Af Mexee

Af Mexee is a Lowland East Cushitic language.

Introduction

Af Mexee dhehti (or Af Mexee for short) is a Somali condialect. The term Mexee dhehti means "What did you say?" and is used to differentiate Af Mexee from dialects such as Af Maxaa (tiri) (regular Somali) and Af Maay. However, since it is a Somali dialect, Af Mexee speakers refer to their language simply as Af Soomaali.

Af Mexee is probably mutually intelligible with Af Maxaa (I haven't tested it out though). It's mostly a fun way to improve my Somali, both in terms of my ability to use it and understanding its historical development and dialectal variation.

Phonology

Orthography

Consonants

' b p t j ch x kh d th r s sh dh c g gh f q k l m n ny w h y

Vowels

a e i o u

aa ee ii oo uu

Diphthongs

ay aw ey oy ow

aay aaw eey ooy oow

Consonants

Af Mexee consonant phonemes

		Labial	Dental/ Alveolar	Postalveolar	Palatal	Velar	Uvular	Pharyngeal	Glottal
Nasal		m	n		ny /ɲ/
Stop consonant	voiceless	(p)	t /t̪/			k	q		' /ʔ/
	voiced	b	d /d̪/	dh /ɖ/		ɡ
Affricate	voiceless			ch /tʃ/
	voiced			j /dʒ/
Fricative	voiceless	f	s	sh /ʃ/			kh /x̠~χ/	x /ħ/	h
	voiced	p /β/	th /ð/			gh /ɣ/	(gh) /ɣ̠~ʁ/	c /ʕ/
Approximant			l		y /j/	w
Trill			r /r~ɾ/

Vowels

Af Mexee has five vowel articulations that all contrast frontness/backness and vowel length. There is little change in vowel quality when the vowel is lengthened.

There are five diphthongs that also occur in front and back, long and short versions.

Af Mexee monophthongs

	Front series		Back series		Orthography
	short	long	short	long	short	long
Close front unrounded / Near-close near-front unrounded	i	iː	ɪ	ɪː	i	ii
Close-mid front unrounded / Open-mid front unrounded	e	eː	ɛ	ɛː	e	ee
Near-open front unrounded / Open back unrounded	æ	æː	ɑ	ɑː	a	aa
Open-mid central rounded / Open-mid back rounded	ɞ	ɞː	ɔ	ɔː	o	oo
Close central rounded / Close back rounded	ʉ	ʉː	u	uː	u	uu

Af Mexee diphthongs

First element is front		First element is back		Orthography
short	long	short	long	short	long
æi	æːi	ɑɪ	ɑːɪ	ay	aay
æʉ	æːʉ	ɑu	ɑːu	aw	aaw
ei	eːi	ɛɪ	ɛːɪ	ey	eey
ɞi	ɞːi	ɔɪ	ɔːɪ	oy	ooy
ɞʉ	ɞːʉ	ɔu	ɔːu	ow	oow

(In this article I haven't indicated frontness/backness)

Prosody

Intonation

Af Mexee is tonal. It has two tones: low and high. These are not normally indicated in writing, although this article mostly does. A high tone is indicated with an acute accent, while a circumflex denotes a vowel that has a high tone unless the following word has an high tone.

e.g. wâa + taghi → wáa taghi

wâa + tághi → waa tághi

With long vowels and diphthongs, there are three possibilities:

• Falling: áa (low-high)
• Rising aá (high-low)
• Low: aa (low-low)

Phonotactics

Syllable structure is (C)V(C), where V is any vowel or diphthong.

The consonants that can be geminated at syllable boundaries are: m, n, l, and r.

The consonants ', b, x, kh, d, r, s, sh, c, g, f, q, l, n, and h occur syllable-finally. The consonants p, ch, t, th, gh, k, m and ny cannot occur syllable-finally (although there are exceptions for t, k, and m). They undergo the following neutralizations:

p → b (or, in some cases, w)

t, th → d

k, gh → g

ny → yn, sometimes y

non-geminated m → n (m before b)

J and dh may occur in coda in a loanwords, although they are usually replaced with sh and r respectively. For example, xaj "Hajj", ogsaydh "oxide". T, k, and m may also occur in non-native words, mostly of Arabic origin. In many cases, variants with the expected d, g, or n exist (but this applies less often for word-internal m). For example, xikmad "wisdom" (also xigmad), fitno "trial, temptation" (also fidno), muslim "Muslim" (also muslin), amni "safety, security" (NOT *anni).

The consonants p, th, gh, and ch do not occur word-initially in native words. They come from intervocalic -b/w-, -d/t-, -g/k-, and -lt- respectively (the modern intervocalic b, d/t, and g/k come from originally geminated consonants). When word-initial in loanwords, p and gh are pronounced /p/ and /ɣ̠~ʁ/ instead of the regular /β/ and /ɣ/.

Vowels cannot occur in hiatus. Instead, epithetic consonants such as ', y, and w are inserted in between.

Morphophonology

Sandhi

At morpheme boundaries, the following changes occur (for endings beginning in a consonant, these changes apply after syllable-final neutralizations):

t (2nd person/feminine endings, middle voice, definite article/modifiers):

• dropped after -d, dh – Exception: -d assimilates to -t- of the middle voice to form -t- (instead of the expected -d-)
• l + t → ch
• t → th after underlying -a, aa, e, ee, o, oo (note that -o and -e become a before th)
• t of the middle voice, if it occurs between vowels after any applicable reductions, is softened to -th-
• t (of middle voice) + t, n → t, nn

k (definite article/modifiers):

• dropped after -', x, kh, c, g, q, h
• k → h after final -a, e, o (which then assimilate to the following vowel)

s (middle causative)

• l + s → sh

Vowels

• An a, e, or final -o followed by one of the "guttural" consonants (', x, c, or h) assimilates to the following vowel. If the following vowel is o, they can either become a or o. e.g. ma dhoho or ma dhaho "he does not say"
• Unstressed vowels are often dropped before vowel-initial endings if it will not violate phonotactics.

e.g. gacán (stem: gac(a)m-) + -óoyn → gacmóoyn "hands" (not *gacamóoyn)

Sometimes metathesis is involved.

e.g. culús "(he/she is) heavy" + -aán → cuslaán "(they are) heavy" (not *culsaán)

Morphology

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Af Mexee personal pronouns

	Independent		Clitic		Possessive3	With locative particles
	Stressed	Unstressed	Subject1	Object2		+ ún	+ ká	+ kú	+ lá
1S	aní	an(i)	an	i	kéy	íin	iká	ikú	ilá
2S	athí	ad/athi	ad	ku	káa	kúun	koó	kukú	kulá
3SM	usú	us(u)	us	(su)	kíis	súun	suká	sukú	sulá
3SF	ishí	ish(i)	ish	(shi)	kíshi	shíin	shiká	shikú	shilá
1P	unú	un(u)	an/un	nu	kéen	núun	nuká	nukú	nulá
2P	isín	isin	ad/isin	sin	kíin	síin	sinká	sinkú	sinlá
3P	ishó	isho	ish/isho	(sho)	kísho	shóon	shoká	shokú	sholá
IMP4	–	–	la	–	–	lóon	laká	lakú	lalá

¹ Clitic subject pronouns are optional and are often dropped unless needed for clarity or emphasis. For further emphasis, the independent forms may be used. In the plural, the clitic forms un, isin, and isho are formal; the more commonly used forms are an, ad, and ish respectively.

² Third person object pronouns are only used for humans and (anthropomorphized) animals.

³ Masculine forms are shown (the corresponding feminine forms begin in t-). Possessives may be used as modifiers, in which case they attach to the noun, or independently as possessive pronouns.

⁴ Used for impersonal passive. Although it is technically a subject pronoun, it behaves as an object pronoun (but always comes before any true object pronouns).

K/T Pronouns

The k/t determiners (including possessives and the definite article) can be used independently as pronouns. They pluralize by inserting the infix -uw- after the k of the masculine singular.

e.g. kan "this (one), m.", tan "this (one), f.", kuwan "these (ones)"

ki "the one, m.", ti "the one, f.", kuwi "the ones"

There is an additional k/t pronoun with no determiner equivalent:

• ko, to, kuwo: one/ones (indefinite) - e.g. ko kale "another one"

Interrogatives

• kée/tée, kuwée "which"
• mexée "what"
• mée "where"
• goórma "when"
• yáa "who" - comes at the beginning of the sentence, but unlike the focus particle yâa is not preceded by a noun. Equivalent to kuma/tuma yâa.
• kuma/tuma, kuwama "who"
• áyo "who"

Nouns

Plural is formed with -óoyn (definite: -óoyki) or -yáal (definite: -yáalki). The ending -yaal is used for nouns (mostly masculine) ending in -e or -i, e.g. tuké "crow" → tukeyáal. All other nouns take the ending -óoyn. Note that both endings override any other high tones in the word. For feminine nouns ending in -o, the -o becomes a and an epithetic th is added before the ending. For example, maghaaló "city" + -óoyn → maghaalathóoyn "cities". Masculine nouns assimilate an -o to the ending.

Some words (mostly body parts) have a "short" plural in -ó (definite: -íhi) in addition to the "long" plural in -óoyn/yáal. In the case of body parts, the short plural is when they belong to one person.

e.g. Gacánti taagheen. = They raised the hand (i.e. each person raised a hand; hand is in singular).

Gacmíhi taagheen. = They raised the hands (i.e. each person raised both hands; hand is in short plural).

Gacmíhi la taaghi. = The hands (of a single person; hand is in short plural) were raised.

Gacmóoyki la taaghi. = The hands (of multiple people; hand is in long plural) were raised.

For other words, the short plural is used as a collective noun. Collective nouns following other patterns also exist and are mostly relics of earlier plural formations.

Cases

Af Mexee has nominative, absolutive, and genitive cases. Case is indicated primarily by tonation. Nouns can be split into different classes based on how they behave.

Particles

K/T Determiners

The definite article attaches to the noun and is subject to sandhi rules.

• Masculine/Plural: -ki
• Feminine: -ti

There is also a remote definite article.

• Masculine/Plural: -kíi
• Feminine: -tíi
  • Does not affect tonation of the word.

Other determiners that behave similarly to the definite article:

• Possessives (see Personal Pronouns)
• Demonstratives:
  • -kan/tan: this, these
  • -kaas/taas: that, those
• Interrogative:
  • -kée/tée: which
    • Causes any high tones in the word to be dropped.
  • -ma: which (not a k/t determiner, but might as well include it here)

Negation Particles

The negation particles are mâ, an, hâ, and yâa. Each of these serves a different function.

• mâ is the default negation particle in main clauses and is used with the indicative. e.g. má qapi "I do not have". It can combine to clitic subject pronouns:
  • mâ + an(an) → mâan(an) (for (an), see the next point)
  • mâ + ad/athan → mâad/máathan
  • mâ + us(an) → mâws(an)
  • mâ + ish(an) → mâysh(an)
  • mâ + un(an) → mâwn(an)
  • mâ + isin(an) → mâysin(an)
  • mâ + isho(n) → mâysho(n)
• an has two functions:
  • It is used to form negative subject pronouns, which replace clitic subjects in negative clauses. e.g. má usan qapín "He did not have", compare us qapi "he had". In this usage, an is optional and may be dropped - e.g. má us qapín. It combines to clitic subjects:
    • ad + an → athan
    • isho + an → ishon
    • The rest simply add -an - i.e. anan, usan, ishan, unan, isinan
    • Alternatively, when another negative particle (i.e. mâ or yâa) is present, an can come before the subject pronoun and attach to the preceding negative particle. The composite particle can still combine to following clitic subjects - e.g. mâan us / mâanus (= mâ + an + us). If the subject is la, an always comes before it (assuming it isn't dropped), whether another negative particle is present or not.
  • an is also used as the sole negation particle in subordinate clauses. Since negation is shown on the verb, it is also optional here. e.g. ninkii (an) af soomaali aqiin "the man who does not know Somali". Note that in this usage, an prefers clause-initial position (although something like ninkii af soomaali an aqiin would not be incorrect).
• hâ is used in the negative imperative. e.g. ha bíxin "don't leave".
• yâa is used to negate the jussive. e.g. yá usan bíxin "don't let him leave". Like mâ, yâa can combine with clitic subjects (it does so in the same manner as wâa). e.g. yoosan bíxin.

Focus Particles

Focus particles are used with main clause verbs. They are wâa, wixi, yaá, âa and their interrogative equivalents (more may be added later).

• wâa optionally precedes a main affirmative verb. It puts emphasis on the verb.

e.g. ninki bixi "the man left"; ninki wáa bixi "the man left"

• The interrogative equivalent of wâa is mâa.

e.g. ninki máa bixi? "did the man leave?"

• wâa and mâa can combine to clitic subjects as follows:

• wâa + an → wâan
• wâa + ad → wâad
• wâa + us → wôos
• wâa + ish → wêesh
• wâa + un → wôon
• wâa + isin → wêesin
• wâa + isho → wêesho

• wâa can also be used with nouns (in the present) with a zero copula. In this case, it can go before or after the noun.

e.g. waa nín OR nín wáa(he) is a man".

wáa cadaan OR cadaan wáa "(he/she/it/they) is/are white" (literally "whiteness").

• When wáa occurs at the end of the sentence, it can optionally become wáay(e).

• As an extension of the above usage, it can be used with a subordinate clause (introduced by ín "that") to indicate obligation. In tenses other than the present indicative, the copula (in the feminine) is used.

e.g. waa ín us taghó "he should/has to go" (literally: "it (is) that he go).

ín us taghó ahaayti "he should have gone" (literally: "it was that he go").

• wixi is used before a main verb when the object follows the verb, allowing for a SVO word order. It literally means the thing. It places emphasis on the object.

e.g. ninki wixi qaathi qalin "the man took a pen" (literally: "the thing the man took (was) a pen")

• The interrogative equivalent of wixi is mixi.

e.g. ninki mixi qaathi qalin? "did the man take a pen?"

• wixi and mixi can combine to clitic subjects as follows:

• wixi + an → waxan
• wixi + ad → waxad
• wixi + us → wuxus
• wixi + ish → wixish
• wixi + un → wuxun
• wixi + isin → wixisin
• wixi + isho → wixisho

• yaá (not to be confused with the negative particle yâa) put emphasis on a noun (either subject or object). It follows the noun being emphasized. Unlike the negative particle yâa, the following verb is in the indicative.

e.g. ninki yaá qálinki qaathi/qalinki ninki yaá qaathi "the man took the pen"

• The interrogative equivalent of yaá is mâ - yaá (i.e. yaá is kept and the noun is preceded by ma).

e.g. ma ninki yaá qálinki qaathi? "did the man take the pen?" (or "did the pen take the man?)

• yaá can combine to clitic subjects in the same way as wâa.

• âa puts emphasis on a noun (more so than yaá). It also follows the noun but puts the following verb into the subjunctive. The noun also remains in the absolutive case even if it is the subject. âa can again combine to clitic subjects like wâa.

e.g. nínki aá qálinki qaathí/qálinki nínki aá qaathí "it was the man who took the pen"

• The interrogative equivalent of âa is mâ - âa.

e.g. ma nínki aá qálinki qaathí? "was it the man who took the pen?"

• wixi can be combined with âa to form waxâa, which is used when the subject follows the verb (allowing for OVS word order). It places emphasis on the subject.

e.g. qálinki waxaá qaathí nínki "it was the man took the pen" (literally: "what took the pen (was) the man")

• The interrogative equivalent of waxâa is maxâa.

e.g. qálinki maxaá qaathí nínki? "was it the man who took the pen?"

• To make a sentence without a focus particle interrogative, the particle mâ (not to be confused with the homonymous negative particle) is placed before the verb in the indicative. mâ can combine to clitic subjects as the homonymous negative particle does (but without the -an).

e.g. ninki má taghi? "did the man go?"

• For a negative interrogative, the regular negative form of the verb is preceded by the particle soẃ.

e.g. ninki soẃ ma taghín? "didn't the man go?"

Adjectives

Adjectives in Af Mexee are technically verbs. Unlike other verbs, they do not vary according to gender. However, they are conjugated for time and person (following the adjectival conjugation). When used with a noun, they always have a final high tone due to being in the subjunctive (see Dependent clauses for more information).

e.g. min yár "a small house", min yaraáy "a house that was small"

Adjectives can be reduplicated and/or take adjectival conjugation endings to show plurality, or the singular forms may be used.

e.g. minóoyn yaryár/yaryaraán/yár/yaraán "small houses"

Predicative and descriptive uses of adjectives are identical in the present (even in tone, unlike other verbs). Class III long forms can be used predicatively for disambiguation. Focus particles such as waa can also be used (note that in the present, waa can only be used with the long forms).

e.g. ínanki yár "the small boy" OR "the boy is small"

ínanki (waa) yáryaha "the boy is small"

ínankíi yaraáy "the boy that was small"

ínankíi (waa) yaraay"the boy was small"

For more information, see Af Mexee/Verbs § Class III: Adjectival Conjugation

Verbs

Main article: Af Mexee/Verbs

Syntax

Constituent order

The most common (and underlying) word-order is SOV.

Noun phrase

• Cardinal numbers come before the noun. If a cardinal number is present, the singular form of the noun is used.

nimooyn "men" BUT afar nin "four men" (afar nimooyn is also acceptable)

• Adjectives and determiners other than cardinal numbers come after the noun.
• The definite article and other suffixed determiners attach to the noun unless it is preceded by a cardinal number, in which case they attach to the number.

nimooyki "the men" BUT afarti nin "the four men"

• Possessive phrases can be formed in two ways:

a) Genitive construction

minki Shariif = Shariif's house (lit. the house (of) Shariif)

b) Possessive determiner

Shariif minkiis = Shariif's house (lit. Shariif his house)

Verb phrase

(Subject Pronoun) + Object Pronoun + Locative Particle + Negation (+ Clitic Subject Pronoun) + Relational Particle + Verb

Clitic subject pronouns come after the negation particle ma if it is present. Otherwise, they go at the beginning (in which case either the clitic or non-clitic forms may be used).

Dependent clauses

Dependent clauses lack focus particles and have the verb in the subjunctive.

Example texts

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)

Regular orthography:

• Bini aathanki dhammaantisho wixi ish dhachaan isho oo xor eh kana siman xagi sharafti ii xuquuqi. Ilaahi wixi us sho siishi wacyi ii damiir, waana in qof walba qofki kale si walaalnimo eh suula dhaqmo.

A not-so-accurate attempt at indicating vowel frontedness and tone (acute = high tone, umlaut = front, no accent = back + low tone):

• Bïnï ä́äthänkï dhammáantísho wixi ish dhachaán ishó oo xór éh kä́nä sïmä́n xägï sharáfti ïï xuquúqi. Ïläähï wixi us sho sïïshï wácyi ïï dämḯïr, wáana ïn qof walba qófki kale sḯ walaalnímo éh süülä́ dhaqmó.

Gloss:

• Mankind.NOM-the entirety-their OBJFOC they are_born.3P they REL free.ABS being.3 in-and equal.3 side-the dignity.GEN-the and rights.GEN-the. God.NOM OBJFOC he them gave.3S reason.ABS and conscience.ABS, VBFOCUS-and that person.NOM every person.ABS-the other way.ABS brotherhood.GEN being him-for-with act.SBJV.

For comparison, a word-for-word translation into Af Maxaa (i.e. regular Somali):

• Bini aadanka dhammaantood waxa ay dhashaan iya[ga] oo xor ah kana siman xagga sharafta iyo xuquuqda. Ilaahay waxa uu (Ø) siiyay wacyi iyo damiir, waana in qof walba qofka kale si walaal[ti]nimo ah (Ø) ula dhaqmo.

Other resources

Swadesh list