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Proto-Rugic: Difference between revisions
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The Balto-Slavic base of Proto-Rugic (known as Pre-Proto-Rugic, or PPR for short) had the following features: | The Balto-Slavic base of Proto-Rugic (known as Pre-Proto-Rugic, or PPR for short) had the following features: | ||
*PPR | *PPR lacked the ''*eu'' to *''jau'' sound change that affected all known Balto-Slavic languages. Alternatively, if this sound change did happen, it was reversed. | ||
<!-- | <!-- | ||
*PPR lacked the merger of Proto-Italic /θ, xʷ, f/ that occurred in all attested Italic languages. Instead, each of these merged with its voiced counterpart, as did /x/. | *PPR lacked the merger of Proto-Italic /θ, xʷ, f/ that occurred in all attested Italic languages. Instead, each of these merged with its voiced counterpart, as did /x/. | ||
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These were a subset of ''a/ō''-stem adjectives with lengthened endings. They arose by contraction from adjectives whose stems originally ended in ''-aj-'', after the loss of intervocalic ''-j-''. | These were a subset of ''a/ō''-stem adjectives with lengthened endings. They arose by contraction from adjectives whose stems originally ended in ''-aj-'', after the loss of intervocalic ''-j-''. | ||
====''i''-stem adjectives==== | <!--====''i''-stem adjectives==== | ||
These were declined identically to ''ja/jō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-iz'' and *''-į/it'' respectively instead of the expected **''-(i)jaz'' and **''-(i)ją/(i)jat''. Additionally, the masculine accusative singular could take the ending *''-in'' as an alternative to expected *''-(i)jan''. | These were declined identically to ''ja/jō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-iz'' and *''-į/it'' respectively instead of the expected **''-(i)jaz'' and **''-(i)ją/(i)jat''. Additionally, the masculine accusative singular could take the ending *''-in'' as an alternative to expected *''-(i)jan''. | ||
- | |||
The weak forms were identical to those of ''ja/jō''-stems.--> | |||
<!--====Consonant-stem adjectives==== | |||
====Consonant-stem adjectives==== | |||
These were declined identically to ''a/ō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-s/z'' and *''—'' respectively (or other irregular ending(s)) instead of the expected **''-az'' and **''-ą/at''. | These were declined identically to ''a/ō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-s/z'' and *''—'' respectively (or other irregular ending(s)) instead of the expected **''-az'' and **''-ą/at''. | ||
- | |||
The weak forms were identical to those of ''a/ō''-stems. | The weak forms were identical to those of ''a/ō''-stems.--> | ||
===Pronouns=== | ===Pronouns=== | ||
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====Reflexive/Intensive pronoun==== | ====Reflexive/Intensive pronoun==== | ||
<!-- | |||
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center | {| class=wikitable style=text-align:center | ||
! colspan="7"| Strong | ! colspan="7"| Strong | ||
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| *safsambaz | | *safsambaz | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |}--> | ||
====Neutral demonstrative==== | ====Neutral demonstrative==== | ||
<!-- | |||
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center | {| class=wikitable style=text-align:center | ||
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter | ! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter | ||
| Line 1,685: | Line 1,686: | ||
| *izabaz | | *izabaz | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |}--> | ||
====Near demonstrative==== | ====Near demonstrative==== | ||
<!-- | |||
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center | {| class=wikitable style=text-align:center | ||
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter | ! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter | ||
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| *gegabaz | | *gegabaz | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |}--> | ||
====Far demonstrative==== | ====Far demonstrative==== | ||
<!-- | |||
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center | {| class=wikitable style=text-align:center | ||
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter | ! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter | ||
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| *allabaz | | *allabaz | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |}--> | ||
====Interrogative pronouns==== | ====Interrogative pronouns==== | ||
<!-- | |||
*''*hwai'' "what, who" | *''*hwai'' "what, who" | ||
<!-- | |||
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center | {| class=wikitable style=text-align:center | ||
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter | ! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter | ||
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===Verbs=== | ===Verbs=== | ||
====Strong verbs==== | ====Strong verbs==== | ||
<!-- | |||
Strong verbs were characterized by a past stem that was (usually) different from the present stem and that took the following personal endings in the indicative: | Strong verbs were characterized by a past stem that was (usually) different from the present stem and that took the following personal endings in the indicative: | ||
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | {|class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | ||
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|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
The past stem was also used to form the past subjunctive with a connector vowel *''-i-'' | The past stem was also used to form the past subjunctive with a connector vowel *''-i-''. The past participle was formed based on the present stem (with some caveats that will be discussed below). | ||
Strong verbs can be classified into classes based on how the past stem was formed: | Strong verbs can be classified into classes based on how the past stem was formed: | ||
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| *st'''êndō''' | | *st'''êndō''' | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |}--> | ||
====Weak verbs==== | ====Weak verbs==== | ||
<!-- | |||
Weak verbs did not change their stem, and they took the following endings in the past indicative: | Weak verbs did not change their stem, and they took the following endings in the past indicative: | ||
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | {|class=wikitable style="text-align:center" | ||
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#*The present stem contained a *''-(i)j-'' and was conjugated in the same way as strong ''j''-presents. | #*The present stem contained a *''-(i)j-'' and was conjugated in the same way as strong ''j''-presents. | ||
#*The past indicative had the connector vowel ''-(i)ja-''. | #*The past indicative had the connector vowel ''-(i)ja-''. | ||
====='''Class 1'''===== | ====='''Class 1'''===== | ||
Class 1 weak verbs conjugated similarly to ''j''-present strong verbs in all non-past forms. | Class 1 weak verbs conjugated similarly to ''j''-present strong verbs in all non-past forms. | ||
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The past indicative had a connector vowel *''-a-'', and the past subjunctive had a connector vowel *''-i-''. The past participle had no connector vowel. | The past indicative had a connector vowel *''-a-'', and the past subjunctive had a connector vowel *''-i-''. The past participle had no connector vowel. | ||
--> | |||
====Preterite-present verbs==== | ====Preterite-present verbs==== | ||
<!-- | |||
Preterite-present verbs were verbs whose present tenses conjugated as a strong past (of any class). Preterite-present verbs had weak pasts. | Preterite-present verbs were verbs whose present tenses conjugated as a strong past (of any class). Preterite-present verbs had weak pasts. | ||
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| *būindō | | *būindō | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |} | ||
The verb "to be" had two stems ''*(i)s-'' and ''*beu/bus-''. They were in fact two verbs, ''*immį'' "to be" and ''*biumį'' "to be, become", which overlapped in some forms (namely the past indicative, both participles, and the imperative). | The verb "to be" had two stems ''*(i)s-'' and ''*beu/bus-''. They were in fact two verbs, ''*immį'' "to be" and ''*biumį'' "to be, become", which overlapped in some forms (namely the past indicative, both participles, and the imperative). | ||
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| *beundō | | *beundō | ||
|- | |- | ||
|} | |}--> | ||
==Syntax== | ==Syntax== | ||
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<!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. --> | <!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. --> | ||
===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)=== | ===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)=== | ||
Afnijai gamaniz lauderai gaflōnaihw han tehnadōþi jawizihw galōþai sind. Sabiz attōnōþōi sind raþjǭ gaskīndijǭhw, eþ alþerabiz anamǭ brōþrōlijǭ frōdamį þeþalēri<!--tēgabēnþ | <!-- | ||
Afnijai gamaniz lauderai gaflōnaihw han tehnadōþi jawizihw galōþai sind. Sabiz attōnōþōi sind raþjǭ gaskīndijǭhw, eþ alþerabiz anamǭ brōþrōlijǭ frōdamį þeþalēri<!--tēgabēnþ. | |||
'''Translation:''' All humans are born free and equal with dignity and rights. Reason and conscience are given to them, and they must show others a brotherly spirit. | '''Translation:''' All humans are born free and equal with dignity and rights. Reason and conscience are given to them, and they must show others a brotherly spirit. | ||
Latest revision as of 17:23, 9 February 2025
Proto-Rugic is the hypothetical ancestor of the Rugic languages.
| Proto-Rugic | |
|---|---|
| *þaudiskaz | |
| Pronunciation | [ˈθɑuðiskɑz] |
| Created by | Shariifka |
Indo-European
| |
Early forms | |
Introduction
Proto-Rugic is the result of taking a Balto-Slavic base and applying a rough approximation of the PIE to Proto-Germanic sound changes.
The Balto-Slavic base of Proto-Rugic (known as Pre-Proto-Rugic, or PPR for short) had the following features:
- PPR lacked the *eu to *jau sound change that affected all known Balto-Slavic languages. Alternatively, if this sound change did happen, it was reversed.
Phonology
Orthography
Consonants
Vowels
Prosody
Stress
Intonation
Phonotactics
Morphophonology
Morphology
Nouns
Nouns had three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter.
a-stems
Masculine or neuter.
| *wilhaz m. "wolf" | *jūką n. "yoke" | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *wilhaz | *wilhō | *wilhai | *jūką | *jūkai | *jūkō |
| Vocative | *wilh | |||||
| Accusative | *wilhą | *wilhōnz | ||||
| Genitive | *wilhō | *wilhōu | *wilhǭ | *jūkō | *jūkōu | *jūkǭ |
| Dative | *wilhōi | *wilhamō | *wilhamaz | *jūkōi | *jūkamō | *jūkamaz |
| Instrumental | *wilhai | *wilhamō | *wilhōiz | *jūkai | *jūkamō | *jūkōiz |
| Locative | *wilhai | *wilhōu | *wilhaizu | *jūkai | *jūkōu | *jūkaizu |
There was a rare class of a-stems with contractions (from earlier stems ending in aj) known as ā-stems.. They decline as below:
| *pāz m. "battle" | *twą̄ n. "pair" | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *pāz | *pô | *pāi | *twą̄ | *twāi | *twô |
| Vocative | *pai | |||||
| Accusative | *pą̄ | *pônz | ||||
| Genitive | *pô | *pôu | *pǫ̂ | *twô | *twôu | *twǫ̂ |
| Dative | *pôi | *pāmō | *pāmaz | *twôi | *twāmō | *twāmaz |
| Instrumental | *pāi | *pāmō | *pôiz | *twāi | *twāmō | *twôiz |
| Locative | *pāi | *pôu | *pāizu | *twāi | *twôu | *twāizu |
ō-stems
Feminine.
| *þaudō f. "people" | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *þaudō | *þaudōi | *þaudōz |
| Vocative | |||
| Accusative | *þaudǭ | *þaudōnz | |
| Genitive | *þaudōz | *þaudōu | *þaudǭ |
| Dative | *þaudōi | *þaudōmō | *þaudōmaz |
| Instrumental | *þaudǭ | *þaudōmō | *þaudōmīz |
| Locative | *þaudōi | *þaudōu | *þaudōzu |
Additionally, there was a rare subclass of ō-stem nouns known as ī/jō-stems. These nouns took the ending *-ī in the nominative singular. All other case and number combinations took the regular ō-stem endings preceded by *-(i)j- (according to Siever's Law).
There were also contracted ō-stems known as ô-stems. They were declined by replacing the -ō- in endings with -ô- (and -ǭ with -ǫ̂). For example, *skwô "needle (botany)".
ē-stems
Feminine.
| *demē f. "earth" | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *demē | *demēi | *demēz |
| Vocative | |||
| Accusative | *demǭ | *demēnz | |
| Genitive | *demēz | *demēu | *demǭ |
| Dative | *demēi | *demēmō | *demēmaz |
| Instrumental | *demǭ | *demēmō | *demēmīz |
| Locative | *demēi | *demēu | *demēzu |
i-stems
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.
| *ankliz f. "coal" | *mari n. "sea" | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *ankliz | *anklī | *anklīz | *mari | *marī | *marī |
| Vocative | *anklī | |||||
| Accusative | *anklį | *anklinz | ||||
| Genitive | *anklīz | *anklijau | *anklijǭ | *marīz | *marjau | *marjǭ |
| Dative | *anklī | *anklimō | *anklimaz | *marī | *marimō | *marimaz |
| Instrumental | *anklimi | *anklimō | *anklimīz | *marimi | *marimō | *marimīz |
| Locative | *anklēi | *anklijau | *anklizu | *marēi | *marjau | *marizu |
Note: The genitive/locative dual and genutive plural are subject to Siever's law.
u-stems
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.
| *sūnuz f. "son" | *metu n. "honey" | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *sūnuz | *sūnū | *sūnawiz | *metu | *metū | *metū |
| Vocative | *sūnau | |||||
| Accusative | *sūnų | *sūnunz | ||||
| Genitive | *sūnauz | *sūnawau | *sūnawǭ | *metauz | *metawau | *metawǭ |
| Dative | *sūnawī | *sūnumō | *sūnumaz | *metawī | *metumō | *metumaz |
| Instrumental | *sūnumi | *sūnumō | *sūnumīz | *metumi | *metumō | *metumīz |
| Locative | *sūnawī | *sūnawau | *sūnuzu | *metawī | *metawau | *metuzu |
n-stems
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.
| *hamô m. "stone" | *immô n. "name" | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *hamô | *haminī | *haminiz | *immô | *imminī | *imminō |
| Vocative | ||||||
| Accusative | *haminį | *hamininz | ||||
| Genitive | *haminiz | *haminau | *haminǭ | *imminiz | *imminau | *imminǭ |
| Dative | *haminī | *hamimmō | *hamimmaz | *imminī | *immimmō | *immimmaz |
| Instrumental | *hamimmi | *hamimmō | *hamimmīz | *immimmi | *immimmō | *immimmīz |
| Locative | *haminī | *haminau | *haminzu | *imminī | *imminau | *imminzu |
Note:
- In heavy j-suffixed n-stems, expected **-ijin- was contracted to *-īn-. Similarly, in light j-suffixed n-stems, expected **-jin- was contracted to *-in-.
r-stems
Masculine and feminine were declined the same.
| *prōþê m. "brother" | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *prōþê | *prōþrī | *prōþriz |
| Vocative | *prōþer | ||
| Accusative | *prōþrį | *prōþrinz | |
| Genitive | *prōþriz | *prōþrau | *prōþrǭ |
| Dative | *prōþrī | *prōþrimō | *prōþrimaz |
| Instrumental | *prōþrimi | *prōþrimō | *prōþrimīz |
| Locative | *prōþrī | *prōþrau | *prōþrizu |
z-stems
Neuter.
| *nepaz n. "cloud" | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *nepaz | *nipizī | *nipizō |
| Vocative | |||
| Accusative | |||
| Genitive | *nipiziz | *nipizau | *nipizǭ |
| Dative | *nipizī | *nipimmō | *nipimmaz |
| Instrumental | *nipimmi | *nipimmō | *nipimmīz |
| Locative | *nipizi | *nipizau | *nipissu |
Consonant stems
Masculine and feminine were declined the same.
| *ahmô m. "stone" | *immô n. "name" | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *ahmô | *ahminī | *ahminiz | *immô | *imminī | *imminō |
| Vocative | ||||||
| Accusative | *ahminį | *ahmininz | ||||
| Genitive | *ahminiz | *ahminau | *ahminǭ | *imminiz | *imminau | *imminǭ |
| Dative | *ahminī | *ahmimmō | *ahmimmaz | *imminī | *immimmō | *immimmaz |
| Instrumental | *ahmimmi | *ahmimmō | *ahmimmīz | *immimmi | *immimmō | *immimmīz |
| Locative | *ahminī | *ahminau | *ahminzu | *imminī | *imminau | *imminzu |
Note: The usual ending for the masculine/feminine nominative-vocative singular was *-s (after unvoiced consonants) or *-z (after voiced consonants), and in the neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular there was usually no suffix. However, there were many nouns that were irregular in those forms.
Adjectives
Most adjectives could be declined strong or weak. The class of an adjective was determined by its strong conjugation.
a/ō-stem adjectives
| Strong | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |||||||
| Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
| Nominative | *mōlaz | *mōlō | *mōlai | *mōlō | *mōlōi | *mōlōz | *mōl(a) | *mōlai | *mōlō |
| Accusative | *mōlan | *mōlōnz | *mōlǭ | *mōlōnz | |||||
| Genitive | *mōlas | *mōlāu | *mōlaizǭ | *mōlazjōz | *mōlōu | *mōlōzǭ | *mōlas | *mōlāu | *mōlaizǭ |
| Dative | *mōlammai | *mōlaimō | *mōlaimaz | *mōlazjōi | *mōlōmō | *mōlōmaz | *mōlammai | *mōlaimō | *mōlaimaz |
| Instrumental | *mōlammi | *mōlaimō | *mōlaimīz | *mōlǭ | *mōlōmō | *mōlōmīz | *mōlammi | *mōlaimō | *mōlaimīz |
| Locative | *mōlammi | *mōlāu | *mōlaizu | *mōlōi | *mōlōu | *mōlōzu | *mōlammi | *mōlāu | *mōlaizu |
| Weak | |||||||||
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |||||||
| Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
| Nominative | *mōlaziz | *mōlô | *mōlaiz | *mōlô | *mōlôi | *mōlōzōz | *mōlai | *mōlāi | *mōlô |
| Accusative | *mōlanį | *mōlaninz | *mōlōnǭ | *mōlōnōnz | |||||
| Genitive | *mōlôs | *mōlawjau | *mōlanizǭ | *mōlōzizōz | *mōlawjōu | *mōlōnōzǭ | *mōlôs | *mōlawjāu | *mōlanizǭ |
| Dative | *mōlajjammai | *mōlômō | *mōlazimaz | *mōlōzōi | *mōlômō | *mōlōzōmaz | *mōlajjammai | *mōlômō | *mōlazimaz |
| Instrumental | *mōlajjammi | *mōlômō | *mōlazimīz | *mōlōnǭ | *mōlômō | *mōlōzōmīz | *mōlajjammi | *mōlômō | *mōlazimīz |
| Locative | *mōlajjammi | *mōlawjau | *mōlanizu | *mōlōnōi | *mōlōnōu | *mōlōnōzu | *mōlajjammi | *mōlawjau | *mōlanizu |
ja/jō-stem adjectives
These were a sub-type of a/ō-stem adjectives with a *-j- or *-ij- (according to Siever's Law) before the ending and were declined as such.
ā/ô-stem adjectives
These were a subset of a/ō-stem adjectives with lengthened endings. They arose by contraction from adjectives whose stems originally ended in -aj-, after the loss of intervocalic -j-.
Pronouns
First person, second person, and reflexive pronouns
| First person | Second person | Reflexive | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | ||
| Nominative | *ēzų | *wet; *wit | *mez; *miz | *þū; *þu | *jūt; *jut | *jūz; *juz | — |
| Accusative | *mēn; *miz | *nō | *nōz | *þēn; *þiz | *wō | *wōz | *sēn; *siz |
| Genitive | *mīniz; *mī | *nōu | *nōzǭ | *þīwiz; *þī | *wōu | *wōzǭ | *sīwiz; *sī |
| Dative | *mīnī; *mī | *nōmō | *nōmaz | *þīwī; *þī | *wōmō | *wōmaz | *sīwī; *sī |
| Instrumental | *mīnimi | *nōmō | *nōmīz | *þīwimi | *wōmō | *wōmīz | *sīwimi |
| Locative | *mīnī | *nōu | *nōzu | *þīwī | *wōu | *wōzu | *sīwī |
| Possessive adj. | *mīnaz | *nōwaz | *nōzijaz | *þīwaz | *wōwaz | *wōzijaz | *sīwaz |
Notes:
- When two forms are given, the first was the stressed form and the second was the unstressed form.
- Possessive adjectives were always strong.
Other pronouns
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
| Nominative | *þaz | *þō | *þai | *þō | *þōi | *þōz | *þa | *þai | *þō |
| Accusative | *þan | *þōnz | *þǭ | *þōnz | |||||
| Genitive | *þas | *þāu | *þaizǭ | *þazjōz | *þōu | *þōzǭ | *þas | *þāu | *þaizǭ |
| Dative | *þammai | *þaimō | *þaimaz | *þazjōi | *þōmō | *þōmaz | *þammai | *þaimō | *þaimaz |
| Instrumental | *þammi | *þaimō | *þaimīz | *þǭ | *þōmō | *þōmīz | *þammi | *þaimō | *þaimīz |
| Locative | *þammi | *þāu | *þaizu | *þōi | *þōu | *þōzu | *þammi | *þāu | *þaizu |
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | Singular | Dual | Plural | |
| Nominative | *siz | *sī | *sīz | *sī | *sijōi | *sijōz | *si | *sī | *sī |
| Accusative | *sin | *sinz | *sijǭ | *sijōnz | |||||
| Genitive | *ses | *sijau | *sezǭ | *sizjōz | *sijōu | *sijōzǭ | *ses | *sijau | *sezǭ |
| Dative | *simmai | *sīmō | *sīmaz | *sizjōi | *sijōmō | *sijōmaz | *simmai | *sīmō | *sīmaz |
| Instrumental | *simmi | *sīmō | *sīmīz | *sijǭ | *sijōmō | *sijōmīz | *simmi | *sīmō | *sīmīz |
| Locative | *simmi | *sijau | *sīzu | *sijōi | *sijōu | *sijōzu | *simmi | *sijau | *sīzu |
Reflexive/Intensive pronoun
Neutral demonstrative
Near demonstrative
Far demonstrative
Interrogative pronouns
Other pronouns
Adverbs
Derived manner adverbs
The most common adverb-forming suffixes are *-ē and *-ō.
Numerals
| # | Cardinal | Ordinal | Adverbial | Multiplier | Collective | Fractional |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | *ainaz | *firmaz | ||||
| 2 | *twō | *anþeraz | *twāz | *twimaz | *pahaz | |
| 3 | *þrīz | *þridjaz | *þrāz | *þrimaz | ||
| 4 | *hidwiriz | *hidwirþaz | *hedweraz | *hedwerumaz | ||
| 5 | *finhiz | *finhtaz | *finhteraz | *finhumaz | ||
| 6 | *swes | *swestaz | *swesteraz | *swesumaz | ||
| 7 | *siftį | *seftundaz | *seftunderaz | *seftumaz | ||
| 8 | *ahtō | *ahtundaz | *ahtunderaz | *ahtumaz | ||
| 9 | *niwin | *niwindaz | *niwinderaz | *niwinumaz | ||
| 10 | *tisin | *tisindaz | *tisinderaz | *tisinumaz | ||
| 11 | *ainalig | *analigumaz | ||||
| 12 | *twalig | |||||
| 13 | *þrilig | |||||
| 14 | *hidwirlig | |||||
| 15 | *finhlig | |||||
| 16 | *sislig | |||||
| 17 | *siftinlig | |||||
| 18 | *ahtōlig | |||||
| 19 | *niwinlig | |||||
| 20 | *twitisin | |||||
| 30 | *þritisin | |||||
| 40 | *hidwirtisin | |||||
| 50 | *finhtisin | |||||
| 60 | *sistisin | |||||
| 70 | *siftintisin | |||||
| 80 | *ahtōtisin | |||||
| 90 | *niwintisin | |||||
| 100 | *sinþą | |||||
| 1000 | *þūsandiz |
Verbs
Strong verbs
Weak verbs
Preterite-present verbs
The verb "to be"
Syntax
Constituent order
Noun phrase
Verb phrase
Sentence phrase
Dependent clauses
Vocabulary
Time - *hēsaz
| English | Proto-Rugic |
|---|---|
| spring | *westrō (f., ō-stem) |
| summer | *laidą (n., a-stem) |
| fall | *aziniz (f., i-stem) |
| winter | *dīmō (f., ō-stem) |
| English | Proto-Tungric |
|---|---|
| day | *tīnaz (m., a-stem) |
| dawn | *garjō (f., ō-stem) |
| morning | *austrō (f., ō-stem) |
| evening | *weheraz (m., a-stem) |
| night | *nahtiz (f., i-stem) |
| English | Proto-Tungric |
|---|---|
| hour | |
| day | *tīnaz (m., o-stem) |
| week | *seftumō (f., ō-stem) |
| month | *mēnsiz (m., i-stem) |
| season | *hēsaz (m., a-stem) |
| year | *kataz (m., a-stem) |
| English | Proto-Tungric |
|---|---|
| now | *nu, *nū |
| then | *þat |
| recently, a short time ago | |
| earlier | |
| soon, shortly | |
| later | |
| always | *wist |
| often | *hinstō |
| sometimes | |
| rarely | |
| never | *ne waihaz |
| ever | *waihaz |
| still, yet | *esk |
| already | *jau(k) |
| yesterday | |
| tomorrow |
Colours - *hwaidai
| English | Proto-Tungric |
|---|---|
| white | *palaz; *plaitaz |
| grey | *sīwaz |
| black | *hirznaz |
| red | *rautaz; *rūtijaz |
| brown | *pēraz |
| yellow | *kildaz; *falwaz |
| green | *krēnaz; *daljaz |
| blue | *matraz |