end of the dependant one, i.e. pāsillan cīsus auhēva sartī tūī cōrēssī 'having cut the firewood I saw that my knife was broken.'
In addition, the essive gerund may be used with the verb rēhan ('to do') in order to express an attempt, goal, or aim. In the perfective aspect, this is usually interpreted as a failed attempt.
rēvō
do-PFV-MID.1SG
salvan
book-ACC.SG
ā
over
vitlās
life-ABL.PL
Īliānōvus
Ilian-GEN.PL
iuvannū
write-GER.ESS
'I tried (but failed) to write a book about the lives of the Ilians.'
The genitive and dative cases of the gerund are used to express aim, goal, or purpose. The genitive gerund marks the purpose or use of a noun, whilst the dative gerund marks the purpose of a verb or action.
pea
grow-C.3SG
cūran
herb-ACC.SG
vecunt
illness-ACC.PL
inceris
head-GEN.SG
moñennī
heal-GER.GEN
'They grow an herb for healing illnesses of the head'
serue
order-PFV.E.3SG
te
=1SG
Caescārin
Caescar-ACC.SG
mumae
mother-ACC.PL
ūī
their-T.ACC.PL
sihinnō
sate-GER.DAT
pāliōna
post-DAT.PL
'I ordered Caescar to the boarder to appease their parents'
Furthermore, the dative gerund may be used with the middle voice of the verb rēhan ('to do') in a similar way to the essive, however in this case denoting intent, plans, will, or conjecture.
reor
do-MID.1SG
cartō
dance-DAT.SG
cur
with
Mussiō
Mussius-DAT.SG
vannō
go-GER-DAT
'I intend to go to the dance with Mussius'
reāvere
do-MID.SUBJ.PFV-3SG
seō
this-DAT.SG
scericca
undertaker-NOM.SG
ciennō
come-GER-DAT
'The undertaker should have come here (they planned to do so)'
The ablative and instrumental cases of the gerund can be used to express cause, i.e. 'by doing x,' or 'because x.' The ablative generally marks unintentional or natural causes, whilst the instrumental marks intentional cause.
tlānae
flower-ACC.PL
ustae
that(medial)-C.ACC.PL
quo
=and
peannā
plant-GER-ABL
rēve
do-PFV-E.3SG
cōmus
house-ACC.SG
pūterē
beautiful-ADV
'By planting all these flowers you've made the house beautiful'
ustam
that(medial)-C.ACC.SG
prī
before
tētē
1SG-ABL
harēnam
paper-ACC.SG
matrī
senator-DAT.SG
iminnōrun
send-GER-INSTR
restērāvist
assure-PFV-MID.2SG
pāliōnū
governor-ESS.SG
gaeticae
Gaetica-GEN.SG
'By sending the senator that letter before me, you've assured your place as governor of Gaetica'
Semantics
Temporal expressions
The ancient Aerans divided the day from noon to noon into one hundred lammar (sg. lamma) of equal length, roughly 14.4 minutes long. The daytime was divided into sixteen lȳrar (sg. lȳra), and night into four or five volar (sg. vola) depending on the season. Time was kept on a device called a lammāriun, a type of clock. Early lammāriunt only measured lammar, and one had to consult an almanac (lȳrāriun) to determine the length and starting time of each lȳra or vola on a given day.
The verb spurhan ('to hang (trans.)') is used to denote spending or taking time;
spurra
hang-MID.C.3SG
sau
only
īma
one-C.NOM.SG
lamma
lamma-NOM.SG
āmātiō
market-DAT.SG
vannō
go-GER-DAT
'It only takes one lamma to get to the market'
qurrintus
read-PTCP-T.NOM.SG
spūrint
hang.PFV-3PL
te
=1SG
volae
vola-ACC.PL
mōrī
three-C.ACC.PL
'I spent three volar reading'
To denote the amount of time spent on an action, without regard for whether or not the activity was completed or reached its end goal (i.e. atelic action) the essive case is used. To signify the amount of time spent or necessary to spend to complete an activity (i.e. telic action) the instrumental case is used.
iūvint
write.PFV-3PL
te
=1SG
harēnae
letter-ACC.SG
īmau
one-C.ESS.SG
lȳrau
lyra-ESS.SG
'I wrote letters for an hour'
iūva
write.PFV-C.3SG
te
=1SG
harēna
letter-ACC.SG
īmārun
one-C.INSTR.SG
lȳrārun
lyra-INSTR.SG
'I wrote the letter in an hour'
Possession
There are a number of different strategies in Aeranir to signify possession. Aeranir lacks a possession verb analogous to English 'to have,' and instead usually signifies possession through different types of existential clauses. For example, the sentence 'I have a friend' can be expressed by the sentence ēs carīnus tihī, which literally means 'there is a friend to me.'
The case of the possessor changes depending its relationship with the possessed:
- Locative case: used for personal possessions that are currently on the person;
ēs
COP-T.3SG
iarius
spear-NOM.SG
taurātīs
soldier-LOC.SG
lit. 'at the soldier is a spear'
'The soldier has a spear (on them)'
- Dative case: used for personal possessions that are not currently on the person, or for affiliation with persons or people;
sintz
COP-T.3PL
iariur
spear-NOM.PL
vulhur
many-T.NOM.PL
taurātiō
soldier-DAT.SG
lit. 'to the soldier are many spears'
'The soldier has many spears (at home)'
sintz
COP-T.3PL
menterur
sibling-NOM.PL
tihī
1SG-DAT
octzuin
six
lit. 'to me are six siblings'
'I have six siblings'
- Ablative case: used for parts of a whole, or body parts;
sī
COP-E.3SG
incus
head-NOM.SG
iūrun
good-E.NOM.SG
nēnē
1SG-ABL
lit. 'from you is a good head'
'You have a good head (i.e. are smart)'
For metaphorical possession or possession of abstract concepts, such as leadership, power, knowledge, etc., any of these three may be used, for different rhetorical purposes. For example, using the locative implies an immediacy to the possession; that it is in hand, ready to be used. Using the dative implies that the possession is not immediate, but rather something that can be drawn upon, perhaps too vast to 'carry' on one person. This can be more humble or polite than the locative. Using the locative implies that the trait is a fundamental, inalienable, and inherent part of the possessor, rather than something gained or worked for.
Conditionals
Aeranir has a number of ways of expressing conditional sentences, depending on the type of condition, as well as the register of speech. Colloquial or spontaneous speech tends to favour the use of finite dependant clauses for the protasis (conditional clause, as opposed to the apodosis, or consequence), where as practiced or refined speech, or writing, tend to favour non-finite dependant clauses (this represents a general trend in writing to 'nominalise' all but the most central verb in a sentence, and sometimes the central verb too is made non-finite).
sopis
snow-NOM.SG
furea
fall-SUBJ.C.3SG
requeō
return-MID.SUBJ.1SG
cōmerī
home-DAT.SG
(more informal)
'If it snows I'm going home'
soperis
snow-GEN.SG
furentīs
fall-SUBJ.PTCP-T.LOC.SG
requeō
return-MID.SUBJ.1SG
cōmerī
home-DAT.SG
(more formal)
'If it snows I'm going home'
When a non-finite clause is used for a conditional, the verb of the protasis usually appears in the locative case (an expression of time-is-space metaphor), unless the two clauses share an argument (e.g. subject, object, etc.) in which case the protasis takes the same case marking as the shared argument.
Conditional sentences in Aeranir are formed purely through juxtaposition—that is, the placing of two clauses side by side, the verb of the protasis moved to clause-final position or put into a non-finite form to mark it as dependant. No conjunctive particles like 'if' or 'when' are required. The protasis takes the subjunctive mood, whilst the mood of the apodosis indicates the certainty of the conclusion. Aspect, meanwhile, can be used to indicate the certainty of the condition. This distinction may be approximated in English by 'if' versus 'when'
Protasis certain | Protasis uncertain | |
---|---|---|
Apodosis certain | if [perfective aspect] then [indicative mood] e.g. intlae furītīs mollintz tahrer—'when it rains, the shingles will leak' |
if [imperfective aspect] then [indicative mood] e.g. intlae furentīs mollintz tahrer—'if it rains, the shingles will leak' |
Apodosis uncertain | if [perfective aspect] then [subjunctive mood] e.g. intlae furītīs mollent tahrer—'when it rains, the shingles might leak' |
if [imperfective aspect] then [subjunctive mood] e.g. intlae furentīs mollent tahrer—'if it rains, the shingles might leak' |
Numbers
# | Cardinal | Ordinal | Adverbial | # | Cardinal | Ordinal | Adverbial | # | Cardinal | Ordinal | Adverbial | # | Cardinal | Ordinal | Adverbial |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | īmus | prīstus | temper | 11 | īnhīntur | īnhīnsus | īnhīntin | 21 | calhier īmus | calhitus prīstus | calhin temper | 120 | octzāculhier | octzāculhitus | octzāculhin |
2 | sēr | metzumnus | vēriēs | 12 | verhīntur | verhīnsus | verhīntin | 22 | calhier sēr | calhitus metzumnus | calhin vēriēs | 140 | nāculhier | nāculhitus | nāculhin |
3 | morier | moritus | moriēs | 13 | prōhīntur | prōhīnsus | prōhīntin | 30 | calhier qehentzier | calhitus qehēnsus | calhin qehen | 160 | nāquenculhier | nāquenculhitus | nāquenculhin |
4 | quatlur | quallus | quatziēs | 14 | quatlāhīntur | quatlāhīnsus | quatlāhīntin | 40 | verculhier | verculhitus | verculhin | 180 | nātlicculhier | nātlicculhitus | nātlicculhin |
5 | quiquier | quiqtus | quiquin | 15 | quihīntur | quihīnsus | quihīntin | 50 | verculhier qehentzier | verculhitus qehēnsus | verculhin qehen | 200 | tammīttler | tammīttus | tammīttziēs |
6 | octzuer | octzūmus | octzuin | 16 | octzāhīntur | octzāhīnsus | octzāhīntin | 60 | prōculhier | prōculhitus | prōculhin | 220 | tammīttler calhier | tammīttus calhitus | tammīttziēs calhin |
7 | nāier | nāntus | nāhin | 17 | nāhīntur | nāhīnsus | nāhīntin | 70 | prōculhier qehentzier | prōculhitus qehēnsus | prōculhin qehen | 240 | tammīttler verculhier | tammīttus verculhitus | tammīttziēs verculhin |
8 | nāquemur | nāquemmus | nāquemin | 18 | sērēsculhier | sērēsculhitus | sērēsculhin | 80 | quatlāculhier | quatlāculhitus | quatlāculhin | 260 | tammīttler prōculhier | tammīttus prōculhitus | tammīttziēs prōculhin |
9 | nātlittzier | nātlittzitus | nātlittzin | 19 | īmāculhier | īmāculhitus | īmāculhin | 90 | quatlāculhier qehentzier | quatlāculhitus qehēnsus | quatlāculhin qehen | 280 | tammīttler quatlāculhier | tammīttus quatlāculhitus | tammīttziēs quatlāculhin |
10 | qehentzier | qehēnsus | qehen | 20 | calhier | calhitus | calhin | 100 | quicculhier | quicculhitus | quicculhin | 400 | mīttler | mīttus | mīttziēs |
# | Cardinal | Ordinal | Adverbial | # | Cardinal | Ordinal | Adverbial | # | Cardinal | Ordinal | Adverbial | # | Cardinal | Ordinal | Adverbial |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
800 | vermīttler | vermīttus | vermīttziēs | 16,000 | verittuer | verittūtus | verittuin | 320,000 | verōtluar attuer | verōtluus attūtus | verōtlua attuin | 6,400,000 | verictzuōner | verictzuōnitus | verictzuō |
1,200 | prōmīttler | prōmīttus | prōmīttziēs | 24,000 | prōttuer | prōttūtus | prōttuin | 480,000 | prōtluar attuer | prōtluus attūtus | prōtlua attuin | 9,600,000 | prōctzuōner | prōctzuōnitus | prōctzuō |
1,600 | quatlāmīttler | quatlāmīttus | quatlāmīttziēs | 32,000 | quatlāttuer | quatlāttūtus | quatlāttuin | 640,000 | quatlōtluar attuer | quatlōtluus attūtus | quatlōtlua attuin | 12,800,000 | quatlictzuōner | quatlictzuōnitus | quatlictzuō |
2,000 | quimīttler | quimīttus | quimīttziēs | 40,000 | quiquittuer | quiquittūtus | quiquittuin | 800,000 | quiqōtluar attuer | quiqōtluus attūtus | quiqōtlua attuin | 16,000,000 | quictzuōner | quictzuōnitus | quictzuō |
2,400 | octzāmīttler | octzāmīttus | octzāmīttziēs | 48,000 | octzāttuer | octzāttūtus | octzāttuin | 960,000 | octzōtluar attuer | octzōtluus attūtus | octzōtlua attuin | 19,200,000 | vulhiāhur | vulhiātus | vulhiāhin |
2,800 | nāmīttler | nāmīttus | nāmīttziēs | 56,000 | nāttuer | nāttūtus | nāttuin | 1,120,000 | nōtluar attuer | nōtluus attūtus | nōtlua attuin | 22,400,000 | nōctzuōner | nōctzuōnitus | nōctzuō |
3,200 | nāquemīttler | nāquemīttus | nāquemīttziēs | 64,000 | nāquemittuer | nāquemittūtus | nāquemittuin | 1,280,000 | nāquemōtluar attuer | nāquemōtluus attūtus | nāquemōtlua attuin | 25,600,000 | nāquemictzuōner | nāquemictzuōnitus | nāquemictzuō |
3,600 | nātlimīttler | nātlimīttus | nātlimīttziēs | 72,000 | nātlittzittuer | nātlittzittūtus | nātlittzittuin | 1,440,000 | nātlittzōtluar attuer | nātlittzōtluus attūtus | nātlittzōtlua attuin | 28,800,000 | nātlictzuōner | nātlictzuōnitus | nātlictzuō |
4,000 | tamittuer | tamittūtus | tamittuin | 80,000 | tamōtluar attuer | tamōtluus attūtus | tamōtlua attuin | 1,600,000 | tamictzuōner | tamictzuōnitus | tamictzuō | 32,000,000 | tamōtluar octzuōner | tamōtluus octzuōnitus | tamōtlua octzuō |
8,000 | attuer | attūtus | attuin | 160,000 | ōtlua attuer | ōtlua attūtus | ōtlua attuin | 3,200,000 | octzuōner | octzuōnitus | octzuō | 64,000,000 | ōtlua octzuōner | ōtlua octzuōnitus | ōtlua octzuō |
Late Aeranir inovations
Applicative voices
Whilst Classical Aeranir was more permissive of adding additional arguments to a clause, so long as the verb's core transitivity were met. Late Aeranir, however, tended to be more restrictive, and required valency increasing operations to express benefactive, comitative, and locative meanings. These applicative morphemes take the form of verbal prefixes.