User:IlL/A Danified analytic Neo-Arabic: Difference between revisions

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[[{{PAGENAME}}/Swadesh list]]
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Swadesh list]]


[[{{PAGENAME}}/he|דף זה בעברית]]
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Diachronics]]
 
{{construction}}
 
{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|creator = [[User:IlL|IlL]]
|creator = [[User:IlL|Inthar]]
|nativename = כﬞנאַאנידﬞ<br/>{{PAGENAME}}
|nativename = Xnɪəni
|image =  
|image =  
|setting = [[Verse:AETHER]]
|setting = [[Verse:Irta]]
|name = Cubrite
|name = Knench
|pronunciation = /xnaːnið/
|pronunciation =  
|region =  
|states = Irta Libya
|states =  
|speakers =  
|speakers =  
|script = Hebrew (Jewish square script)
|script = Latin
|date =  
|date =  
|familycolor=afroasiatic
|familycolor=afroasiatic
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|fam2=Semitic
|fam2=Semitic
|fam3=Central Semitic
|fam3=Central Semitic
|fam4=Canaanite
|fam4=Northwest Semitic
|fam5=[[Ancient Cubrite]]
|fam5=Canaanite
}}
|fam6=[[Knench/Ancient|Ancient Knench]]
 
|fam7=[[Knench/Middle|Middle Knench]]
'''Cubrite''' (Cubrite: כﬞנאַאנידﬞ ''Xnánið'' /xnɛːnið/ or נומא כﬞנאַאן ''núm Xnán'' /niːm xnɛːn/) is a Canaanite language in [[Verse:AETHER]], spoken by the Cubrites in Sicily. Genetic studies have shown that the Cubrites were originally Celtic speakers who adopted a Canaanite language. The language preserves quite a few quasi-Biblical words and phrases, but its grammar was completely restructured to use auxiliaries instead of the older Hebrew tense conjugations.
}}ɵ
 
It's inspired grammatically by Welsh, and aesthetically by Cockney English, Icelandic and Khmer.
 
Numbers:
0-10: efes, óð (inanimate)/áð (animate), šnay, šluš, arvą, homiš, šeš, šebą, šmun, þešą, ngašr
 
11-20: óðąš/áðąx, šnayąš, šlušąš, arvąš, homišąš, šešąš, šebąš, šmunąš, þešąš, ngašri
 
40: štay ngašri


60: šluš ngašri
'''Knench''' (/nɛntʃ/, from Old Knench ''χnānī'' via [[Old Azalic]] ''{{ng}}noinisχ''; natively ''Xnɪəni'' /xnɪəni/ or ''nɨɨm Xnɪən'' /nɨːm xnɪən) is a Semitic language spoken in the Irta timeline and the closest living relative to Hebrew in Irta. The name of the language comes from Ancient Knench ''kanaȝn'' 'Canaan'. Knench has received strong Azalic influence throughout its history since Ancient Knench times, and genetic studies have shown that the Knench are descendants of Azalic speakers who adopted a Canaanite language. The language descends from a close relative of Biblical Hebrew which was spoken in North Africa (which was spoken instead of our Punic in Irta), but its grammar is far less synthetic than its ancestor: lexical verbs were completely restructured to use constructions with auxiliaries and infinitives instead of the older prefix and suffix conjugations, and it has lost grammatical gender like [[Togarmite]] and [[Far East Semitic]]. Knench has many loanwords from various sources including Greek, Azalic, Coptic, Berber, Arabic, Aramaic, Romance, and English.


...
A majority of modern Knench people are Muslim; some are Christian, Jewish or neopagan. There is a Judeo-Knench, with Hebrew and Aramaic loanwords.


100: míø
It's inspired grammatically by Welsh and Irish, and aesthetically by English, Danish, [[Naeng]], and Khmer.


10000: rúø
== Names ==
=== Native Knench names ===
* Parm (f.) is from baśam
* Þor (m.) 'bull (from Aramaic)'


before: kkorm
Hugin and Munin (de novo derived from active participles ''*hūgi'' and ''*mūni'') are modern fantasy characters
 
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==History==
==History==


==TODO==
==TODO==
*Icelandify/Samify?
* Focus prominence (like Welsh)
* retain vav consecutive forms of auxiliaries
* vi = "and then" (used for consecutive events; ~ BH ''wayhi'')
* -x > -rh
* A sentence consisting entirely of replacements and compounds?
** I dal bə kpeen pnaarə. = I don't see any wolves. (Heb: Ani lo ro'e ze'evim.)
* Hard mode: a sentence where every content word has a Semitic cranberry morpheme
*Swadesh list
*Swadesh list
*''bel-, ble-'' is a common prefix (conflation of ben- and ba3al-)
*''bel-, ble-'' is a common prefix (conflation of ben- and ba3al-)
*''biuth'' or ''šą še...'' = when...
*Many adverbs from infinitive absolute
*Many adverbs are froma infinitive absolute
*Philippi should be weaker: i > e, instead of the TibH i > a (*bint > ''peþ'' 'daughter'; TibH ''baṫ'')
*''likkori'' = to die (lit. be called [by God])
*''Mén fows ta xett kori?'' = Why did you have to die?
*''šovuą'' = week
* replace a lot of Canaanite vocabulary with other words
*''mødbár'' = conference
*נא becomes a focus marker ''=nø''
**question marker ''a ... [FOCUS]=nø''
*Philippi should be weaker: i > e, instead of the TibH i > a (*bint > ''bett'' 'daughter'; TibH ''baṫ'')
*''Makhin yo ngalekh likkori?'' = Why did you have to die?
 
===Some sound changes===
===Some sound changes===
*non-rhoticity, H-dropping
* Maghrebi Arabic craziness (happens early on, ca. 9th-10th century)
*ħ > h; *gt, kt, ᴋt, ħt > kht
*-ə (mainly from ACub ''-ō'') becomes silent and lengthens the vowel before it
*dt, tt > st
*non-rhoticity (nonrhoticity has to happen after fem sg ending loss)
*-ø (mainly from ACub ''-ā'') becomes silent and lengthens the vowel before it
*ħ > x; *gt, kt, ᴋt, ħt > ht
*ACub ā ō ū > OCub ó ú í
*ś > usually x, sometimes f or fl
*OCub ó ú í > Modern Cub. aɤ i: əi
*d-t, t-t (morpheme boundary) > st
*xr > x
*''Ri ni b žejn i p Mednə Əśidəs'' 'I live in the United States'
* š- > h-
* univerbate like crazy


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
===Consonants===
===Consonants===
*/m n ŋ h l w j ɹ~ʋ Ø/ {{angbr|מ נ ׆ ה ל ו י ר א}}
*/m n ʁ̃ʷ l w j ɹ{{ret}}/ {{angbr|m n ł h l w j r}}
*/p b f v t⁼ d tʰ θ ð k⁼ g kʰ x/ {{angbr|פ ב פﬞ בﬞ ט ד ת ת◌ﬞ דﬞ ק ג כ כﬞ}}
*/p b f v t d θ ð k g/ {{angbr|p b f v t d þ ð k g}}
*/s z ts ʃ/ {{angbr|ס ז צ ש}}
*/s{{den}} z{{den}} t{{den}}{{tiebar}}s{{den}} ʃ ʒ tʃ s{{ret}} t{{ret}}{{tiebar}}s{{ret}} x h/ {{angbr|s z c š ž č ś ć x h}}


/ʃ/ is found mainly in loans from Hebrew and from palatalization of /s/.
/t d/ are alveolar, and /θ ð/ are dental. /θ ð/ may be realized as [t̪ d̪].


(capital η is И)
/s{{den}} z{{den}} t{{den}}{{tiebar}}s{{den}}/ are lamino-dental, like Basque ''z''.


Ancient Cubrite /l/ became /w/ in some places, especially before C.
/s{{ret}} t{{ret}}{{tiebar}}s{{ret}}/ are retracted apico-alveolar, like Greek /s/.
====Mutations====
Words can undergo initial voicing mutation.


===Vowels===
Ancient Knench /l/ became /w/ in some places, especially before C or pausa.
{{PAGENAME}} has the largest vowel inventory of any Semitic language in its timeline:


/a e ɪ ɔ ʊ ɛ̃ː iə əɪ äɤ iː ɑ̃ː ɛ̃ː ɪɤ̃ ɔ̃ː æː aw ɛw ɪw ɔw ʊw ɑː(ɹ) ɛː(ɹ) eː(ɹ) oʊ~oː(ɹ) ɜː(ɹ) ə(ɹ)/ = {{angbr|a e i o u á é í ó ú ą ę į ų aw ew iw ow uw ar er ir or ur ø/r}}
Stops are unaspirated.


Word-final /ə/ is pronounced [ɐ(ɹ)] and is transcribed as a syllabic ''r'', or ''ør'' after ''r''.
Judeo-Knench has final r in borrowed Hebrew and Aramaic vocabulary.


The following is the traditional classification of vowels:
===Vowels===
*Shva: ø
{{PAGENAME}} has the largest vowel inventory of any Semitic language in Irta. It has many diphthongs.
*Short vowels: a e i o u
*Long vowels: á é í ó ú
*Nasal vowels: ą ę į ų
*L-colored vowels: aw ew iw ow uw
*R-colored vowels: ar er ir or ur r


===Prosody===
===Prosody===
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Stress tends penultimate or final.
Stress tends penultimate or final.


====Intonation====
===Intonation===


===Phonotactics===
===Phonotactics===
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->
===Morphophonology===
===Morphophonology===


==Orthography==
==Orthography==
Modern Cubrite is written in the Jewish Hebrew square script, in a spelling based on Tiberian Hebrew. (The resulting spelling is not etymological, since Cubrite reflects the original Hebrew consonants differently.) This is because most earlier works in Modern Cubrite were written by Jews, mainly educational materials in Judaism.
Modern Knench has an orthography using an alphabet descended from the Paleo-Hebrew script, where spelling reflects Middle Knench.
 
===Consonants===
*/m n ŋ h l w j ɹ~ʋ Ø/ {{angbr|מ נ ׆ ה ל ו י ר א}}
*/p b f v t⁼ d tʰ θ ð k⁼ g kʰ x/ {{angbr|פ ב פﬞ בﬞ ט ד ת ת◌ﬞ דﬞ ק ג כ כﬞ}}
*/s z ts ʃ/ {{angbr|ס ז צ ש}}
 
Consonant correspondences (by default):
*Hebrew ד ~ Cubrite ט/ד
*Hebrew ת ~ Cubrite ת◌ﬞ/דﬞ
*Hebrew ט ~ Cubrite ת
 
===Vowels===
*Word final /ə/ is always written ר, regardless of etymology.
*The five basic vowel symbols, written after the initial consonant:
**אַ = ''a''
**יֶ = ''e''
**י = ''i''
**אָ = ''o''
**ו = ''u''
*The lengthened vowels are written with an alef. If possible the alef is written after the coda; if there is no coda or if there is a post-coda suffix, it is written right after the vowel symbol. For example: ''núm'' 'language' = נומא; ''númr'' 'languages' = נואמר.
*The L- and R-colored vowels are written with lamed or resh after the vowel symbol.
*The nasalized vowels are written with ayin after the vowel symbol, but ''ą'' is usually written just with ayin.


==Morphology==
==Morphology==
{{PAGENAME}} has lost the verbal inflections and triconsonantal morphology of Ancient Cubrite.
{{PAGENAME}} has lost the verbal inflections and triconsonantal morphology of Ancient Knench.


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===Nouns and adjectives===
===Nouns and adjectives===
Nouns inflect for number and definiteness. Adjectives agree with nouns in number.
Nouns inflect for number and definiteness. Like in English, proper nouns don't take the definite article. Attributive adjectives agree with nouns in number, but predicate adjectives do not. Knench has lost grammatical gender and the construct state, although animates still have natural gender.
==== Number and definiteness ====
{{PAGENAME}} has regularized most plurals to ''-ə'' (from a merger of Ancient Knench ''-īn'' > ''*-ī'' and ''-ūδ''). ''-u'' nouns become ''-lə'' in the plural: ''þebu, þeblə'' 'a world, worlds'.
 
Nouns inflect for definiteness, as follows:
*Singular: -əs (after C), (from haz-ze and haz-zū)
*Plural: -il, replacing the plural suffix ''-ə'' if any (from ha-2ili), -u + -il > -ul
** Plurals must be memorized! For example -u may become -ləs (specifically when the -u comes from a vocalized /-l/).
 
Words ending in a schwa add an intrusive R between the final vowel and the plural suffix.
 
Some irregular plurals: ''penš, plenš'' = human


{{PAGENAME}} has regularized all plurals to ־ר ''-r'' (from a merger of Ancient Cubrite ''-īm'' and ''-ōδ''). It also lost grammatical gender, although animates still have natural gender.
Examples:
*''śadə'' /ˈs{{ret}}adə/ = an apartment/flat
*''śadrəs'' /ˈs{{ret}}adɹəs/ = the flat
*''śadrə'' /ˈs{{ret}}adɹə/ = flats
*''śadril'' /ˈs{{ret}}adɹɪl/ = the flats
*''śadə bušət'' /ˈs{{ret}}adə ˈbʊʃət/ = a big flat
*''śadrəs bušət'' /ˈs{{ret}}adɹəs ˈbʊʃət/ = the big flat
*''śadrə buštə'' /ˈs{{ret}}adɹə ˈbʊʃtə/ = big flats
*''śadril buštə'' /ˈs{{ret}}adɹɪl ˈbʊʃtə/ = the big flats


Words ending in a nasal vowel or an R-colored vowel add an intrusive R between the final vowel and the plural suffix: פדע ''pdą'' 'tree', פדערר ''pdąrør'' 'trees'.
''-ma'' nouns from Greek become ''-mat'' nouns: ''þemat, þematas, þematə, þematil'' 'topic, theme'.


Some irregular plurals: בנוס, בלנוס ''benus, blenus'' = human
==== Predicative adjectives ====
The predicative/adverbial marker ''bə'' followed by the bare form is used for predicative adjectives: ''Ri śadrəs bə bušət'' 'The room is big'.


Canaanite has lost the construct state.
==== Degree ====
*Equative: ''de'' = as X as; equally X (~ BH ''day'' 'enough')
*Comparative/Superlative: ''-ur'' = more X or most X (from *3abūr, infinitive absolute of 'to exceed'); comparandum takes ''prej'' 'than' (from Ancient Knench ''pirūðī'' 'when I see'). The ''-ur'' form is indeclinable.


Degree markers:
Example: ''bušət'' 'big', ''de bušət'' 'as big as'; ''buštur'' 'bigger/biggest'
*Equative: ''de-'' = as X as; equally X (~ BH די ''day'' 'enough')
*Excessive: ''ro-'' = too (inherited from Ancient Cubrite, which borrowed it from Celtic)
*Comparative/Superlative: ''-ðr'' = more X or most X; comparandum takes פרידﬞ ''prið'' 'than' (from Ancient Cubrite בראותי את ''pirʔūðī jūð'' 'when I see ACC')


Example: קרוא ''kkrú'' 'big', דגרוא ''degrú'' 'as big as'; ראָגרוא ''rogrú'' 'too big', קרואדﬞר ''kkrúðør'' 'bigger/biggest'
=== Pronouns ===
Knench has a pronoun system similar to European languages, except that there is no grammatical gender and ''se'' "that" is used as an inanimate or gender-neutral pronoun. There is a T-V distinction: the 2nd person plural ''tim'' is also used as a polite pronoun.


===Verbs===
''I'' (/i:/ or /ɪ/) is the default form for the 1sg subject pronoun; ''ni'' is used after a vowel or for disambiguation.
Almost all verbs use only one form, usually the inherited Biblical infinitive construct. The infinitive form may or may not have a prefixed ''l-'', depending on the verb; however, even verbs without l- displays a voicing mutation. Even for imperatives: ''ðett lomi hi!'' = 'Give it to her!' Some verbs instead are derived from other nouns derived from the triconsonantal root rather than the infinitive of a particular verb.


====Inflected lexical verbs====
For gender-neutral usage, ''tu'' has been proposed as a 2nd person singular neopronoun (inspired by Indo-European languages). This isn't as common as using the 2nd person plural ''tim'' as singular, however.
There are only five inflected lexical verbs (i.e. verbs with inflected past and future forms):
*''šuð'' 'to do'
*''ðuð'' 'to come' (w/ suppletion!)
*''laxt'' 'to go'
*''kaxt'' 'to get'
*''ðett'' 'to give'


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="greentable lightgreenbg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
Knench emphatic pronouns come from a suffixed ''-nna'' (precative).
|+ Inflected verbs in {{PAGENAME}}
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
! colspan=2 style="width: 75px; "| → Person
|+ Pronouns in {{PAGENAME}}, basic forms
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person
! style="width: 75px; " | I
! style="width: 75px; " | I
! style="width: 75px; " | thou (m)
! style="width: 75px; " | thou (m)
! style="width: 75px; " | thou (f)
! style="width: 75px; " | thou (f)
! style="width: 75px; " | you (polite)
! style="width: 75px; " | he
! style="width: 75px; " | he/it
! style="width: 75px; " | she
! style="width: 75px; " | she
! style="width: 75px; " | we
! style="width: 75px; " | we
! style="width: 75px; " | you (plural)
! style="width: 75px; " | ye
! style="width: 75px; " | they
! style="width: 75px; " | they
! | Non-pronominal
|-
|-
!rowspan=2| ''šuð''
! Basic forms
! future
| ''i, ni''
| ''ąš i''
| ''tə''
| ''tąš to''
| ''ti''
| ''tąš te''
| ''u''
| ''tąš Hi''
| ''oj''
| ''yąš u''
| ''nu''
| ''tąš hi''
| ''tim''
| ''nąš nu''
| ''im''
| ''tąšu tem''
| ''yąšu'm''
| ''yąš/tąš''
|-
! past
| ''ši ni''
| ''šis to''
| ''šis te''
| ''što Hi''
| ''šo u''
| ''što hi''
| ''šin nu''
| ''šis tem''
| ''šu'm''
| ''šo/što''
|-
!rowspan=2| ''ðuð''
! future
| ''éð i''
| ''tés to''
| ''tés te''
| ''téð Hi''
| ''yéð u''
| ''téð hi''
| ''néð nu''
| ''téðu tem''
| ''yéðu'm''
| ''yéð/téð''
|-
! past
| ''powð i''
| ''pows to''
| ''pows te''
| ''pól Hi''
| ''pow u''
| ''pól hi''
| ''pown nu''
| ''pows tem''
| ''polu'm''
| ''pow/pól''
|-
!rowspan=2| ''laxt''
! future
| ''ley i''
| ''tley to''
| ''tley te''
| ''tley Hi''
| ''ley u''
| ''tley hi''
| ''ley nu''
| ''tleyu tem''
| ''leyu'm''
| ''ley/tley''
|-
! past
| ''laxt i''
| ''laxt to''
| ''laxt te''
| ''lál Hi''
| ''law u''
| ''lál hi''
| ''layn nu''
| ''laxt tem''
| ''lalu'm''
| ''law/lál''
|-
!rowspan=2| ''kaxt''
! future
| ''key i''
| ''tkey to''
| ''tkey te''
| ''tkey Hi''
| ''key u''
| ''tkey hi''
| ''key nu''
| ''tkeyu tem''
| ''keyu'm''
| ''key/tkey''
|-
! past
| ''kaxt i''
| ''kaxt to''
| ''kaxt te''
| ''kál Hi''
| ''kaw u''
| ''kál hi''
| ''kayn nu''
| ''kaxt tem''
| ''kayu'm''
| ''kaw/kál''
|-
|-
!rowspan=2| ''ðett''
! Emphatic forms
! future
| ''(n)in''
| ''ten i''
| ''tan''
| ''ten to''
| ''tni te''
| ''ten Hi''
| ''ten u''
| ''ten hi''
| ''ten nu''
| ''tnu tem''
| ''tnu'm''
| ''ten''
| ''ten''
|-
| ''un''
! past
| ''ojn, hin''
| ''naxt i''
| ''nun''
| ''naxt to''
| ''temnə''
| ''naxt te''
| ''emnə''
| ''nál Hi''
| ''naw u''
| ''nál hi''
| ''nayn nu''
| ''naxt tem''
| ''nalu'm''
| ''naw/nál''
|}
|}


Non-pronominal forms agree in gender only with a singular subject; the feminine is only used with women and females. With plural ''nominal'' subjects and the masculine singular form is used.
==== Interrogative pronouns ====
* ''da, ida'' = what? (nominal) (*hajj dabar 'what thing')
* ''ew'' = who? (*2ajj hū)
** poetic ''mi''
* ''ajšə'' = which?
* ''énə'' = where?
* ''məðé'' = when?
* ''əziəp'' = why? (the reason something happened) (or from another phrase of the form "ayy [NOUN]")
* ''maləx'' = why? (the reason someone does something) (*ma lak 'what's the matter')
* ''xam'' = how many?
* ''xiəlt'' = how?


====Regular pa3al verbs====
===Verbs===
The regular pattern is *liCCuC.
Almost all verbs use only one form. For native verbs, this form may be derived from:
* the infinitive construct or the imperative (mostly basic verbs)
* a deverbal noun pattern (most common)
* a univerbation of a verb + noun collocation


====-t verbs====
The infinitive form may or may not have a prefixed ''l-'', depending on the verb; however, even verbs without l- often display a voicing mutation attesting to the historical lV- (e.g. ''žbuð'' 'to be idle, to lie fallow'). Some verbs instead are derived from other nouns derived from the relevant triconsonantal root rather than the infinitive of a particular verb (e.g. ''benin'' 'to build', cognate to the Hebrew noun ''binyan''; from the root b-n-y)
Many of these verbs got the glottally reinforced -tt from -ʔt. The -tt then analogically spread to other verbs.
*lakht /ˈlaxt/ = to go
*kakht /ˈkaxt/ = to take
*sakht /saxt/ = to go back
*šaft /ʃaft/ = to sit
*ðett /ðeʔt/ = to give
*lost /ˈlost/ = to be born
*sett /seʔt/ = to carry
*tsett /tseʔt/ = to go out
*sątt /sãːʔt/ = to travel
*gątt /gãːʔt/ = to hit
*dątt /dãːʔt/ = to know
*tątt /tãːʔt/ = to plant


====Regular nif3al====
The infinitive is also used as an imperative: ''ðeht ló oj!'' = 'Give it to her!' Imperatives are negated by placing ''bal'' or ''bawði'' before the verb.
The regular pattern is *liCoCiC where the first C is not lenited.
====Inflected verbs====
Knench has only six inflected verbs (i.e. verbs with inflected past and future forms):
*''luð'' 'to be'
*''śuð'' 'to do' (from *ʕaśō, with contamination from *paȝal): used to form past and future perfective tenses
*''buð'' 'to come' (from *bô): sometimes means 'must, have to'. ''bu'' is still used as a directional.
*''leht'' 'to go' (from *halak), also used as a passive auxilliary for dechticaetiative objects
*''kaht'' 'to take' (from *laqaħ): also used for animate patients of ditransitive verbs
*''ðeht'' 'to give' (from *natan, with contamination from *hinīħ 'to leave' and naħħil 'to bequeath'): also used for causatives
Their forms have become more similar to each other due to analogy.  


====Regular pi3el====
Knench maintains a distinction between independent and dependent forms for finite verbs, like Old Irish. The independent forms come from the Ancient Knench waw-consecutive. Using a preverb such as ''lu'' 'not', ''veə'' '(interrogative form of present marker ''ri'')', ''xaž'' 'relativizer', or ''śu'' 'I'm sure that...' (from the infinitive absolute *3aśū of *3aśō 'to do'; generalized from ''*3aśū ja3śiju'' 'he will indeed do') requires the dependent form. Dependent past forms and future forms are formally identical to independent future forms and past forms, respectively, except for ''luð'' 'to be'.
The regular pattern is *løCaCiC or *løCiCuC where the middle C is not lenited.


====Regular hif3il====
Even verbs with finite forms are defective verbs, since finite forms are always perfective (except forms of ''luð''). To express the imperfective with these verbs, you still have to use the copula + bə + VN construction. The negator ''lu'' only negates finite verbs.
The regular pattern is *laCCiC, *leCCeC, or *laCCoCø.


====Regular hithpa3el====
The present particle ''ri'' comes from ''ru{{aleph}}i'', the imperative of ''ra{{aleph}}ō'' 'to see'. ''Ri'' is not used in subordinate clauses:
The regular pattern is *lithCaCiC where the middle C is not lenited.
*'''''Ri''' Đavíð þaś žin.'' = David is about to sleep.
====Other verbs====
*'''''Pið''' Đavíð þaś žin, r'u dal bə xapuð uras.'' = When David goes to sleep, he doesn't turn off the lights.
Other verbs come from noun derivation patterns, or from earlier verb + noun collocations.
* ''Veə Đavíð þaś žin?'' = Is David going to bed? (neutral)
* '''''Ri''' Đavíð dar þaś žin.'' = David is not going to bed.


Any noun can also be verbed by prefixing ''lø-''.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 750px; text-align:center;"
 
|+ Inflected verbs in {{PAGENAME}}
===Auxiliaries===
! colspan=2 style="width: 75px; "| → Person
{{PAGENAME}} has an auxiliary verb system similar to Colloquial Welsh. In addition, there is a T-V distinction: the 2nd person plural ''tem'' is also used as a polite pronoun.
*''Re Dovíð ngaw šun.'' = David is about to sleep.
*''Biuth Dovíð ngaw šun'' = When David is about to sleep
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="greentable lightgreenbg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
|+ Various auxiliaries in {{PAGENAME}}
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person
! style="width: 75px; " | I
! style="width: 75px; " | I
! style="width: 75px; " | thou (m)
! style="width: 75px; " | thou (m)
! style="width: 75px; " | thou (f)
! style="width: 75px; " | thou (f)
! style="width: 75px; " | he/it
! style="width: 75px; " | he
! style="width: 75px; " | she
! style="width: 75px; " | she
! style="width: 75px; " | we
! style="width: 75px; " | we
! style="width: 75px; " | blotp
! style="width: 75px; " | you (plural)
! style="width: 75px; " | they
! style="width: 75px; " | they
! | Non-pronominal
|-
|-
! Present (''re, r' '' is from רְאֵה ''*rVʔē'' 'look!')
! colspan=2|Present ''ri/r' ''
| ''i, ni''
| ''i, ni''
| ''to''
| ''tə''
| ''te''
| ''ti''
| ''u''
| ''r'u''
| ''hi''
| ''r'oj''  
| ''nu''
| ''nu''
| ''tem''
| ''tim''
| ''em''
| ''r'im''
| ''re'', ''r' '' before V
|-
|-
! Present emphatic (inflected forms of עוֹד)
!rowspan=4| ''luð''  
| ''ngud i''
! future indep.
| ''ngud to''
| ''wej(ð) i''
| ''ngud te''
| ''wejs tə''
| ''nguden u''
| ''wejs ti''
| ''nguden hi''
| ''wii u''
| ''ngud nu''
| ''wieþ oj''
| ''ngud tem''
| ''wejn nu''
| ''ngud em''
| ''wejs tim''
| ''ngud''
| ''wilu'm''
|-
|-
! Interrogative (from הַאִם, -nø must be added to the focused word)
! future dep.
| ''am ni, am i''
| ''jie i''
| ''am to''
| ''þies tə''
| ''am te''
| ''þies ti''
| ''am u''
| ''jie u''
| ''am hi''
| ''þieþ oj''
| ''am nu''
| ''nien  nu''
| ''am tem''
| ''þies tim''
| ''am em''
| ''juu'm''
| ''am''
|-
|-
! Past (from perfect of עָשָׂה 'to do')
! past indep.
| ''si ni, sit i, sit ni''
| ''waj i''
| ''sit to''
| ''was tə''
| ''sit te''
| ''was ti''
| ''so u''
| ''waj u''
| ''sto hi''
| ''waþ oj''
| ''sin nu''
| ''wan nu''
| ''sit tem''
| ''was tim''
| ''su'm''
| ''waju'm''
| ''so/sto''
|-
|-
! Future/Subjunctive (from imperfect of עָשָׂה 'to do')
! past dep.
| ''ąs i''
| ''hej(ð) i''
| ''tąs to''
| ''hejs tə''
| ''tąs te''
| ''hejs ti''
| ''yąs u''
| ''hie u''
| ''tąs hi''
| ''hieþ oj''
| ''nąs nu''
| ''hejn nu''
| ''tąsu tem''
| ''hejs tim''
| ''yąsu'm''
| ''hilu'm''
| ''yąs/tąs''
|-
|-
! Passive present (from imperfect of עָבַר 'to pass')
!rowspan=2| ''śuð''  
| ''ur ni, ur i''
! future indep.
| ''tur to''
| ''fow(ð) i''
| ''tri te''
| ''fows tə''
| ''yur u''
| ''fows ti''
| ''tur hi''
| ''fow u''
| ''nur nu''
| ''foəþ oj''
| ''tru tem''
| ''fown nu''
| ''ru'm''
| ''fows tim''
| ''yur/tur''
| ''folu'm''
|-
|-
! Passive past (from perfect of עָבַר 'to pass')
! past indep.
| ''var ni, var i, vart i''
| ''woś i''
| ''vart to''
| ''þoś tə''
| ''vart te''
| ''þoś ti''
| ''var u''
| ''joś u''
| ''vro hi''
| ''þoś oj''
| ''varn nu''
| ''noś nu''
| ''vart tem''
| ''þoś tim''
| ''vru'm''
| ''jośu'm''
| ''var/vro''
|-
|-
! "May" (from imperfect of לָקַח 'to take')
!rowspan=2| ''buð''  
| ''kekh i''
! future indep.
| ''tkekh to''
| ''pow(ð) i''
| ''tkekh te''
| ''pows tə''
| ''kekh u''
| ''pows ti''
| ''tkekh hi''
| ''pow u''
| ''kekh nu''
| ''poəþ oj''
| ''tkekhu tem''
| ''pown nu''
| ''kekhu'm''
| ''pows tim''
| ''kekh/tkekh/kekhu''
| ''polu'm''
|-
|-
! "Do X more" - present (from imperfect of הוֹסִיף 'to add')
! past indep.
| ''usif i''
| ''pax i''
| ''tusif to''
| ''tpax tə''
| ''tusif te''
| ''tpaj ti''
| ''yusif u''
| ''pax u''
| ''tusif hi''
| ''tpax oj''
| ''nusif nu''
| ''pax nu''
| ''tusif tem''
| ''tpaw tim''
| ''yusifu'm''
| ''paw'm''
| ''usift/tusif/yusifu''
|-
|-
! "Do X more" - past (from perfect of הוֹסִיף 'to add')
!rowspan=2| ''leht''  
| ''seft i''
! future indep.
| ''seft to''
| ''law(ð) i''
| ''seft te''
| ''laws tə''
| ''sif u''
| ''laws ti''
| ''sifø hi''
| ''law u''
| ''sef nu''
| ''laəþ oj''
| ''seft tem''
| ''lawn nu''
| ''sifu'm''
| ''laws tim''
| ''sif/sifu''
| ''lalu'm''
|-
|-
! Cautionary (from imperfect of זָמַם 'to scheme')
! past indep.
| ''zum i''
| ''lax i''
| ''tøzum to''
| ''tlax tə''
| ''tøzum te''
| ''tlej ti''
| ''zum u''
| ''lax u''
| ''tøzum hi''
| ''tlax oj''
| ''nøzum nu''
| ''lax nu''
| ''tøzmu tem''
| ''tlaw tim''
| ''zmu'm''
| ''law'm''
| ''zum/tøzum/zmu''
|-
!rowspan=2| ''kaht''
! future indep.
| ''kaw(ð) i''
| ''kaws tə''
| ''kaws ti''
| ''kaw u''
| ''kaəþ oj''
| ''kawn nu''
| ''kaws tim''
| ''kalu'm''
|-
|-
! "X well" - present (from imperfect of הֵיטִיב 'to do well')
! past indep.
| ''attev i''
| ''kax i''
| ''tattev to''
| ''tkax tə''
| ''tattvi te''
| ''tkaj ti''
| ''yattev u''
| ''kax u''
| ''tattev hi''
| ''tkax oj''
| ''nattev nu''
| ''kax nu''
| ''tattev tem''
| ''tkaw tim''
| ''yattevu'm''
| ''kaw'm''
| ''yattev/tattev/yattevu''
|-
|-
! "X well" - past (from perfect of הֵיטִיב 'to do well')
!rowspan=2| ''ðeht''
| ''ettevt i''
! future indep.
| ''ettevt to''
| ''naw(ð) i''
| ''ettevt te''
| ''naws tə''
| ''ettev u''
| ''naws ti''
| ''ettivø hi''
| ''naw u''
| ''ettev nu''
| ''naəþ oj''
| ''ettevt tem''
| ''nawn nu''
| ''ettevu'm''
| ''naws tim''
| ''ettev''
| ''nalu'm''
|-
! past indep.
| ''nax i''
| ''tnax tə''
| ''tnaj ti''
| ''nax u''
| ''tnax oj''
| ''nax nu''
| ''tnaw tim''
| ''naw'm''
|}
|}
=====Cautionary future=====
The auxiliary for the cautionary future comes from the Ancient Cubrite verb ''*zāmam'' 'to scheme'. It's used to:
* warn the listener of a future event or contingency:
** '''''Zum''' sąraz tha lovu fu kol ngeth.'' = 'The storm might come here any moment.'
** '''''Zum''' tafkestaz mul lith kovuą hettev!'' = 'The map might not be well-defined! [in a hypothetical math lecture, cautioning against a tacit assumption the audience might make]'
* often used in a threatening manner, for example: ''Lakh to mul yedhą ma '''zum''' i ląsuth lakh to!'' = 'You have no idea what I'm gonna do to you!'


====Object pronouns====
====Regular pa3al verbs====
Object pronouns are not different from subject pronouns, except ''kho/khe/khem'' may be found instead of ''to/te/tem'' in some dialects.
The regular pattern is *(li)CCuC.
 
When the historical C1 is a pharyngeal, the ''l-'' usually resurfaces:
* C1 = ayin: ''lubuə'' 'to go past' /lʊˈbuə/
* C1 = heth: ''litul'' 'to cease/stop' /lɪˈtʊl/
 
This doesn't happen when C1 = aleph/he: ''vuð'' /vʊð/ 'to bake, to fire', ''zuð'' /z{{den}}ʊð/ 'to be crazy, to be cool'.
 
====*-t verbs====
*leht /lɛht/ = to go by foot
*kaht /kaht/ = to take
*žeht /ʒɛht/ = to go back<!--
*łef /ʀɛf/ = to be hateful (dative-stative; Ri vivliəs bə łef u li ni 'I hate the book')-->
*žef /ʒɛf/ = to sit
*les /lɛs{{den}}/ = to be born
*res /ɹɛs{{den}}/ = to go down
*reš /ɹɛʃ/ = to acquire; to get
*ðeht /ðɛht/ = to give
*śeht /s{{ret}}ɛht/ = to carry, to owe, should
*ceht /t{{den}}{{tiebar}}s{{den}}ɛht/ = to go out, to start X-ing
*žoot /ʒoːt/ = (of time) to go by
*goot /goːt/ = to do X correctly
*doot /doːt/ = to know
*toot /toːt/ = to farm, to grow (plants)


===Prepositions===
===Prepositions===
Prepositions inflect like in Welsh: for pronominal prepositional objects, usually the preposition is inflected and is followed by the independent pronoun.
Prepositions inflect like in Welsh: for pronominal prepositional objects, usually the preposition is inflected and is followed by the independent pronoun. The inflected preposition is stressed unless the emphatic pronoun is used: ''lah tə'' /'lax tə/ 'to you' vs. ''lah tan'' /lax 'tan/ 'to you, specifically'.


example of a {{PAGENAME}} inflected preposition: lø "for"; bø 'in, at', min 'from' are inflected similarly
example of a {{PAGENAME}} inflected preposition: el "for"; pə/p' 'in, at' is inflected similarly
*1sg: li, li ni
*1sg: l'i, li ni
*2sg.m: lakh to
*2sg.m: lah tə
*2sg.f: lakh te
*2sg.f: lah ti
*3sg.m: lomu hu
*3sg.m: lom u
*3sg.f: lomi hi
*3sg.f: l'oj, ló oj
*1pl. lonu nu
*3sg.n: ləze
*2pl. lakhøm tem
*1pl. lon nu
*3pl. lomu'm
*2pl. lam tim
*3pl. low'm


Other prepositions:
Other prepositions:
*''túb lø'' = for
*''men'' = from
*''yán'' = because of
*''tubel'' = for
*''ngøli'' = on, above
*''jaən'' = because of (also "reason")
*''yax'' = with (both inst. and com.)
*''łaj'' = on, above
*''pøngé'' = inside, within
*''jaś, jaśəm'' = with (both inst. and com.)
**sim. ''løngé, møngé'' 'into, out of'
*''pəłee'' = inside, within
*''pølip'' = amidst
**sim. ''ləłee, məłee'' 'into, out of'
*''wén'' = without
*''pəlip'' = amidst
*''møné'' = before, in front of
*''wen'' = without
*''hár'' = after
*''mənie'' = before, in front of
*''møngál'' = above
*''kodm'' = before (temporally)
*''møþál'' = below
*''śni'' = after (Hitsi šeni 'second half')
*''þaxt'' = instead of
*''məłææl'' = above
*''túl'' = like, as
*''məþææl'' = below
*''hakr'' = until
*''þaht'' = instead of
*''gu'' = up to
*''til'' = like, as
*''śakə'' = until
 
=== Numbers ===
0-10: sifə, śaa, hniəm/hniə (attributive), hluž, arvu, śami, šeš, šebu, hmɨɨn, þež, łaaś
 
11-20: štoo, hnajoo, hlužoo, arvoo, śamižoo, šešoo, šeboo, hmɨɨnoo, þežoo, hniə łəəśi
 
21-30: łəəśi śaa, łəəśi hniəm, ... łəəśi łaaś
 
31-40: łəəśi štąh, ..., hniə łəəśi
 
41, 42, ...: hniə łəəśi śaa, hniə łəəśi šném, ...
 
60: hluž łəəśi
 
...
 
100: miə
 
1000: awv


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
Line 569: Line 480:
The order is tense-subject-verb-object.
The order is tense-subject-verb-object.


:'''''R'išaz p'él avlaz.'''''
:'''''R'ižəs ław bloo u abləs.'''''
:''The man is eating the apple.''
:''The man is eating the apple.''


:'''''Re béð u pø de-rul xmó liyoðøn.'''''
:'''''Ri piəð u bə de kruu til stadi.'''''
:''His house is as big as a crocodile.''
:''His house is as big as a stadium.''


:'''''Sto hi ða ląsuth halkkbetho hi pø ro-múhr.'''''
:'''''Fól oj ðə fluð xawgpéð oj bə ro-múxr.'''''
:''She did her homework too late.''
:''She did her homework too late.''


The negative particle ''mul'' (from ''mə'umâ lo'' 'not anything') comes after the subject pronoun and before the verb.
The negative particle ''dal'' (from ''tabar lū'' 'not anything') comes after the subject pronoun and before the verb.


===Faulty accusative===
===Faulty accusative===
{{PAGENAME}} has the faulty accusative particle ''ða'' or ''ð' '' (from Ancient Cubrite ''ʔet ha-''). It is not used for all direct objects, but only for constituents that are separated from their heads. ''Đa'' must also be used before the verbal noun when using an auxiliary: היֶטבר הי דﬞאַ ליתפﬞוס טאָגר ''Hettvø hi ða litfus togø.'' = She was good at catching fish.
{{PAGENAME}} has the faulty accusative (glossed as FA) particle ''ðə'' or ''ð' '', from Ancient Knench ''jūδ ha-''. It is actually not used for direct objects, but only for constituents that are separated from their heads. It also replaces a (TAM-marking) "preposition" in front of a lexical verb, when no preposition is used.
 
===Noun phrase===
The definite article is a clitic:
*Singular: =as (after C) or =su (after V)
*Plural: =iw (replacing the plural suffix ''-r'' if any)
Examples:
*''hadr'' = a room
*''hadras'' = the room
*''hadrør'' = rooms
*''hadriw'' = the rooms
*''hadr grú'' = a big room
*''hadr grulas'' = the big room (< ''hah-hadr hag-gâdhol haz-ze'')
*''botr grulr'' = big houses
*''botr gruliw'' = the big houses


There is no construct state, unlike in Biblical Hebrew. Genitives are expressed with concatenation: ''šem-mawkaz'' = the king's name.
=== Noun phrase ===
Y's X = X Y-DEF: ''šem vaziləs'' = the king's name


To say "this X" or "that X", ''X-az fu'' and ''X-az šom'' (lit. "the X here" and "the X there") are used. To say "this" and "that", you say ''ze fu'' and ''ze šom'' (where the ''ze'' becomes ''ilø'' in the plural).
To say "this X" or "that X", ''X-DEF fu'' and ''X-DEF feni'' (lit. "the X here" and "the X there") are used. To say "this" and "that", you say ''se fu'' and ''se feni'' (where the ''se'' becomes ''ilə'' in the plural).


The abstract demonstrative is ''zuth''.
''havu, haveni'' = like this, like that


===Words for yes and no===
The abstract demonstrative (referring to sentences or facts) is ''suð''.
*''ent'' (from אמת "truth") = present 'yes'
*''ay'' (from איה "where?") = present 'no'
*''ríð'' (from ראיתי "I saw") = past 'yes'
*''lu ðo'' (from לא עשה, inflected) = past 'no'
*''yąð'' (from יעשה, inflected) = future 'yes'
*''lu yąð'' (inflected) = future 'no'
*''aw'' (from אל "don't!") = imperative 'no'


===Verb phrase===
===Verb phrase===
Knench allows arbitrarily long chains of pseudo-auxiliaries:
: '''''R'oj bə kofstəl* oj gąt latsææg.'''''
: 3SG.F.PRES IPFV never_fail to_do_correctly to_joke
: ''Her jokes never fail to land.''
(*) a loan from an unknown source
====VN constructions====
====VN constructions====
*''re Parm '''pø''' laxt'' = Parm is going, goes
Knench has a rich tense-aspect system which expresses imperfective/perfective as well as progressive and perfect.
*''re Parm '''þax''' laxt'' = Parm is about to go
*'''''ri''' Parm '''bə''' leht oj'' = Parm goes
*''re Parm '''hár''' laxt'' = Parm has gone
*'''''ri''' Parm '''ław''' leht oj'' = Parm is going
*''re Parm '''hár yið pø''' laxt'' = Parm has been going
*'''''ri''' Parm '''þax''' leht oj'' = Parm is about to go
*''re Parm '''døs''' laxt'' = Parm just went
*'''''ri''' Parm '''xni''' leht oj'' = Parm has gone
*''re Parm '''wén''' laxt'' = Parm hasn't went
*'''''ri''' Parm '''xni juð oj bə''' leht'' = Parm has been going
*'''''sto''' Parm '''ða''' laxt'' = Parm went
*'''''ri''' Parm '''dəž''' leht oj'' = Parm just went
*'''''þąs''' Parm '''ða''' laxt'' = Parm will go
*'''''ri''' Parm '''wen''' leht oj'' = Parm hasn't went
*''Laxt!'' = Go! (number neutral)
*'''''fól''' Parm '''ðə''' leht'' = Parm went (perfective; cf. AAVE ''She done went'')
*'''''Tenu''' laxt!'' = Let's go!
*'''''þąf''' Parm '''ðə''' leht'' = Parm will go (perfective)
*'''''han''' Parm '''bə''' leht oj'' = Parm went (imperfective)
*'''''þé''' Parm '''bə''' leht oj'' = Parm will go (imperfective)
*''leht!'' = Go! (number neutral)
*'''''gwenu''' leht!'' (3uqbinu lekt "follow us to go") = Let's go!
 
In clauses with a copula and a verbal noun, Knench requires the pronoun corresponding to the subject to come right after the verbal noun: ''R'ižəs bø hél u ð'abwəs''. This is etymologically "See the man when he's eating the apple", cf. Biblical and literary Modern Hebrew באכלו את התפוח "when he eats the apple (but tense- and aspect-neutral)".
 
The clause-initial subject pronoun + bə colloquially tends to be omitted in the present tense when the subject is 1st or 2nd person: ''Ðób tə ð'i nr?'' 'Do you love me?'
 
==== Passive and causative ====
''Ðett'' 'to give' is used as an auxiliary for the causative:
: ''Nawð i ðə pinxadəs el kapwəs el ąnuj.''
: I made the horse bore the farmer to death.
: (lit. I gave the horse the farmer to inflict boredom)
In a ''ðett''-causative construction, the more animate object takes the dative preposition ''el''. This connects ditransitives which are causatives of transitives to the basic ditransitive verb 'give'.
 
To form passives two different auxiliaries are used:
* ''Kaht'' 'to take' is used as an auxiliary to raise the animate object of a ditransitive verb.
* ''leht'' 'to go' is used to raise the inanimate object of both monotransitive and ditransitive verbs (as well as the object of the original verb which is causativized).
 
: ''Kawð u đə ląbur mitəs rup məšólə.''
: 'He was made to suffer so many things.'
 
: ''Lawð łeśwəs đə hél men kapwəs.''
: 'The grass was fed to the horse.'
 
=== Balancing vs deranking conjunctions ===
Balancing conjunctions take full finite clauses (clauses with a finite verb or an auxiliary):
* ''ej'' "and"
* ''ow'' "or"
* ''mur'' (complementizer)
* ''łeþr'' "when"
* ''wí'' "if" (< *wa-kī)
* ''jern'' "because"
 
Deranking conjunctions replace finite forms of the copula ''juð'' and thus are also called ''copula-replacing conjunctions'' (e.g. by Hrafn). Some CRCs are:
* ''prí'' "than"
* ''jið'' (complementizer)
* ''pið'' "when"
 
=== Time clauses ===
==== ''pið''-clauses ====
A ''pið''-clause is in the same tense as the clause it's embedded in. ''Pið''-clauses denote states, things that can be marked with ''re'' + tense markers in the present tense), rather than completed actions.
==== ''łeþr''-clauses ====
''łeþr'' are used for clauses with auxiliaries other than the present tense copula.


===Sentence phrase===
===Complementizer===
===Complementizer===
There is a complementizer ''mur'' /mɐ/ (from לאמר ''lēmōr'') or ''yuð'' /əð/ (from conflation of ''hajōδ'' 'to be' and ''hiyyōδ'' accusative marker) depending on dialect.
There is a complementizer ''mur'' (from ''lēmūr'') or ''jið'' (from conflation of ''hajūδ'' 'to be' and ''jūδ'' accusative marker) depending on dialect.


===Relativizer===
===Relativizer===
Relative clauses use the relativizer ''ar'' (from a merger of אשר ''*ʔašir'' and ה- ''ha-''). ''Re'' is not used in relative clauses in present tense.
In most cases, relative clauses use the relativizer ''xaž'' (from ''*χa-ʔašir'' 'like that which'). ''n'' may appear after the resumptive pronoun if one is used.
 
Subject of a copula auxiliary:
: '''''paras xaž hie __ bə gri u "pnar"'''''
: the boy who cried (would cry) wolf
 
Subject with a non-copula auxiliary:
: '''''paras xaž fow __ gri "pnar"'''''
: the boy who cried wolf (once)
 
Direct object:
: '''''vivlias xaž fown nu ðə gru (se (n))'''''
: the book that we read
 
Oblique object:
: '''''péðas xaž hieþ oj bə xun oj pəze (n)'''''
: the house she used to live in
 
To relativise the subject of a ''present'' copula, ''łom'' (from hā-3ūmid 'that is standing') is used:
 
: R' abwas pə śadə i. -> '''''abwas łom pə śadə i'''''
: the apple in my flat
 
: Ri plenžil śni leht im. -> '''''plenžil łom xni leht im'''''
: the people who have gone
 
=== Serial verb construction ===
Serial verbs are also very common in Knench:
 
: '''''Pow Móšé ðə kaht vdųś prið u. / Fow Móšé ðə buð kaht vdųś prið u. '''''
: come.PST.3SG.M Moshe FA take.INF open.INF gift 3sg.m / PST.3SG.M Moshe FA come.INF take.INF open.INF gift 3SG.M
:Moshe came, took, and opened his gift.
 
Directionals derived from verbs, such as ''leht'' '(t)hence', ''bu'' '(t)hither' and ''kub'' 'movement together with another person' are also common and may replace pronouns.
 
=== Wh-questions ===
No special treatment is observed unless the wh-word is the subject, in which case ''łom'' is used after the wh-word. However, ''łom'' is not used in a question in the form of a nominal sentence. (As always, ''ri'' is dropped in questions.)
 
:'''''Dar Petə bə fluð?'''''
:''What's Peter doing?''
 
:'''''Dar łom bə gruð?'''''
:''What's happening?''
 
:'''''Dar se fu? (*Dar łom se fu?)'''''
:''What's this?''
 
:'''''Énr ti?'''''
:''Where are you?''


*''Ni p'él avlaz ar pø hadr i'' = I am eating the apple which is in my room.
:'''''Énr fows tə ðə leht?''''' / '''''Énr laws tr?'''''
:''Where have you been?''


==Vocabulary==
==Vocabulary==
Canaanite has the following vocabulary layers:
Knench has the following vocabulary layers:


# Most of the common words are inherited from Ancient Cubrite, however they often show drastic semantic drift or compounding. Example: ''sngúd'' 'a lot' comes from סעודה 'feast'.
# Most of the common words are inherited from the Semitic common ancestor of Ancient Knench and Biblical Hebrew, however they often show drastic semantic drift or univerbation. Example: ''šłúd'' 'a lot' comes from ''saȝudō'' 'feast'. Cranberry morphemes are not uncommon in Semito-Knench.
# Celtic substrates
# Azalic substrate
# Ancient Greek, Old Togarmite and Aramaic loans
# Ancient Greek, Aramaic
# L-Arabic loans
# Latin, Romance, Arabic, Turkic and Modern Greek
# Modern loans from other Levantine sprachbund languages, such as [[Togarmite]], and Modern Greek


Although it is attested in Biblical Hebrew, the *CăCiCâ verbal noun pattern is not as productive as in Mishnaic Hebrew.
Although it is attested in Ancient Knench, the *CaCīCō verbal noun pattern is not as productive as the corresponding pattern in Mishnaic and Modern Hebrew.


Many words are formed form earlier construct state combinations, and are sometimes unrecognizable as such:  
Many words are formed from earlier construct state or verb + object combinations, and are sometimes unrecognizable as such:  
*''ambin'' 'brick' from אבני בניין ''*ʔabanē binyan'' 'building stones'
*''əmbein'' 'brick' from ''*habanē binjan'' 'building stones'
*''søvgom'' '(slang) debacle, fiasco; a mess' from שפך דם ''*šapk dam'' 'spilling of blood'
*''həvgom'' 'massacre; (slang) debacle, fiasco; a mess' from ''*šafx dam'' 'spilling of blood'
*''ngénøm'' 'source' from עין מים ''ʕēn mayim'' 'spring of water'
*''łienəm'' 'source' from ''ʕēn mayim'' 'spring of water'
*''løseppin'' 'to like' from נשא פני lit. 'lift the face of' meaning 'to favor'
*''xifin'' 'to like' from ''*śe'θ fin'' lit. 'lift the face of' meaning 'to favor'
*''klalib'' 'conscience' from קול הלב lit. 'voice of the heart'
*''xihniem (el)'' 'to look at' from ''*śe'θ 3ēnajim'' 'lift eyes'
*''krəlieb'' 'conscience' from ''*qūl hal-lēbb'' lit. 'voice of the heart'


Some productive affixes are:
Some productive affixes are:
*ben-/ble- = agentive
*pen-/ple- = agentive, -ling
**פנאַר ''pnar'' 'wolf' comes from pre-Cubrite *בן הר 'son-of mountain'
** ''pnar'' 'wolf' comes from older *ben harr 'mountainling'; a euphemism replacing Ancient Knench ''zēb'', which had become taboo by Old Knench
*beδ- = place noun
*peδ- = place noun
*bəd-/pd- = singulative of a collective noun
*pəd-/pd- = associated inanimate, esp. singulative of a collective noun (from peθθ 'daughter')
**פדע ''pdą'' = tree, from *batt ya3r 'daughter of forest'
** ''pdoo'' = tree (*pett ja3r)
*-əl = transitivizer or causative of verbs (from a -w ~ -l alternation in some intransitive-transitive verb pairs)
** ''pdam'' = wave (*pett jamm)
** ''pdəəm'' = word (irreg. metathesis from *pett himrō)
** ''pdeš'' = flame
** ''pled'' = echo
** ''pədnə'' = stream
** ''pəmtaa'' = dew (from ''mtaa'' 'rain')
** ''pədkažəm'' = (''poetic'') petrichor
*''-l'' = transitivizer or causative of verbs (from a -w ~ -ul alternation in some intransitive-transitive verb pairs)
** ''hamžəl'' 'to dry' < ''hamž'' '(archaic) sun'
* -is: -ess (from Greek)
** ''vazilis'' 'queen' < ''vazil'' 'king'
** ''mææšivis'' 'witch' < ''mææšiv'' 'mage, wizard'
* ''lið-'' = mediopassive
* ''məð-'' is more productive and is used to form verbal adjectives, serving the role of passive participles
** ''luri'' 'to amaze'; ''muri'' 'amazing'; ''məðuri'' 'amazed'


==Example texts==
==Example texts==
===UDHR, Article 1===
===UDHR, Article 1===
:'''''Xol plenušiw bru'm lalest kø hofsr; hem sowr ngaw kovdaz ke tsrokkuthiw. Vru'm lifkudh pø þbín ke gulaliv, ke re ngalem laxt yax šuthif bø nøšóm ahwr.'''''
:'''''Law xol plææžil ðə les im bə śraa ej bə haw łaj hogləs ej rejtil. Kalu'm ðə lugud jaś režən ej krəliəb, ej r'im bə śeht im liðali śad jaśəm hɨɨv p nažəm axə.'''''
:all human/PL-DEF.PL.M PASS.PRES-3PL be_born as free-M.PL; 3PL equal-PL on dignity-DEF.SG and right-DEF.F.PL. PASS.PRES-3PL entrust with understanding and conscience, and PRES on-3PL walk with one_another with spirit brotherhood.
:PASS.PST.3SG.NF all human/PL-DEF.PL be_born 3PL PRED free and PRED equal on dignity-DEF.SG and right-DEF.PL. PASS.PRES-3PL endow with reason and conscience, and PRES.3PL PRES carry 3PL behave with one_another LOC spirit brotherhood.
:''All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act toward one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''
:''All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act toward one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''
===Tower of Babel===
{| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" align="center"
! Cubrite !! Masoretic Hebrew (translit.)
|-
||
# ''Bar þó law þebwas ðo súðu śóv lødapir xe súðu núm lúngil.''
# ''Wini khi yu'm pø šątt me mikkarm, śu'm liþakiw pø mišuras Šinngor xe liðyašib šom.''
# ''Xe śu'm lø šúðiv yið: "Púlé, puþonu ląśuð ambínr xe lateb léfuð em." Xe śu ambíniw šamiš lomu'm xmu avóniw, ke hemras xmu mawtt.''
# ''Xe śu'm yið: "Púlé, puþonu bnuð krír xe mídøw bomi hi, yąð ruš u lagią ląluð lø šmémas, xe nąð nu ląsuð lø nawš nu duąšim! Oz nąs nu mul liðvasir ngøli þó law þebwas."''
# ''Wini Hašém śo u rest bu, xá yąś u lábitt pø kríras ke mídøwas a yu plenušiw pø bnuð.''
# ''Ke Hašém śo u yið: "Šą a śu'm háþolø ląśuð suð kø hóð ngom ar bø dapir hóð núm,  yiye mum mikhšul mul lø mádovr a yąśu løzumim ląśuð!''
# ''"Púlé, puþonu rest laxt xe bawbiw núm em, oz yąðu'm mul lábin šuðiv."''
# ''Xu Hašém śo u vasir em fli þó law þebwas, xe śu'm ládul bnuð kríras.''
# ''Xe me yánas fu ar kríras bø kkaxt šemas "Boviw" -- šom śo Hašém bawbiw núm þó law þebwas. Me šom śo Hašém vasir em ngøli þó law þebwas.''
||
#Vayehi khol-ha'arets safa ekhat udvarim akhadim.
#Vayehi bnos'am mikedem vayyimtse'u vik'a b'erets Shin'ar vayyeshvu sham.
#Vayyomru ish el-re'ehu hava nilbena lvenim venisrefa lisrefa vatehi lahem hallvena l'aven vehakhemor haya lahem lakhomer.
#Vayyomru hava nivne-lanu ir umigdal verosho vashamayim vena'ase-lanu shem pen-nafuts al-pnei khol-ha'arets.
#Vayyered Adonai lir'ot et-ha'ir ve'et-hammigdal asher banu bnei ha'adam.
#Vayyomer Adonai hen am ekhad vesafa akhat lekhullam veze hakhillam la'asot ve'ata lo-yibatser mehem kol asher yazmu la'asot.
#Hava nerda vnovla sham sfatam asher lo yishme'u ish sefat re'ehu.
#Vayyafets Adonai otam misham al-pnei khol-ha'arets vayyakhdelu livnot ha'ir.
#Al-ken kara shmah bavel ki-sham balal Adonai shefat kol-ha'arets umisham hefitsam Adonai al-pnei kol-ha'arets.
|}


===Schleicher's Fable===
===Schleicher's Fable===


==Phrasebook==
==Phrasebook==
When three forms are given, the forms are respectively for addressing one male informally, one female informally, and multiple people or formal language.
When three forms are given, the forms are respectively for addressing one man (informally), one woman (informally), and politely/gender-neutrally respectively.
*''Soløm!'' [ˈsɔləm] = Hello! / Goodbye!
*''Hlum!'' = Hello! / Goodbye!
*''Hakr gorv!'' = See you!
* ''Matin tub!'' = Good morning!
*''Ebí Hi!'' = Welcome! (etym. [God] has brought you)
* ''Śnitsoə tub!'' = Good afternoon!
*''Parg lo Hi!'' = Thank you!  
* ''Łaab tub!'' = Good evening!
*''imtsøhém Hi'' = Please (etym. if it finds favor in your eyes)
* ''Liəl tub!'' = Good night!
**also ''plíz'' [pləɪz] (from English)
*''Śakə!'' = See you!
*''ngeth tuv'' [ŋɛθ tuv] = have fun
*''Bu də/di/dim!'' = Welcome!
 
*''Praw lah tə/ti [lam tim]!'' = Thank you!  
<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. -->
*''Im tsəśiəm tə/ti/tim'' = Please (etym. ''himm jimtsā Hinn ba3ēnēxa'' 'if it finds favor in your eyes')
 
**also ''pləiz'' (from English)
<!-- Template area -->
*''łeþ tub'' = have fun
 
* ''Ajžə heməs kaws tə/ti [kawðu tim]?'' = What's your name?
*''Kawð i ðə [NAME].'' = My name is [NAME].
*''Powð i men...'' = I'm from...
*''Lawð i les pə...'' = I was born in...
*''I bə fu.'' = I'm here.
*''(I bə) ðuəb i ðah tə/ti [ðam tim].'' = I love you.


[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Lõis]]
[[Category:Semitic languages]]
[[Category:Semitic languages]]
[[Category:Stem-Hebrew]]
[[Category:Stem-Hebrew]]

Latest revision as of 01:46, 5 March 2024

IlL/A Danified analytic Neo-Arabic/Lexicon

IlL/A Danified analytic Neo-Arabic/Swadesh list

IlL/A Danified analytic Neo-Arabic/Diachronics

Knench
Xnɪəni
Created byInthar
SettingVerse:Irta
Native toIrta Libya
Afro-Asiatic

ɵ

Knench (/nɛntʃ/, from Old Knench χnānī via Old Azalic ŋnoinisχ; natively Xnɪəni /xnɪəni/ or nɨɨm Xnɪən /nɨːm xnɪən) is a Semitic language spoken in the Irta timeline and the closest living relative to Hebrew in Irta. The name of the language comes from Ancient Knench kanaȝn 'Canaan'. Knench has received strong Azalic influence throughout its history since Ancient Knench times, and genetic studies have shown that the Knench are descendants of Azalic speakers who adopted a Canaanite language. The language descends from a close relative of Biblical Hebrew which was spoken in North Africa (which was spoken instead of our Punic in Irta), but its grammar is far less synthetic than its ancestor: lexical verbs were completely restructured to use constructions with auxiliaries and infinitives instead of the older prefix and suffix conjugations, and it has lost grammatical gender like Togarmite and Far East Semitic. Knench has many loanwords from various sources including Greek, Azalic, Coptic, Berber, Arabic, Aramaic, Romance, and English.

A majority of modern Knench people are Muslim; some are Christian, Jewish or neopagan. There is a Judeo-Knench, with Hebrew and Aramaic loanwords.

It's inspired grammatically by Welsh and Irish, and aesthetically by English, Danish, Naeng, and Khmer.

Names

Native Knench names

  • Parm (f.) is from baśam
  • Þor (m.) 'bull (from Aramaic)'

Hugin and Munin (de novo derived from active participles *hūgi and *mūni) are modern fantasy characters

History

TODO

  • Focus prominence (like Welsh)
  • retain vav consecutive forms of auxiliaries
  • vi = "and then" (used for consecutive events; ~ BH wayhi)
  • -x > -rh
  • A sentence consisting entirely of replacements and compounds?
    • I dal bə kpeen pnaarə. = I don't see any wolves. (Heb: Ani lo ro'e ze'evim.)
  • Hard mode: a sentence where every content word has a Semitic cranberry morpheme
  • Swadesh list
  • bel-, ble- is a common prefix (conflation of ben- and ba3al-)
  • Many adverbs from infinitive absolute
  • Philippi should be weaker: i > e, instead of the TibH i > a (*bint > peþ 'daughter'; TibH baṫ)
  • Mén fows ta xett kori? = Why did you have to die?
  • replace a lot of Canaanite vocabulary with other words

Some sound changes

  • Maghrebi Arabic craziness (happens early on, ca. 9th-10th century)
  • -ə (mainly from ACub -ō) becomes silent and lengthens the vowel before it
  • non-rhoticity (nonrhoticity has to happen after fem sg ending loss)
  • ħ > x; *gt, kt, ᴋt, ħt > ht
  • ś > usually x, sometimes f or fl
  • d-t, t-t (morpheme boundary) > st
  • xr > x
  • Ri ni b žejn i p Mednə Əśidəs 'I live in the United States'
  • š- > h-
  • univerbate like crazy

Phonology

Consonants

  • /m n ʁ̃ʷ l w j ɹ̠/ ⟨m n ł h l w j r⟩
  • /p b f v t d θ ð k g/ ⟨p b f v t d þ ð k g⟩
  • /s̪ z̪ t̪͡s̪ ʃ ʒ tʃ s̠ t̠͡s̠ x h/ ⟨s z c š ž č ś ć x h⟩

/t d/ are alveolar, and /θ ð/ are dental. /θ ð/ may be realized as [t̪ d̪].

/s̪ z̪ t̪͡s̪/ are lamino-dental, like Basque z.

/s̠ t̠͡s̠/ are retracted apico-alveolar, like Greek /s/.

Ancient Knench /l/ became /w/ in some places, especially before C or pausa.

Stops are unaspirated.

Judeo-Knench has final r in borrowed Hebrew and Aramaic vocabulary.

Vowels

IlL/A Danified analytic Neo-Arabic has the largest vowel inventory of any Semitic language in Irta. It has many diphthongs.

Prosody

Stress

Stress tends penultimate or final.

Intonation

Phonotactics

Morphophonology

Orthography

Modern Knench has an orthography using an alphabet descended from the Paleo-Hebrew script, where spelling reflects Middle Knench.

Morphology

IlL/A Danified analytic Neo-Arabic has lost the verbal inflections and triconsonantal morphology of Ancient Knench.

Nouns and adjectives

Nouns inflect for number and definiteness. Like in English, proper nouns don't take the definite article. Attributive adjectives agree with nouns in number, but predicate adjectives do not. Knench has lost grammatical gender and the construct state, although animates still have natural gender.

Number and definiteness

IlL/A Danified analytic Neo-Arabic has regularized most plurals to -ə (from a merger of Ancient Knench -īn > *-ī and -ūδ). -u nouns become -lə in the plural: þebu, þeblə 'a world, worlds'.

Nouns inflect for definiteness, as follows:

  • Singular: -əs (after C), (from haz-ze and haz-zū)
  • Plural: -il, replacing the plural suffix -ə if any (from ha-2ili), -u + -il > -ul
    • Plurals must be memorized! For example -u may become -ləs (specifically when the -u comes from a vocalized /-l/).

Words ending in a schwa add an intrusive R between the final vowel and the plural suffix.

Some irregular plurals: penš, plenš = human

Examples:

  • śadə /ˈs̠adə/ = an apartment/flat
  • śadrəs /ˈs̠adɹəs/ = the flat
  • śadrə /ˈs̠adɹə/ = flats
  • śadril /ˈs̠adɹɪl/ = the flats
  • śadə bušət /ˈs̠adə ˈbʊʃət/ = a big flat
  • śadrəs bušət /ˈs̠adɹəs ˈbʊʃət/ = the big flat
  • śadrə buštə /ˈs̠adɹə ˈbʊʃtə/ = big flats
  • śadril buštə /ˈs̠adɹɪl ˈbʊʃtə/ = the big flats

-ma nouns from Greek become -mat nouns: þemat, þematas, þematə, þematil 'topic, theme'.

Predicative adjectives

The predicative/adverbial marker bə followed by the bare form is used for predicative adjectives: Ri śadrəs bə bušət 'The room is big'.

Degree

  • Equative: de = as X as; equally X (~ BH day 'enough')
  • Comparative/Superlative: -ur = more X or most X (from *3abūr, infinitive absolute of 'to exceed'); comparandum takes prej 'than' (from Ancient Knench pirūðī 'when I see'). The -ur form is indeclinable.

Example: bušət 'big', de bušət 'as big as'; buštur 'bigger/biggest'

Pronouns

Knench has a pronoun system similar to European languages, except that there is no grammatical gender and se "that" is used as an inanimate or gender-neutral pronoun. There is a T-V distinction: the 2nd person plural tim is also used as a polite pronoun.

I (/i:/ or /ɪ/) is the default form for the 1sg subject pronoun; ni is used after a vowel or for disambiguation.

For gender-neutral usage, tu has been proposed as a 2nd person singular neopronoun (inspired by Indo-European languages). This isn't as common as using the 2nd person plural tim as singular, however.

Knench emphatic pronouns come from a suffixed -nna (precative).

Pronouns in IlL/A Danified analytic Neo-Arabic, basic forms
→ Person I thou (m) thou (f) he she we ye they
Basic forms i, ni tə ti u oj nu tim im
Emphatic forms (n)in tan ten un ojn, hin nun temnə emnə

Interrogative pronouns

  • da, ida = what? (nominal) (*hajj dabar 'what thing')
  • ew = who? (*2ajj hū)
    • poetic mi
  • ajšə = which?
  • énə = where?
  • məðé = when?
  • əziəp = why? (the reason something happened) (or from another phrase of the form "ayy [NOUN]")
  • maləx = why? (the reason someone does something) (*ma lak 'what's the matter')
  • xam = how many?
  • xiəlt = how?

Verbs

Almost all verbs use only one form. For native verbs, this form may be derived from:

  • the infinitive construct or the imperative (mostly basic verbs)
  • a deverbal noun pattern (most common)
  • a univerbation of a verb + noun collocation

The infinitive form may or may not have a prefixed l-, depending on the verb; however, even verbs without l- often display a voicing mutation attesting to the historical lV- (e.g. žbuð 'to be idle, to lie fallow'). Some verbs instead are derived from other nouns derived from the relevant triconsonantal root rather than the infinitive of a particular verb (e.g. benin 'to build', cognate to the Hebrew noun binyan; from the root b-n-y)

The infinitive is also used as an imperative: ðeht ló oj! = 'Give it to her!' Imperatives are negated by placing bal or bawði before the verb.

Inflected verbs

Knench has only six inflected verbs (i.e. verbs with inflected past and future forms):

  • luð 'to be'
  • śuð 'to do' (from *ʕaśō, with contamination from *paȝal): used to form past and future perfective tenses
  • buð 'to come' (from *bô): sometimes means 'must, have to'. bu is still used as a directional.
  • leht 'to go' (from *halak), also used as a passive auxilliary for dechticaetiative objects
  • kaht 'to take' (from *laqaħ): also used for animate patients of ditransitive verbs
  • ðeht 'to give' (from *natan, with contamination from *hinīħ 'to leave' and naħħil 'to bequeath'): also used for causatives

Their forms have become more similar to each other due to analogy.

Knench maintains a distinction between independent and dependent forms for finite verbs, like Old Irish. The independent forms come from the Ancient Knench waw-consecutive. Using a preverb such as lu 'not', veə '(interrogative form of present marker ri)', xaž 'relativizer', or śu 'I'm sure that...' (from the infinitive absolute *3aśū of *3aśō 'to do'; generalized from *3aśū ja3śiju 'he will indeed do') requires the dependent form. Dependent past forms and future forms are formally identical to independent future forms and past forms, respectively, except for luð 'to be'.

Even verbs with finite forms are defective verbs, since finite forms are always perfective (except forms of luð). To express the imperfective with these verbs, you still have to use the copula + bə + VN construction. The negator lu only negates finite verbs.

The present particle ri comes from ruʔi, the imperative of raʔō 'to see'. Ri is not used in subordinate clauses:

  • Ri Đavíð þaś žin. = David is about to sleep.
  • Pið Đavíð þaś žin, r'u dal bə xapuð uras. = When David goes to sleep, he doesn't turn off the lights.
  • Veə Đavíð þaś žin? = Is David going to bed? (neutral)
  • Ri Đavíð dar þaś žin. = David is not going to bed.
Inflected verbs in IlL/A Danified analytic Neo-Arabic
→ Person I thou (m) thou (f) he she we you (plural) they
Present ri/r' i, ni tə ti r'u r'oj nu tim r'im
luð future indep. wej(ð) i wejs tə wejs ti wii u wieþ oj wejn nu wejs tim wilu'm
future dep. jie i þies tə þies ti jie u þieþ oj nien nu þies tim juu'm
past indep. waj i was tə was ti waj u waþ oj wan nu was tim waju'm
past dep. hej(ð) i hejs tə hejs ti hie u hieþ oj hejn nu hejs tim hilu'm
śuð future indep. fow(ð) i fows tə fows ti fow u foəþ oj fown nu fows tim folu'm
past indep. woś i þoś tə þoś ti joś u þoś oj noś nu þoś tim jośu'm
buð future indep. pow(ð) i pows tə pows ti pow u poəþ oj pown nu pows tim polu'm
past indep. pax i tpax tə tpaj ti pax u tpax oj pax nu tpaw tim paw'm
leht future indep. law(ð) i laws tə laws ti law u laəþ oj lawn nu laws tim lalu'm
past indep. lax i tlax tə tlej ti lax u tlax oj lax nu tlaw tim law'm
kaht future indep. kaw(ð) i kaws tə kaws ti kaw u kaəþ oj kawn nu kaws tim kalu'm
past indep. kax i tkax tə tkaj ti kax u tkax oj kax nu tkaw tim kaw'm
ðeht future indep. naw(ð) i naws tə naws ti naw u naəþ oj nawn nu naws tim nalu'm
past indep. nax i tnax tə tnaj ti nax u tnax oj nax nu tnaw tim naw'm

Regular pa3al verbs

The regular pattern is *(li)CCuC.

When the historical C1 is a pharyngeal, the l- usually resurfaces:

  • C1 = ayin: lubuə 'to go past' /lʊˈbuə/
  • C1 = heth: litul 'to cease/stop' /lɪˈtʊl/

This doesn't happen when C1 = aleph/he: vuð /vʊð/ 'to bake, to fire', zuð /z̪ʊð/ 'to be crazy, to be cool'.

*-t verbs

  • leht /lɛht/ = to go by foot
  • kaht /kaht/ = to take
  • žeht /ʒɛht/ = to go back
  • žef /ʒɛf/ = to sit
  • les /lɛs̪/ = to be born
  • res /ɹɛs̪/ = to go down
  • reš /ɹɛʃ/ = to acquire; to get
  • ðeht /ðɛht/ = to give
  • śeht /s̠ɛht/ = to carry, to owe, should
  • ceht /t̪͡s̪ɛht/ = to go out, to start X-ing
  • žoot /ʒoːt/ = (of time) to go by
  • goot /goːt/ = to do X correctly
  • doot /doːt/ = to know
  • toot /toːt/ = to farm, to grow (plants)

Prepositions

Prepositions inflect like in Welsh: for pronominal prepositional objects, usually the preposition is inflected and is followed by the independent pronoun. The inflected preposition is stressed unless the emphatic pronoun is used: lah tə /'lax tə/ 'to you' vs. lah tan /lax 'tan/ 'to you, specifically'.

example of a IlL/A Danified analytic Neo-Arabic inflected preposition: el "for"; pə/p' 'in, at' is inflected similarly

  • 1sg: l'i, li ni
  • 2sg.m: lah tə
  • 2sg.f: lah ti
  • 3sg.m: lom u
  • 3sg.f: l'oj, ló oj
  • 3sg.n: ləze
  • 1pl. lon nu
  • 2pl. lam tim
  • 3pl. low'm

Other prepositions:

  • men = from
  • tubel = for
  • jaən = because of (also "reason")
  • łaj = on, above
  • jaś, jaśəm = with (both inst. and com.)
  • pəłee = inside, within
    • sim. ləłee, məłee 'into, out of'
  • pəlip = amidst
  • wen = without
  • mənie = before, in front of
  • kodm = before (temporally)
  • śni = after (Hitsi šeni 'second half')
  • məłææl = above
  • məþææl = below
  • þaht = instead of
  • til = like, as
  • śakə = until

Numbers

0-10: sifə, śaa, hniəm/hniə (attributive), hluž, arvu, śami, šeš, šebu, hmɨɨn, þež, łaaś

11-20: štoo, hnajoo, hlužoo, arvoo, śamižoo, šešoo, šeboo, hmɨɨnoo, þežoo, hniə łəəśi

21-30: łəəśi śaa, łəəśi hniəm, ... łəəśi łaaś

31-40: łəəśi štąh, ..., hniə łəəśi

41, 42, ...: hniə łəəśi śaa, hniə łəəśi šném, ...

60: hluž łəəśi

...

100: miə

1000: awv

Syntax

Constituent order

The order is tense-subject-verb-object.

R'ižəs ław bloo u abləs.
The man is eating the apple.
Ri piəð u bə de kruu til stadi.
His house is as big as a stadium.
Fól oj ðə fluð xawgpéð oj bə ro-múxr.
She did her homework too late.

The negative particle dal (from tabar lū 'not anything') comes after the subject pronoun and before the verb.

Faulty accusative

IlL/A Danified analytic Neo-Arabic has the faulty accusative (glossed as FA) particle ðə or ð' , from Ancient Knench jūδ ha-. It is actually not used for direct objects, but only for constituents that are separated from their heads. It also replaces a (TAM-marking) "preposition" in front of a lexical verb, when no preposition is used.

Noun phrase

Y's X = X Y-DEF: šem vaziləs = the king's name

To say "this X" or "that X", X-DEF fu and X-DEF feni (lit. "the X here" and "the X there") are used. To say "this" and "that", you say se fu and se feni (where the se becomes ilə in the plural).

havu, haveni = like this, like that

The abstract demonstrative (referring to sentences or facts) is suð.

Verb phrase

Knench allows arbitrarily long chains of pseudo-auxiliaries:

R'oj bə kofstəl* oj gąt latsææg.
3SG.F.PRES IPFV never_fail to_do_correctly to_joke
Her jokes never fail to land.

(*) a loan from an unknown source

VN constructions

Knench has a rich tense-aspect system which expresses imperfective/perfective as well as progressive and perfect.

  • ri Parm bə leht oj = Parm goes
  • ri Parm ław leht oj = Parm is going
  • ri Parm þax leht oj = Parm is about to go
  • ri Parm xni leht oj = Parm has gone
  • ri Parm xni juð oj bə leht = Parm has been going
  • ri Parm dəž leht oj = Parm just went
  • ri Parm wen leht oj = Parm hasn't went
  • fól Parm ðə leht = Parm went (perfective; cf. AAVE She done went)
  • þąf Parm ðə leht = Parm will go (perfective)
  • han Parm bə leht oj = Parm went (imperfective)
  • þé Parm bə leht oj = Parm will go (imperfective)
  • leht! = Go! (number neutral)
  • gwenu leht! (3uqbinu lekt "follow us to go") = Let's go!

In clauses with a copula and a verbal noun, Knench requires the pronoun corresponding to the subject to come right after the verbal noun: R'ižəs bø hél u ð'abwəs. This is etymologically "See the man when he's eating the apple", cf. Biblical and literary Modern Hebrew באכלו את התפוח "when he eats the apple (but tense- and aspect-neutral)".

The clause-initial subject pronoun + bə colloquially tends to be omitted in the present tense when the subject is 1st or 2nd person: Ðób tə ð'i nr? 'Do you love me?'

Passive and causative

Ðett 'to give' is used as an auxiliary for the causative:

Nawð i ðə pinxadəs el kapwəs el ąnuj.
I made the horse bore the farmer to death.
(lit. I gave the horse the farmer to inflict boredom)

In a ðett-causative construction, the more animate object takes the dative preposition el. This connects ditransitives which are causatives of transitives to the basic ditransitive verb 'give'.

To form passives two different auxiliaries are used:

  • Kaht 'to take' is used as an auxiliary to raise the animate object of a ditransitive verb.
  • leht 'to go' is used to raise the inanimate object of both monotransitive and ditransitive verbs (as well as the object of the original verb which is causativized).
Kawð u đə ląbur mitəs rup məšólə.
'He was made to suffer so many things.'
Lawð łeśwəs đə hél men kapwəs.
'The grass was fed to the horse.'

Balancing vs deranking conjunctions

Balancing conjunctions take full finite clauses (clauses with a finite verb or an auxiliary):

  • ej "and"
  • ow "or"
  • mur (complementizer)
  • łeþr "when"
  • wí "if" (< *wa-kī)
  • jern "because"

Deranking conjunctions replace finite forms of the copula juð and thus are also called copula-replacing conjunctions (e.g. by Hrafn). Some CRCs are:

  • prí "than"
  • jið (complementizer)
  • pið "when"

Time clauses

pið-clauses

A pið-clause is in the same tense as the clause it's embedded in. Pið-clauses denote states, things that can be marked with re + tense markers in the present tense), rather than completed actions.

łeþr-clauses

łeþr are used for clauses with auxiliaries other than the present tense copula.

Complementizer

There is a complementizer mur (from lēmūr) or jið (from conflation of hajūδ 'to be' and jūδ accusative marker) depending on dialect.

Relativizer

In most cases, relative clauses use the relativizer xaž (from *χa-ʔašir 'like that which'). n may appear after the resumptive pronoun if one is used.

Subject of a copula auxiliary:

paras xaž hie __ bə gri u "pnar"
the boy who cried (would cry) wolf

Subject with a non-copula auxiliary:

paras xaž fow __ gri "pnar"
the boy who cried wolf (once)

Direct object:

vivlias xaž fown nu ðə gru (se (n))
the book that we read

Oblique object:

péðas xaž hieþ oj bə xun oj pəze (n)
the house she used to live in

To relativise the subject of a present copula, łom (from hā-3ūmid 'that is standing') is used:

R' abwas pə śadə i. -> abwas łom pə śadə i
the apple in my flat
Ri plenžil śni leht im. -> plenžil łom xni leht im
the people who have gone

Serial verb construction

Serial verbs are also very common in Knench:

Pow Móšé ðə kaht vdųś prið u. / Fow Móšé ðə buð kaht vdųś prið u.
come.PST.3SG.M Moshe FA take.INF open.INF gift 3sg.m / PST.3SG.M Moshe FA come.INF take.INF open.INF gift 3SG.M
Moshe came, took, and opened his gift.

Directionals derived from verbs, such as leht '(t)hence', bu '(t)hither' and kub 'movement together with another person' are also common and may replace pronouns.

Wh-questions

No special treatment is observed unless the wh-word is the subject, in which case łom is used after the wh-word. However, łom is not used in a question in the form of a nominal sentence. (As always, ri is dropped in questions.)

Dar Petə bə fluð?
What's Peter doing?
Dar łom bə gruð?
What's happening?
Dar se fu? (*Dar łom se fu?)
What's this?
Énr ti?
Where are you?
Énr fows tə ðə leht? / Énr laws tr?
Where have you been?

Vocabulary

Knench has the following vocabulary layers:

  1. Most of the common words are inherited from the Semitic common ancestor of Ancient Knench and Biblical Hebrew, however they often show drastic semantic drift or univerbation. Example: šłúd 'a lot' comes from saȝudō 'feast'. Cranberry morphemes are not uncommon in Semito-Knench.
  2. Azalic substrate
  3. Ancient Greek, Aramaic
  4. Latin, Romance, Arabic, Turkic and Modern Greek

Although it is attested in Ancient Knench, the *CaCīCō verbal noun pattern is not as productive as the corresponding pattern in Mishnaic and Modern Hebrew.

Many words are formed from earlier construct state or verb + object combinations, and are sometimes unrecognizable as such:

  • əmbein 'brick' from *habanē binjan 'building stones'
  • həvgom 'massacre; (slang) debacle, fiasco; a mess' from *šafx dam 'spilling of blood'
  • łienəm 'source' from ʕēn mayim 'spring of water'
  • xifin 'to like' from *śe'θ fin lit. 'lift the face of' meaning 'to favor'
  • xihniem (el) 'to look at' from *śe'θ 3ēnajim 'lift eyes'
  • krəlieb 'conscience' from *qūl hal-lēbb lit. 'voice of the heart'

Some productive affixes are:

  • pen-/ple- = agentive, -ling
    • pnar 'wolf' comes from older *ben harr 'mountainling'; a euphemism replacing Ancient Knench zēb, which had become taboo by Old Knench
  • peδ- = place noun
  • pəd-/pd- = associated inanimate, esp. singulative of a collective noun (from peθθ 'daughter')
    • pdoo = tree (*pett ja3r)
    • pdam = wave (*pett jamm)
    • pdəəm = word (irreg. metathesis from *pett himrō)
    • pdeš = flame
    • pled = echo
    • pədnə = stream
    • pəmtaa = dew (from mtaa 'rain')
    • pədkažəm = (poetic) petrichor
  • -l = transitivizer or causative of verbs (from a -w ~ -ul alternation in some intransitive-transitive verb pairs)
    • hamžəl 'to dry' < hamž '(archaic) sun'
  • -is: -ess (from Greek)
    • vazilis 'queen' < vazil 'king'
    • mææšivis 'witch' < mææšiv 'mage, wizard'
  • lið- = mediopassive
  • məð- is more productive and is used to form verbal adjectives, serving the role of passive participles
    • luri 'to amaze'; muri 'amazing'; məðuri 'amazed'

Example texts

UDHR, Article 1

Law xol plææžil ðə les im bə śraa ej bə haw łaj hogləs ej rejtil. Kalu'm ðə lugud jaś režən ej krəliəb, ej r'im bə śeht im liðali śad jaśəm hɨɨv p nažəm axə.
PASS.PST.3SG.NF all human/PL-DEF.PL be_born 3PL PRED free and PRED equal on dignity-DEF.SG and right-DEF.PL. PASS.PRES-3PL endow with reason and conscience, and PRES.3PL PRES carry 3PL behave with one_another LOC spirit brotherhood.
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act toward one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Schleicher's Fable

Phrasebook

When three forms are given, the forms are respectively for addressing one man (informally), one woman (informally), and politely/gender-neutrally respectively.

  • Hlum! = Hello! / Goodbye!
  • Matin tub! = Good morning!
  • Śnitsoə tub! = Good afternoon!
  • Łaab tub! = Good evening!
  • Liəl tub! = Good night!
  • Śakə! = See you!
  • Bu də/di/dim! = Welcome!
  • Praw lah tə/ti [lam tim]! = Thank you!
  • Im tsəśiəm tə/ti/tim = Please (etym. himm jimtsā Hinn ba3ēnēxa 'if it finds favor in your eyes')
    • also pləiz (from English)
  • łeþ tub = have fun
  • Ajžə heməs kaws tə/ti [kawðu tim]? = What's your name?
  • Kawð i ðə [NAME]. = My name is [NAME].
  • Powð i men... = I'm from...
  • Lawð i les pə... = I was born in...
  • I bə fu. = I'm here.
  • (I bə) ðuəb i ðah tə/ti [ðam tim]. = I love you.
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