Antarctican: Difference between revisions

From Linguifex
Jump to navigation Jump to search
(Split off some sections into their own page)
m (Text replacement - "Category:Conlangs" to "Category:Languages")
 
(22 intermediate revisions by 2 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
Antarctican is the most widely spoken language on the continent of Antarctica in the far future, at a time when
Antarctican is the most widely spoken language on the continent of Antarctica in the far future, at a time when
runaway global warming has melted the icecaps and rendered most of the rest of
runaway global warming has melted the icecaps and rendered most of the rest of
the word uninhabitable. It has been influenced by a variety of modern-day
the word uninhabitable. It evolved from [[Proto-Antarctican]], which in turn evolved from a mixture of a wide variety of modern-day languages, among them English, Spanish, Japanese and many East Asian languages.
languages, among them English, Spanish, Japanese and many East Asian languages.


It has a
It has a
Line 17: Line 16:
real marking of plurality of nouns.
real marking of plurality of nouns.


In the verbal morphology, focus and transitivity are clearly marked. Verbs also
In the verbal morphology, transitivity is clearly marked. Verbs also
inflect for person and voice. Tense and aspect are much less important.
inflect for person and voice. Tense and aspect are much less important.


Line 28: Line 27:


The
The
pronunciation of each phoneme is listed in the tables below, followed by its
pronunciation of each phoneme is listed in the tables below, preceded by its
romanisation in brackets.
romanisation.


There are 11 monophthongs:
There are 11 monophthongs:
Line 62: Line 61:




And there are 17 diphthongs. 8 of these end in [j], and another 9 end in [w]:
And there are 16 diphthongs. 8 of these end in [j], and another 8 end in [w]:


{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
Line 132: Line 131:
====Vowel Phonation====
====Vowel Phonation====


Antarctican also has a pitch register system (like Burmese and Vietnamese). Modal, tense or breathy voice can occur on either short or long vowels. Vowels with tense voice (marked with a glottal stop after the syllable e.g. /aʔ/) are pronounced with a high or rising pitch, and vowels with breathy voice (marked with a voiced /h/ after the syllable e.g. /aɦ/) are pronounced with a low or falling pitch. This distinction is phonemic e.g.
Antarctican also has a pitch register system (like Burmese and Vietnamese). Modal, tense or breathy voice can occur on either short or long vowels. Vowels with tense voice (marked with a small pharyngeal stop after the syllable e.g. /aˤ/) are pronounced with a high or rising pitch, and vowels with breathy voice (marked with a small voiced /h/ after the syllable e.g. /aʱ/) are pronounced with a low or falling pitch. This distinction is phonemic e.g.




*kow /kou/ - something absorbed in something else, absolutive
*kow /kou/ - something absorbed in something else, absolutive
*ków /kouʔ/ - bigot, absolutive
*ków /kouˤ/ - bigot, absolutive




Line 149: Line 148:




ká /kaʔ/ - coconut milk, absolutive
ká /kaˤ/ - coconut milk, absolutive


'ká /kaʔ/ - fence, absolutive
'ká /ˤkaˤ/ - fence, absolutive




Line 157: Line 156:




waká /wakaʔ/ - his / her coconut milk, absolutive
waká /wakaˤ/ - his / her coconut milk, absolutive


'wáká /waʔkaʔ/ - his / her fence, absolutive
'wáká /ˤwaˤkaˤ/ - his / her fence, absolutive




Words beginning with a glottal stop only ever have modal floating phonation e.g.
Words beginning with a glottal stop only ever have modal floating phonation e.g.


ámáelái /ʔaʔmɛʔlaiʔ/ - prey, absolutive
ámáelái /ʔaˤmɛˤlaiˤ/ - prey, absolutive


wa-ámáelái /waʔaʔmɛʔlaiʔ/ - his / her prey, absolutive (never wá-ámáelái)
wa-ámáelái /waʔaˤmɛˤlaiˤ/ - his / her prey, absolutive (never wá-ámáelái)




====Vowel Mutation====
====Vowel Mutation====


When a process such as the above changes the phonation of a vowel, often its quality changes as well. E.g. the possessive prefix for inclusive "we" is yew- /jeu/, however, when it acquires tense voice, it becomes 'yáew- /jɛuʔ/ e.g.
When a process such as the above changes the phonation of a vowel, often its quality changes as well. E.g. the possessive prefix for inclusive "we" is yew- /jeu/, however, when it acquires tense voice, it becomes 'yáew- /ˤjɛuˤ/ e.g.




yewká /jeukaʔ/ - our (including you) coconut milk, absolutive
yewká /jeukaˤ/ - our (including you) coconut milk, absolutive


'yáewká /jɛuʔkaʔ/ - our (including you) fence, absolutive
'yáewká /ˤjɛuˤkaˤ/ - our (including you) fence, absolutive




Line 182: Line 181:




tõn /tɔɴ/ - change (as in coins, money), absolutive
tõn /tɔɴ/ - change (as in coins, money), absolutive


yoewtõn /jɘutɔɴ/ - our (including you) change, absolutive
yoewtõn /jɘutɔɴ/ - our (including you) change, absolutive




Line 194: Line 193:
! Tense voice !! Breathy voice !! !! Modal, normal !! Modal, before a voiced consonant followed by another modal vowel !! Modal, before a voiceless consonant followed by another modal vowel
! Tense voice !! Breathy voice !! !! Modal, normal !! Modal, before a voiced consonant followed by another modal vowel !! Modal, before a voiceless consonant followed by another modal vowel
|-
|-
| éy || ùe || || i || i || ue
| éy /eiˤ/ || ùe /ɨʱ/ || || i /i/ || i /i/ || ue /ɨ/
|-
|-
| óey || ùey || || ii || ii || uue
| óey /ɘiˤ/ || ùey /ɨʱ/ || || ii /iː/ || ii /iː/ || uue /ɨː/
|-
|-
| áe / áae || òe / òoe || || e / ee || e / ee || oe / ooe
| áe ~ áae /ɛ(ː)ˤ/ || òe ~ òoe /ɘ(ː)ʱ/ || || e ~ ee /e(ː)/ || e ~ ee /e(ː)/ || oe ~ ooe /ɘ(ː)/
|-
|-
| á / áa || ào / àao || || a / aa || a / aa || ae / aae
| á ~ áa /a(ː)ˤ/ || ào ~ àao /ɜ(ː)ʱ/ || || a ~ aa /a(ː) || a ~ aa /a(ː)/ || ae ~ aae /ɛ(ː)/
|-
|-
| ów || ù || || u || o || u
| ów /ouˤ/ || ù /uʱ/ || || u /u/ || o /o/ || u /u/
|-
|-
| óew || ùew || || uu || ow || uu
| óew /ɘuˤ/ || ùew /ɨuʱ/ || || uu /uː/ || ow /ou/ || uu /uː/
|-
|-
| áo || ò || || õ || ã || õ
| áo /ɜˤ/ || ò /oʱ/ || || õ /ɔ/ || ã /ɒ/ || õ /ɔ/
|-
|-
| áey / áaey || òey / òoey || || ey / eey || ey / eey|| ey / eey
| áey ~ áaey /ɛ(ː)iˤ/ || òey ~ òoey /ɘ(ː)iʱ/ || || ey ~ eey /e(ː)i/ || ey ~ eey /e(ː)i/ || oey ~ ooey /ɘ(ː)i/
|-
|-
| áy / áay || àoy / àaoy || || ay / aay || ay / aay|| aey / aaey
| áy ~ áay /a(ː)iˤ/ || àoy ~ àaoy /ɜ(ː)iʱ/ || || ay ~ aay /a(ː)i/ || ay ~ aay /a(ː)i/ || aey ~ aaey /ɛ(ː)i/
|-
|-
| óy / óoy || ùy / ùuy || || uy / uuy || oy / ooy || uy / uuy
| óy ~ óoy /o(ː)iˤ/ || ùy ~ ùuy /u(ː)iˤ/ || || uy ~ uuy /u(ː)i/ || oy ~ ooy /o(ː)i/ || uy ~ uuy /u(ː)i/
|-
|-
| áew / áaew || òew / òoew || || ew / eew || ew / eew|| ew / eew
| áew ~ áaew /ɛ(ː)uˤ/ || òew ~ òoew /ɘ(ː)uʱ/ || || ew ~ eew /e(ː)u/ || ew ~ eew /e(ː)u/ || oew ~ ooew /ɘ(ː)u/
|-
|-
| áw / áaw || àow / àaow || || aw / aaw || aw / aaw|| aew / aaew
| áw ~ áaw /a(ː)uˤ/ || àow ~ àaow /ɜ(ː)uʱ/ || || aw ~ aaw /a(ː)u/ || aw ~ aaw /a(ː)u/ || aew ~ aaew /ɛ(ː)u/
|-
|-
| ów / óow || òw / òow || || ow / oow || õw/ õow|| ow / oow
| ôw ~ ôow /ɔ(ː)wˤ/ || òw ~ òow /o(ː)uʱ/ || || ow ~ oow /o(ː)u/ || õw ~ õow /ɔ(ː)u/ || ow ~ oow /o(ː)u/
|}
|}


====Phonation Restrictions====
====Phonation Restrictions====
However, not every vowel can have every kind of phonation e.g. tense voice cannot occur on high vowels /i/, /ɨ/, /u/, nor on diphthongs beginning with these vowels. Similarly, breathy voice cannot occur on low vowels /a/, /ɒ/, nor on front vowels, nor on diphthongs beginning with these vowels. The permissible combinations of vowel quality and phonation are listed in detail here ([[Antarctican Phonation Restrictions]]):
However, not every vowel can have every kind of phonation e.g. tense voice cannot occur on high vowels /i/, /ɨ/, /u/, nor on diphthongs beginning with these vowels. Similarly, breathy voice cannot occur on low vowels /a/, /ɒ/, nor on front vowels, nor on diphthongs beginning with these vowels. The permissible combinations of vowel quality and phonation are listed in detail here ([[Antarctican/Phonation restrictions]]):
 


===Consonants===
===Consonants===
Line 292: Line 289:


|- align="center"
|- align="center"
! rowspan="3"|Stops/Affricate
! rowspan="3"|Stops/Affricates


!<small>ejective</small>
!<small>ejective</small>
Line 343: Line 340:


|
|
|-
|-
! rowspan="3"|Fricatives/Affricates
! rowspan="2"|Fricatives
!<small>ejective</small>


|
|
|'''tqs '''/ts' ~ s'/
|
|
|
|
|-
!<small>voiceless</small>
!<small>voiceless</small>


Line 367: Line 350:
|'''fy '''/f&#690;/
|'''fy '''/f&#690;/


|'''s''' /s ~ ts/
|'''s''' /s/


|'''hl '''/&#620;/
|'''hl '''/&#620;/
Line 376: Line 359:


|
|
|-
|-
!<small>voiced</small>
!<small>voiced</small>
Line 383: Line 367:
|
|


|'''z''' /z ~ dz/
|'''z''' /z/


|
|
Line 410: Line 394:




*Consonants separated with a tilde (~) are not separate phonemes but are either allophones or in free variation e.g. /s ~ ts/ indicates that there is a single phoneme that can either be pronounced [s] or [ts]. The most common pronunciation is always listed first.
*Consonants separated with a tilde (~) are not separate phonemes but are either allophones or in free variation e.g. /&#607; ~ d&#657;/ indicates that there is a single phoneme that can either be pronounced [&#607;] or [d&#657;]. The most common pronunciation is always listed first.
*The glottal stop is unmarked word initially (since all words must begin with consonants), and is marked by a hyphen elsewhere.
*The glottal stop is unmarked word initially (since all words must begin with consonants), and is marked by a hyphen elsewhere.
*Prestopped nasals e.g. /tn/, /pm/ etc., pattern as voiceless and as nasals (and thus sonorants) in terms of the phonology. They are only found between syllables with modal vowel phonation (or modal voice floating phonation if at the beginning of a word).  
*Prestopped nasals e.g. /tn/, /pm/ etc., pattern as voiceless and as nasals (and thus sonorants) in terms of the phonology. They are only found between syllables with modal vowel phonation (or modal voice floating phonation if at the beginning of a word).  
*The placeless nasal /&#628;/ is only found at the end of syllables. Before a glottal stop or at the end of a phrase, it nasalises the preceding vowel. Otherwise it assimilates to the same place of articulation as the following consonant e.g. it becomes [n] before /d/, [m] before /b/ etc.
*The placeless nasal /&#628;/ is only found at the end of syllables. Before a glottal stop or at the end of a phrase, it nasalises the preceding vowel. Otherwise it assimilates to the same place of articulation as the following consonant e.g. it becomes [n] before /d/, [m] before /b/ etc.
*Voiced obstruents (stops, fricatives and affricates) are only found in three cases.
*Voiced obstruents (stops, fricatives and affricates) are only found in four cases.
:#Separating two syllables with modal voice (or a modal voice floating phonation if at the start of a word).
:#Separating two syllables with modal voice (or a modal voice floating phonation if at the start of a word).
:#After a syllable containing breathy phonation (or a breathy voice floating phonation if at the start of a word) and before a syllable containing modal phonation.
:#After a syllable containing breathy phonation (or a breathy voice floating phonation if at the start of a word) and before a syllable containing modal phonation.
:#Separating two syllables with breathy voice (or a breathy voice floating phonation if at the start of a word). In this case they are pronounced with breathy voice, like the murmured/voiced aspirated consonants of many Indian languages.
:#Separating two syllables with breathy voice (or a breathy voice floating phonation if at the start of a word). In this case they are pronounced with breathy voice, like the murmured/voiced aspirated consonants of many Indian languages.
*Non-alveolar fricatives are only found separating two syllables with modal voice (or modal voice floating phonation if at the beginning of a word), or separating two syllables with tense voice (or tense voice floating phonation if at the beginning of a word).
:#/z/ can also be found before vowels with tense voice.
*Fricatives other than /s/ and /z/ (spirant / non-sibilant fricatives) are only found separating two syllables with modal voice (or modal voice floating phonation if at the beginning of a word), or separating two syllables with tense voice (or tense voice floating phonation if at the beginning of a word).
*Ejectives are only ever found separating two syllables with tense voice (or tense voice floating phonation if at the beginning of a word).
*Ejectives are only ever found separating two syllables with tense voice (or tense voice floating phonation if at the beginning of a word).
*The velar nasals /k&#331;/ and /&#331;/ never occur at the beginning of words.
*The velar nasals /k&#331;/ and /&#331;/ never occur at the beginning of words.
*The alveolar stops /t/ and /d/, and the velar fricative /&#967;/ are never found before /i/ and /&#616;/ (with any phonation), nor before tense voice /e&#660;/ and /&#600;&#660;/, nor before diphthongs starting with these.
*The alveolar stops /t/ and /d/, and the velar fricative /&#967;/ are never found before /i/ and /&#616;/ (with any phonation), nor before tense voice /e&#740;/ and /&#600;&#740;/, nor before diphthongs starting with these.
*The phoneme /l/ is pronounced as a palatal lateral [&#654;] before a high vowel, [&#633;] before a vowel with tense voice (high vowels cannot have tense voice), and [l] elsewhere.
*The phoneme /l/ is pronounced as a palatal lateral [&#654;] before a high vowel, [&#633;] before a vowel with tense voice (high vowels cannot have tense voice), and [l] elsewhere.
*Unpalatalised labial consonants can be velarised or doubly-articulated consonants (e.g. /p/ can be pronounced as [p&#736;] or [kp]). This is especially the case with /w/ and before front vowels).




Line 432: Line 418:
For example, the antipassive voice is formed by an infix that comes after the first consonant of a word. For words that begin with a hard consonant, the infix is '''am''' /am/ (which contains a hard consonant) e.g.
For example, the antipassive voice is formed by an infix that comes after the first consonant of a word. For words that begin with a hard consonant, the infix is '''am''' /am/ (which contains a hard consonant) e.g.


*ziitlàoji /zi&#720;t&#620;&#604;&#614;&#607;i/ - to know (a person), verb-focus
*zuutlòeji /zu&#720;t&#620;&#600;&#689;&#607;i/ - to know (a person), indirect
*zamiitlàoji /zami&#720;t&#620;&#604;&#614;&#607;i/ - to know (a person), verb-focus, antipassive
*zamuutlòeji /zamu&#720;t&#620;&#600;&#689;&#607;i/ - to know (a person), indirect, antipassive


However, if the word begins with a soft consonant, the infix is '''emy''' /em&#690;/ e.g.
However, if the word begins with a soft consonant, the infix is '''emy''' /em&#690;/ e.g.


*pyiquu /p&#690;i&#660;u&#720;/ - to purify, verb-focus
*pyi-uu /p&#690;i&#660;u&#720;/ - to purify, indirect
*pyemyiquu /p&#690;em&#690;i&#660;u&#720;/ - to purify, verb-focus, antipassive
*pyemyi-uu /p&#690;em&#690;i&#660;u&#720;/ - to purify, indirect, antipassive
*hli-õ /&#620;i&#660;&#596;/ - to perform, verb-focus
*hli-õ /&#620;i&#660;&#596;/ - to perform, indirect
*hlemyi-õ /&#620;em&#690;i&#660;&#596;/ - to perform, verb-focus, antipassive (not *(hlemi-õ) /&#620;mi&#660;&#596;/)
*hlemyi-õ /&#620;em&#690;i&#660;&#596;/ - to perform, indirect, antipassive (not *(hlemi-õ) /&#620;mi&#660;&#596;/)


===Phonotactics===
===Phonotactics===
Line 448: Line 434:


==Distribution and Dialects==
==Distribution and Dialects==
Antarctican is spoken across a large continent, by a diversity of cultures. As would be expected, there is significant dialectical variation within the language. The differences are most pronounced in the vocabulary, less in the morphology, and even less in the syntax and phonology.
Antarctican is spoken across a large continent, by a diversity of cultures. As would be expected, there is significant dialectical variation within the language. The differences are most pronounced in the vocabulary, less in the morphology, and even less in the syntax and phonology.


 
Most speakers of Antarctican will also be bilingual in a second language that is only spoken in their local region. Typically, Antarctican will be used in more formal situations, and the local language used with family and friends. However, it is very common for regional varieties of Antarctican to borrow words from other local languages (which will typically have many similar features to Antarctican due to the [[Antarctican Sprachbund]]).
Most speakers of Antarctican will also be bilingual in a second language that is only spoken in their local region. Typically, Antarctican will be used in more formal situations, and the local language used with family and friends. However, it is very common for regional varieties of Antarctican to borrow words from other local languages (which will typically have many similar features to Antarctican due to the [[Antarctican Sprachbund]].
 


==Noun Morphology==
==Noun Morphology==
 
{{Main|Antarctican Nouns}}
Nouns inflect for case (via suffixation or changing the final vowel of the word), and possession (via prefixes).
Nouns inflect for case either through suffixation or a change of the final vowel, and possession (via prefixes). Unlike many European languages nouns do not inflect for either gender or number.
 
==Verb / Adjective Morphology==
===Case===
{{Main|Antarctican Verbs}}
 
There is no distinction between adjectives and verbs in Antarctican. Instead of attributive adjectives like “good”, “bad”, “strong”,
Nouns decline into three cases, Absolutive, Ergative and Comitative. Absolutive case is unmarked while the other two use vowel changes on the final vowel and/or suffixes. Nouns can also take demonstrative and possessive prefixes.
“weak”, there are descriptive verbs meaning “to be good”, “to be bad” and so on.
 
====Ergative case====
How this case is formed depends on the phonation and frontness of the final vowel in the word.
 
=====Modally voiced final vowel=====
'''Final vowel is a back vowel'''
 
In this case, lower the back vowel e.g.
 
*tõn /t&#596;&#628;/ - change (as in coins, money), absolutive
*tãn /t&#594;&#628;/ - change, ergative
 
*doleengun /dole&#720;&#331;u&#628;/ - dragon, absolutive
*doleengon /dole&#720;&#331;o&#628;/ - dragon, ergative
 
If the final vowel is a diphthong that begins with a back vowel, then the start of the diphthong is lowered e.g.
 
*paehown /p&#603;&#967;ou&#628;/ - dust, absolutive
*paehõwn /p&#603;&#967;&#596;u&#628;/ - dust, ergative
*yuenpiluy - /j&#616;&#628;pilui/ - employee, absolutive
*yuenpiloy /j&#616;&#628;piloi/ - employee, ergative
 
 
'''Final vowel is not a back vowel'''
 
In this case the ergative suffix is '''–n''' /&#628;/, or '''–ga''' /ga/ if the noun already ended in '''–n''' e.g.*zive /zi&#613;e/ - boat, absolutive
*ziven /zi&#613;e&#628;/ - boat, ergative
*myaewntayn /m&#690;&#603;u&#628;tai&#628;/ - mountain, absolutive
*myaewntayn-ga / m&#690;&#603;u&#628;tai&#628;ga/ - mountain, ergative
 
=====Final vowel has breathy or tense voice=====
For nouns where the vowel of the last syllable has breathy or tense voice, the situation is more complicated. They all take ergative suffixes of the form C V &#628;, where C is a consonant and V is a vowel. V is almost always /i/, except after /t/ or /d/, when it is /u/. However it is not possible to predict C, as shown by the examples below:
 
*teyláae /teil&#603;&#660;&#720;/ - shirt, absolutive
*teyláaesin /teil&#603;&#660;&#720;si&#628; / - shirt, ergative
*péy /pei&#660;/ - book, absolutive
*péykin /pei&#660;ki&#628;/ - book, ergative
*`kùe /k&#616;&#614;/ - goods, absolutive
*`kùezin /k&#616;&#614;zi&#628;/ - goods, ergative
*`ròe /&#641;&#600;&#614;/ - red object, absolutive
*`ròedun /&#641;&#600;&#614;du&#628;/ – red object, ergative
*'ków /kou&#660;/ - cup, absolutive
*'kówpin */kou&#660;pi&#628;/ - cup, ergative
*péylánkáe /pei&#660;la&#628;&#660;k&#603;&#660;/ - blanket, absolutive
*péylánkáetun /pei&#660;la&#628;&#660;k&#603;&#660;tu&#628;/ - blanket, ergative
*wùerù /w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614;/- frog, absolutive
*wùerùgin /w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614;gi&#628;/ - frog, ergative
 
While it may seem that the consonant inserted before the –in (or –un) suffix is random, there are some patterns. Firstly, the inserted consonant is always an obstruent (oral stop, affricate or fricative), and never a sonorant (nasal or approximant). Secondly, observe that, when the final vowel of the absolutive stem has tense voice, the inserted consonant is always voiceless, while if the final vowel of the absolutive stem has breathy voice, the inserted consonant is always voiced. These two rules hold across the language.
 
Also, for readers with knowledge of whatever language Antarctican borrowed the particular noun stem from, note that the “inserted” consonant almost perfectly corresponds with the consonant at the end of the word e.g. the word for “frog”, (''wùerù'' /w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614;/ in the absolutive case), is in fact descended from the English word “frog”. However, Antarctican does not like final consonants, so the final “g” was lost in the absolutive form. However in the ergative form, there is another vowel following the “g”, so it “reappears”, and the ergative form of the word is ''wùerùgin'' /w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614;gi&#628;/. A similar story happens with the “t” in the word for “blanket”, which is also derived from English.
 
====Stem changes====
However, for some of the nouns with breathy or tense voice on the final vowel of the absolutive stem, there are changes in the stem when they take the ergative suffix. These involve a change in vowel phonation to modal voice, and often a change in vowel quality (as given by the table in the phonology section). e.g.
 
'tùen /t&#616;&#628;&#614;/- wound caused by a sting (e.g. a bee or a jellyfish), absolutive
 
'tin-gin /ti&#628;gi&#628;/ - wound caused by a sting (e.g. a bee or a jellyfish), ergative (not *tùen-gin)
 
 
As a rule,
if the final vowel undergoes a change, and the second last vowel has the same
voicing as the final vowel, then they both change e.g.
 
ùylòen /&#660;ui&#614;l&#600;&#628;&#614;/ - island, absolutive
 
oylendun
/&#660;oile&#628;du&#628;/ - island, ergative (not *qùilòendun)
 
 
tùròoen
/tu&#614;&#641;&#600;&#720;&#628;&#614;/ - fashionable items, absolutive
 
toreendun
/to&#641;e&#720;&#628;du&#628;/ - fashionable items, ergative
 
&nbsp;
 
If there
are even more consecutive syllables with the same voicing on the vowel, then
this rule applies to every single one of them e.g.
 
 
ámáeláy /&#660;a&#660;m&#603;&#660;lai&#660;/ - prey, absolutive
 
amelaeykin /&#660;amel&#603;iki&#628;/ - prey, ergative
 
&nbsp;
 
There are many, many other nouns that decline according to this pattern.
Almost all of the nouns that end in /&#628;/ or contain a long vowel in the final
syllable undergo vowel changes in the stem e.g.
 
'táen /t&#603;&#628;&#660;/ - weather, absolutive
 
'toenchin /t&#600;&#628;ci&#628;/ - weather, ergative
 
 
kàao /k&#604;&#614;&#720;/ - membership card, absolutive
 
kaadun /ka&#720;du&#628;/ - membership card, ergative
 
 
However, the converse is not true. For nouns
with non-modally voiced final vowels, but that do not end in /&#628;/ or a long
vowel, some undergo vowel changes e.g.               
 
ùenào /&#660;&#616;&#614;n&#604;&#614;/ - eel, absolutive
 
inajin /&#660;ina&#607;i&#628;/ - eel, ergative
 
 
While others do not e.g.
 
 
`kùe /k&#616;&#614;/ - goods, absolutive
 
`kùezin /k&#616;&#614;zi&#628;/ - goods, ergative
 
&nbsp;
 
There are
some nouns that have identical absolutive forms, but are distinguished in the
ergative e.g.
 
 
'ká /ka&#660;/ - fence, absolutive
 
kaechin /k&#603;ci&#628;/ - fence, ergative
 
 
ká /ka&#660;/ - coconut milk, absolutive
 
kátlin /kat&#620;i&#628;/ coconut milk, ergative
 
&nbsp;
 
<h5>Obstruent Voicing</h5>
 
If the
absolutive form has a voiceless obstruent (oral stop, affricate or fricative),
that separates two syllables with breathy voice (or a breathy voice floating phonation if word initial), when the breathy voiced vowels acquire modal voice in the ergative form,
the voiceless obstruent does too, becoming modally voiced e.g.
 
 
`pùelùe /p&#616;&#614;l&#616;&#614;/ - bridge, absolutive
 
bilidlin /bilid&#622;i&#628;/ - bridge, ergative
 
 
`pàoy /p&#604;i&#614;/ - baby, absolutive
 
baybyin /baib&#690;i&#628;/ - baby, ergative
 
 
`nyùewsùeylòen /&#626;&#616;u&#614;s&#616;&#614;i&#614;l&#600;&#628;&#614;/ - New Zealand, absolutive
 
nyuuziilendun /&#626;u&#720;zi&#720;le&#628;du&#628;/ - New Zealand, ergative
 
 
&nbsp;
 
If the
absolutive form of a noun has a voiceless obstruent (oral stop, affricate or fricative),
that is preceded by a syllable with a modally voiced vowel, and is followed by
a vowel with tense voice, if this tense voiced vowel becomes modally voiced in
the ergative form, then the voiceless obstruent before it acquires modal voice
too e.g.
 
 
yéysitléynyéy /jei&#660;sit&#620;ei&#660;&#626;ei&#660;/ - mutton, absolutive
 
yéysidlinyuekin /jei&#660;sid&#622;i&#626;&#616;ki&#628;/ - mutton, ergative
 
 
Here we can
see that the /t&#620;/ in the absolutive form has changed to /d&#622;/ in the
ergative form.
 
 
For word initial voiceless obstruents followed by tense voiced vowels in the absolutive
form, which change to modal voice vowels in the ergative form, sometimes this change
also occurs e.g.
 
 
támá /ta&#660;ma&#660;/- victim of a scam / swindle, absolutive
 
damaesin /dam&#603;si&#628;/ - victim of a scam / swindle, ergative
 
 
&nbsp;
 
<h5>Sonorant Devoicing</h5>
 
Another
similar pattern occurs in sonorants. If, in the absolutive form, they are
preceded by a syllable with a modally voiced vowel (or modal voice floating phonation if word initial), and followed by a breathy
or tense voiced vowel that changes in the ergative (to have modal voice), then the sonorant becomes
devoiced. /w/ becomes /f/, /l/ becomes /&#620;/, /j/ becomes /ç/, and /&#641;/
becomes /&#967;/, voiced nasals become prestopped e.g.
 
 
yuuwéy /ju&#720;wei&#660;/ - clothes, absolutive
 
yuufoekin /ju&#720;f&#600;ki&#628;/ - clothes, ergative
 
 
aetenàolùn /&#660;&#603;ten&#604;&#614;lu&#628;&#614;/ - heart, absolutive
 
aetoetnalonzin /&#660;&#603;t&#600;tnalo&#628;zi&#628;/ - heart, ergative
 
&nbsp;
 
<h5>De-Ejectivisation</h5>
 
There are some Antarctican nouns that have ejectives in the absolutive form. As required by the phonotactics, they have tense voiced vowels both before and after (possibly with /&#628;/ intervening). However, sometimes in the ergative form, the tense voiced vowel after the ejective becomes modally voiced. In this case, the airstream mechanism changes from glottalic egressive (ejective) to pulmonic egressive (normal) e.g.
 
 
'kqów
/k&#700;ou&#660;/ - a small amount, absolutive
 
'kuhli /\ku&#620;i/ - a small amount, ergative
 
 
ráetqówléykuetu /&#641;&#603;&#660;t&#700;olei&#660;k&#616;tu/ - something self-limiting, absolutive
 
ráetoluekuetu /&#641;&#603;&#660;tol&#616;k&#616;tu/ something self-limiting, ergative
 
 
'kéychqéy /kei&#660;c&#700;ei&#660;/ - a female name, absolutive
 
'kéychuekin /kei&#660;c&#616;ki&#628;/ - a female name, ergative
 
&nbsp;
 
====Comitative Case====
 
How this is formed also depends on the frontness and phonation of the final vowel:
 
&nbsp;
 
=====Last Vowel of Abs. Form has Modal Voice=====
 
======Last Vowel of Abs. Form is not a Back Vowel======
 
In this
case, take the absolutive form, raise /a/ to /&#603;/ and centralise any other
front vowels e.g.
 
 
zive /zi&#613;e/
- boat, absolutive
 
zivoe /zi&#613;&#600;/
- boat, comitative
 
 
myaewntayn
/m&#690;&#603;u&#628;tai&#628;/ - mountain, absolutive
 
myaewntaeyn
/m&#690;&#603;u&#628;t&#603;i&#628;/ - mountain, comitative
 
 
agirey /&#660;agi&#641;ei/ - agreement, absolutive
 
agiroey /&#660;agi&#641;&#600;i/ - agreement, comitative
 
&nbsp;
 
======Last Vowel of Abs. Form is a Back Vowel======
 
In this
case, take the absolutive form, and suffix /pmu/ e.g.
 
 
tõn /t&#596;&#628;/- change (as in coins, money), absolutive
 
tõnpmu /t&#596;&#628;pmu/ - change (as in coins, money), comitative
 
 
doleengun /dole&#720;&#331;u&#628;/ - dragon, absolutive
 
doleengunpmu /dole&#720;&#331;u&#628;pmu/ - dragon, comitative
 
 
paehown /p&#603;&#967;ou&#628;/ - dust, absolutive
 
paehownpmu /p&#603;&#967;ou&#628;pmu/ - dust, comitative
 
 
yuenpiluy - /j&#616;&#628;piluipmu/ - employee, absolutive
 
yuenpiluypmu - /j&#616;&#628;piluipmu/ - employee, comitative
 
&nbsp;
 
=====Other Cases=====
 
If the last vowel of the absolutive form has tense or breathy voice, the comitative is formed differently. Here, it is formed by taking the ergative, deleting any final /&#628;/ or
/ga/ that had been inserted as a suffix, and then suffixing /&#660;u/ e.g. 
 
 
'tùen /sit&#616;&#628;&#614;/ - wound caused by a sting (e.g. a bee or a jellyfish), absolutive
 
'tin-gin /s&#616;ti&#628;gi&#628;/ - wound caused by a sting (e.g. a bee or a jellyfish), ergative
 
'tin-gi-u /s&#616;ti&#628;gi&#660;u/ - wound caused by a sting, comitative
 
 
teyláae
/teil&#603;&#660;&#720;/ - shirt, absolutive
 
teyláaesin
/teil&#603;&#660;&#720;si&#628; / - shirt, ergative
 
teyláaesi-u /teil&#603;&#660;&#720;si&#660;u/ - shirt, comitative
 
 
péy /pei&#660;/ - book, absolutive
 
péykin /pei&#660;ki&#628;/ - book, ergative
 
péyki-u /pei&#660;ki&#660;u/ - book, comitative
 
 
`kùe /k&#616;&#614;/ - goods, absolutive
 
`kùezin /k&#616;&#614;zi&#628;/ - goods, ergative
 
`kùezi-u /k&#616;&#614;zi&#660;u/ - goods, comitative
 
 
`ròe /&#641;&#600;&#614;/ - red object, absolutive
 
`ròedun /&#641;&#600;&#614;du&#628;/ – red object, ergative
 
`ròedu-u /&#641;&#600;&#614;du&#660;u/ – red object, comitative
 
 
'ków /kou&#660;/ - cup, absolutive
 
'kówpin /kou&#660;pi&#628;/ - cup, ergative
 
'kówpi-u /kou&#660;pi&#660;u/ - cup, comitative
 
 
péylánkáe /pei&#660;la&#628;&#660;k&#603;&#660;/ - blanket, absolutive
 
péylánkáetun /pei&#660;la&#628;&#660;k&#603;&#660;tu&#628;/ - blanket, comitative
 
péylánkáetu-u /pei&#660;la&#628;&#660;k&#603;&#660;tu&#660;u/ - blanket, ergative
 
 
wùerù /w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614;/ - frog, absolutive
 
wùerùgin /w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614;gi&#660;u/ - frog, ergative
 
wùerùgiqu /w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614;gi&#628;/ - frog, comitative
 
&nbsp;
 
<h3>Pronominal Possession</h3>
 
Where
English would use possessive pronouns (“my”, “your”), Antarctican uses
possessive prefixes. The base forms of each are listed in the table below:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Prefix !! Usage
|-
| myi- /m&#690;i/ || 1st person singular, 1st person exclusive plural
|-
| yew- /jeu/ || 1st person inclusive plural
|-
| ti- /ti/ || 2nd person
|-
| wa- /wa/ || 3rd person, topicalised
|-
| si- /si/ || 3rd person, non-topicalised
|}
 
 
So, in the absolutive
case, “my clothes” or “our clothes” (not including you) would be myiyuuwéy /m&#690;iju&#720;wei&#660;/, “your clothes” would be tiyuuwéy /tiju&#720;wei&#660;/ etc.
 
&nbsp;
 
<h4>Phonation Spreading</h4>
 
However, if the noun has a floating phonation, this will spread onto the prefix, and often cause a vowel change in it as well (see the table in the phonology section for a list of changes) e.g.
 
 
`pùelùe /p&#616;&#614;l&#616;&#614;/ - bridge, absolutive
 
`myùepùelùe /m&#690;&#616;&#614;p&#616;&#614;l&#616;&#614;/ - my bridge, absolutive (not *myipùelùe)
 
tùepùelùe /t&#616;&#614;p&#616;&#614;l&#616;&#614;/ - your bridge, absolutive (not *tipùelùe)
 
 
=====Loss of Floating Phonation=====
 
However, if, in the ergative form, the first vowel changes to no longer have breathy or
tense voice (i.e. it now has modal voice), then, if the floating phonation was the same as the what used to be on the vowel, then it is lost too e.g.
 
 
`pùelùe /p&#616;&#614;l&#616;&#614;/- bridge, absolutive
 
bilidlin /bilid&#622;i&#628;/ - bridge, ergative
 
`myùepùelùe /m&#690;&#616;&#614;p&#616;&#614;l&#616;&#614;/ - my bridge, absolutive
 
myibilidlin /m&#690;ibilid&#622;i&#628;/ - my bridge, ergative
 
&nbsp;
 
There are two exceptions to the above rule. The first is if the word begins with an ejective, in which case the ejectiveness is lost, but the floating phonation remains e.g.
 
 
'kqów
/k&#700;ou&#660;/ - a small amount, absolutive
 
'kuhli /ku&#620;i/ - a small amount, ergative
 
myéykuhli /m&#690;ei&#660;ku&#620;i/ - my small amount, ergative
 
 
The second is for words that begin with consonant pronounced with breathy voice (voiced consonant before a breathy voiced vowel) e.g.
 
 
`byùe /b&#690;&#616;&#614;/ - mouth, absolutive
 
`byijin /b&#690;i&#607;i&#628;/ - mouth, ergative
 
myùebyùe /m&#690;&#616;&#614;b&#690;&#616;&#614;/ - my mouth, absolutive
 
`myùebyijin /m&#690;&#616;&#614;b&#690;i&#607;i&#628;/ - my mouth, ergative
 
 
<h5>Prediction of Floating Phonation</h5>
 
As a rule, whether or not a noun has floating phonation cannot be
predicted. The only time when it is possible to do so is for absolutive nouns,
if, in the ergative form, the first vowel loses its
breathy or tense phonation and becomes modally voiced. In this case, the rules
are given below:
 
&nbsp;
 
<h6>Sonorant Initial Stem</h6>
 
If the
absolutive stem begins with a sonorant (nasal or approximant), and that
sonorant becomes devoiced when the vowel after it acquires modal voice in the
ergative form, then there is only ever modal floating phonation before it in both cases e.g.
 
 
màao /m&#604;&#614;&#720;/ - betel nut, absolutive
 
pmaagin /pma&#720;gi&#628;/ - betel nut, ergative
 
myimàao /m&#690;im&#604;&#614;&#720;/ - my betel nut, absolutive
 
 
Otherwise,
if a word begins with a sonorant, then it always has floating phonation that is the same as that on the first vowel e.g.
 
 
'máláeyáa /ma&#660;l&#603;&#660;ja&#660;&#720;/ - manners, absolutive
 
maleyaaetun /malej&#603;&#720;tu&#628;/ - manners, ergative
 
 
'myéymáláeyáa /m&#690;ei&#660;ma&#660;l&#603;&#660;ja&#660;&#720;/ - my manners, absolutive
 
&nbsp;
 
<h6>Stem starts with /s/</h6>
 
If the absolutive
stem begins with /s/, it can never have tense floating phonation
e.g.
 
sásaechin /sa&#660;s&#603;ci&#628;/ - stab wound, absolutive
 
myisásaechin /m&#690;isa&#660;sa&#603;ci&#628;/ - my stab wound, absolutive
 
&nbsp;
 
In the case
of absolutive nouns with breathy voice on the first vowel, if, in the ergative
form, the initial /s/ becomes voiced /z/, then the word has breathy floating phonation e.g.
 
 
`sàomùe /s&#604;&#614;m&#616;&#614;/ - (major) wife, absolutive
 
zamibyin /zamib&#690;i&#628;/ - (major) wife, ergative
 
`myùesàomùe /m&#690;&#616;&#614;s&#604;&#614;m&#616;&#614;/ - my (major) wife, absolutive (not *myisàomùe)
 
 
But if, in
the ergative form, the first vowel acquires modal voice but the initial
consonant stays as voiceless /s/, then in both the absolutive form and the ergative, there is floating modal phonation e.g.
 
 
sàopyùe /s&#604;&#614;p&#690;&#616;&#614;/ - speech (as in words, not a formal speech), absolutive
 
sabyishin /sab&#690;içi&#628;/ - speech (as in words, not a formal speech), ergative
 
myisàopyùe /m&#690;is&#604;&#614;p&#690;&#616;&#614;/ - my speech (as in words, not a formal speech), absolutive
 
&nbsp;
 
<h6>Other stems</h6>
 
If the
absolutive stem begins with another obstruent (oral stop, affricate or
fricative) followed by a vowel with tense voice, and that obstruent stays voiceless even when followed by a modally
voiced vowel (in the ergative form), then the absolutive form has tense floating phonation e.g.
 
 
'táen /t&#603;&#628;&#660;/ - weather, absolutive
 
toenchin /t&#600;&#628;ci&#628;/ - weather, ergative
 
'myéytáen /m&#690;ei&#660;t&#603;&#628;&#660;/ - my weather, absolutive
 
 
But if the obstruent becomes voiced, then there is only ever floating modal phonation e.g.
 
 
támá /ta&#660;ma&#660;/ - victim of a scam / swindle, absolutive
 
damaesin /dama&#603;si&#628;/ - victim of a scam / swindle, ergative
 
myitámá /m&#690;ita&#660;ma&#660;/ - my victim of a scam / swindle, absolutive
 
&nbsp;
 
And vice versa, if the absolutive form of a noun begins with a voicless obstruent followed by a breathy voiced vowel, and that vowel becomes voiced in the ergative form, then the absolutive form has floating breathy phonation e.g.
 
 
`pùelùe /p&#616;&#614;l&#616;&#614;/ - bridge, absolutive
 
bilidlin /bilid&#622;i&#628;/ - bridge, ergative
 
`myùepùelùe /m&#690;&#616;&#614;p&#616;&#614;l&#616;&#614;/ - my bridge, absolutive
 
 
`pàoy /p&#604;i&#614;/- baby, absolutive
 
baybyin /baib&#690;i&#628;/ - baby, ergative
 
`myùepàoy /m&#690;&#616;&#614;p&#604;i&#614;/ - my baby, absolutive
 
&nbsp;
 
And if the
obstruent stays voiceless in the ergative form, then there is only ever floating modal phonation e.g.
 
 
pàoy /p&#604;i&#614;/ - page, absolutive
 
paydlin /paid&#622;i&#628;/ - page, ergative
 
myipàoy /m&#690;ip&#604;i&#614;/ - my page, absolutive
 
&nbsp;
 
<h4>Nasalisation of Velar Initials</h4>
 
For some nouns that begin with /k/ or /g/, often it changes to /&#331;/ when
the noun takes a prefix. e.g.
 
 
gali /gali/ - hole, absolutive
 
myingali /m&#690;i&#331;ali/ - my hole, absolutive
 
&nbsp;
 
In such a case, if the first vowel has tense or breathy voice, then it also has a floating phonation that is the same e.g.
 
 
`kùe /k&#616;&#614;/ - goods, absolutive
 
`myùengùe /m&#690;&#616;&#614;&#331;&#616;&#614;/ - my goods, absolutive
 
 
'kéyváy /kei&#660;&#613;ai&#660;/ - tongue, absolutive
 
'myéyngéyváy /m&#690;ei&#660;&#331;ei&#660;&#613;ai&#660;/ - my tongue, absolutive
 
&nbsp;
 
 
<h3>Possession by a Noun</h3>
 
Antarctican
distinguishes alienable and inalienable [[Linguistics:Possession|possession]]. Both are marked with prefixes on the possessed noun. These are wey- for alienable possession and nu- for inalienable possession (the possessor always takes the absolutive case). Note that floating phonation affects these prefixes in the same way as any other:
 
 
`kùeràotùu /k&#616;&#614;&#641;&#604;&#614;tu&#614;&#720;/ - bone, absolutive
 
yini /jini/ - dog, absolutive
 
`wòeykùeràotùu yini /w&#600;i&#614;k&#616;&#614;&#641;&#604;&#614;tu&#614;&#720; jini/ - the
dog’s bone, absolutive, alienable (i.e. the one that it eats, buries etc.)
 
`nùkùeràotùu yini /nu&#614;k&#616;&#614;&#641;&#604;&#614;tu&#614;&#720; jini/ - the dog’s bone,
absolutive, inalienable (i.e. the one that is a part of it)
 
&nbsp;
 
Where
English would compound nouns together, or use one to modify another.
Antarctican uses the alienable possessive construction e.g.
 
 
aaehaan
/&#660;&#603;&#720;&#967;a&#720;&#628;/ - food, absolutive
 
wey-aaehaan yini /wei&#660;&#603;&#720;&#967;a&#720;&#628; jini/ - dog food,
absolutive
 
 
<h3>Reciprocal Possession</h3>
 
In Antarctican, there is no singular vs. plural marking. However, some nouns that imply
a relationship (e.g. friend, brother, enemy, coworker), have special forms to
indicate a pair or group of people / things where that relationship is
reciprocal e.g. where English would say “They are friends / brothers / enemies
/ coworkers (of each other)”.
 
These forms
are generally constructed by reduplicating the first syllable of the noun, in
the same “slot” where possession would be marked e.g.
 
 
biraza /bi&#641;aza/ - brother, absolutive
 
bibiraza /bibi&#641;aza/ - brothers (of each other), absolutive
 
 
yeruy /je&#641;ui/ - ally, absolutive
 
yeyeruy /jeje&#641;ui/ - allies (of each other), absolutive
 
&nbsp;
 
However, the inserted syllable cannot have a long vowel, a diphthong, or end in /&#628;/.
If it would do so then it is truncated e.g.
 
 
doolaa /do&#720;la&#720;/ - coworker, absolutive
 
dodoolaa /dodo&#720;la&#720;/ - coworkers (of each other), absolutive
 
 
nayba /naiba/ - neighbour, absolutive
 
nanayba /nanaiba/ - neighbours (of each other), absolutive
 
 
'kówntátu /kou&#628;&#660;ta&#660;tu/ – acquaintance, absolutive
 
'kókówntátu /ko&#660;kou&#628;&#660;ta&#660;tu/– acquaintances (of each other), absolutive
 
&nbsp;
 
The voicing of the vowel of the reduplication is determined by what floating phonation the noun has e.g.
 
 
sátozii /sa&#660;tozi&#720;/ – enemy, absolutive
 
myisátozii /m&#690;isa&#660;tozi&#720;/ – my enemy, absolutive
 
sasátozii /sasa&#660;tozi&#720;/ - enemies (of each other), absolutive
 
 
`rùy /&#641;ui&#614;/- rival, absolutive
 
`myùerùy /m&#690;&#616;&#614;&#641;ui&#614;/ - my rival, absolutive
 
`rùrùy /&#641;u&#614;&#641;ui&#614;/ - rivals (of each other), absolutive
 
 
firendun /fi&#641;e&#628;du&#628;/ – friend, ergative
 
myuefirendun /m&#690;&#616;fi&#641;e&#628;du&#628;/ – my friend, ergative
 
fuefirendun /f&#616;fi&#641;e&#628;du&#628;/ – friends (of each other), ergative
 
&nbsp;
 
A few nouns have irregular reciprocal possessive forms e.g.
 
 
wùeròen /w&#616;&#614;&#640;&#600;&#628;&#614;/ - friend, absolutive
 
fiwùeròen /fiw&#616;&#614;&#640;&#600;&#628;&#614;/ - friends (of each other), absolutive
 
These arise from when the first vowel has breathy or tense voice, but the first consonant is underlyingly a voiced obstruent or a prestopped nasal. These can only occur before modally voiced vowels, and are thus modified before the vowel with breathy or tense voice. But if word has floating modal phonation, then the vowel there will have modal voice and the underlying consonant will surface there.
 
&nbsp;
 
<h2>Verb / Adjective Morphology</h2>
 
There is no distinction between adjectives
and verbs in Antarctican. Instead of adjectives like “good”, “bad”, “strong”,
“weak”, there are verbs meaning “to be good”, “to be bad” etc.
 
Verbs inflect for whether they are putting focus on themselves or on nouns in the sentence (done via changing the end of the root). They also take infixes to indicate pronominal objects and voice changes (which is conflated with aspect marking). As well as this, they take prefixes to indicate pronominal subjects (which is conflated with tense marking).
 
<h3>Focus</h3>
 
Verbs have a root form, from which various
other base forms are derived. The two most important of these base forms are
the verb-focus base and the noun-focus base. Below is a list of verb roots with their
corresponding verb-focus and noun-focus bases:
 
&nbsp;
 
doleegi /dole&#720;gi/ - to drag,
intransitive, root
 
doleeju /dole&#720;&#607;u/ - to drag,
intransitive, verb-focus
 
`tùlòoezi /tu&#614;l&#600;&#614;&#720;zi/ –
to drag, intransitive, noun-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
`ròedu /&#641;&#600;du/ - red, root
 
`ròedla /&#641;&#600;&#614;d&#622;a/ - red,
verb-focus
 
`ròedù /&#641;&#600;&#614;du&#614;/ - red,
noun-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
'kiraeypyi /ki&#641;&#603;ip&#690;i/
- to become scraped, root
 
'kiraeypyu /ki&#641;&#603;ip&#690;u/
- to become scraped, verb-focus
 
'kiraypùe /ki&#641;a;ip&#616;&#614;/
- to become scraped, noun-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
<h4>Verb-Focus Base</h4>
 
This is used to put focus on the verb ( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focus_(linguistics) ) i.e. when the most important "new" information that is being communicated to the listener is the action being done in the verb, rather than the nouns that are doing it or it is being done to.
How it is formed from the root is regular, but the rules are somewhat complex
and depend on whether the last syllable of the base begins with a soft or hard
consonant:
 
<h5>Final Consonant is Soft</h5>
 
If the final consonant (not including any
placeless nasal /&#628;/) is soft, infix -iq-/i&#660;/ immediately after it
e.g.
 
&nbsp;
 
hlõ /&#620;&#596;/ - to perform, root
 
hli-õ /&#620;i&#660;&#596;/ - to perform,
verb-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
However, many vowels shift when this
happens e.g.
 
&nbsp;
 
éypyii /&#660;ei&#660;p&#690;i&#720;/ -
to spit out, root
 
éypyi-eey /&#660;ei&#660;p&#690;i&#660;e&#720;i/
- to spit out, verb-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
inyelee /&#660;i&#626;ele&#720;/ - to
pierce, root
 
inyeli-aa /&#660;i&#626;eli&#660;a&#720;/
- to pierce, verb-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
kiveluun /ki&#613;elu&#720;&#628;/ - to
die, root
 
kiveli-ewn /ki&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628;/ -
to die, verb-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
These vowel shifts are all in a roughly
anti-clockwise directions around the vowel space. The shifts are listed below:
 
i /i/ -&gt; e /e/
 
ii /i&#720;/ -&gt; ey /ei/
 
e /e/ -&gt; a /a/
 
ee /e&#720;/ -&gt; aa /a&#720;/
 
a /a/ -&gt; u /u/
 
aa /a&#720;/ -&gt; uu /u&#720;/
 
u /u/ -&gt; i /i/
 
uu /u&#720;/ -&gt; ew /eu/
 
ey /ei/ -&gt; ay /ai/
 
eey /e&#720;i/ -&gt; aay /a&#720;i/
 
ay /ai/ -&gt; uy /ui/
 
aay /a&#720;i/ -&gt; uuy /u&#720;i/
 
uy /ui/ -&gt; ii /i&#720;/
 
ew /eu/ -&gt; aw /au/
 
eew /e&#720;u/ -&gt; aaw /a&#720;u/
 
aw /au/ -&gt; ow /ou/
 
aaw /a&#720;u/ -&gt; oow /o&#720;u/
 
&nbsp;
 
<h5>Final Consonant is Hard</h5>
 
If the final consonant (not including any
placeless nasal /&#628;/) is hard, change it to be soft e.g.
 
&nbsp;
 
yuentorõ /j&#616;&#628;to&#641;&#596;/ -
to introduce oneself, root
 
yuentolõ /j&#616;&#628;tol&#596;/ - to
introduce oneself, verb-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
However, many vowels shift when this
happens e.g.
 
&nbsp;
 
nangarew /na&#331;a&#641;eu/ - to flow,
root
 
nangaluu /na&#331;alu&#720;/ - to flow,
verb-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
'kirami /ki&#641;ami/ - to swell
up, root
 
'kiramyu /ki&#641;am&#690;u/ - to
swell up, verb-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
imuepu /&#660;im&#616;pu/ - to sit down,
root
 
imuepya /&#660;im&#616;p&#690;a/ - to sit
down, verb-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
These vowel changes are often the reverse
of what happens if the final vowel of the stem is a soft consonant. The vowel
shifts are all roughly clockwise around the vowel space, and are listed below:
 
i /i/ -&gt; u /u/
 
u /u/ -&gt; a /a/
 
uu /u&#720;/ -&gt; aa /a&#720;/
 
a /a/ -&gt; e /e/
 
aa /a&#720;/ -&gt; ee /e&#720;/
 
e /e/ -&gt; i /i/ * For some words only,
see below.
 
ee /e&#720;/ -&gt; ii /i&#720;/
 
ii /i&#720;/ -&gt; uy /ui/
 
uy /ui/ -&gt; ay /ai/
 
uuy /u&#720;i/ -&gt; aay /a&#720;i/
 
ay /ai/ -&gt; ey /ei/
 
aay /a&#720;i/ -&gt; eey /e&#720;i/
 
ey /ei/ -&gt; ii /i&#720;/
 
eey /e&#720;i/ -&gt; ii /i&#720;/
 
ow /ou/ -&gt; aw /au/
 
oow /o&#720;u/ -&gt; aaw /a&#720;u/
 
aw /au/ -&gt; ew /eu/
 
aaw /a&#720;u/ -&gt; eew /e&#720;u/
 
ew /eu/ -&gt; uu /u&#720;/
 
eew /e&#720;u/ -&gt; uu /u&#720;/
 
&nbsp;
 
<h6>Vowel Phonation Changes</h6>
 
A few verb stems that end in a hard consonant
and e /e/ behave differently. If the consonant is an obstruent and the
vowel is short, has modal voice and not followed by -n /&#628;/, then the
syllable is deleted and voice put onto the preceding syllable(s). This voice is breathy if the deleted obstruent was voiced, and tense if it was voiceless e.g.
 
&nbsp;
 
nuetoze /n&#616;toze/ - to be fed on, root
 
nitù /nitu&#614;/ - to be fed on, verb-focus
 
 
siboete /sib&#600;te/ - to all be present, root
 
sipáe /sip&#603;&#660;/ - to all be present, verb-focus (remember that Antarctican does not like voiced obstruents before vowels with breathy voice).
 
&nbsp;
 
The breathy voice “spreads” backwards
through the word, changing vowel phonation with it, until it hits a voiceless
obstruent or prestopped nasal e.g.
 
&nbsp;
 
madoze /madoze/ - to give birth,
intransitive, root
 
`màotù /m&#604;&#614;tu&#614;/ - to give
birth, intransitive, verb-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
nyiibe /&#626;i&#720;be/ - to snow, root
 
`nyùue /&#626;&#616;&#720;&#614;/ - to snow,
verb-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
san-gize /sa&#628;gize/ - to bleed, root
 
sàon-gùe /s&#604;&#614;&#628;g&#616;&#614;/
- to bleed, verb-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
Tense voice "spreads" backwards in a similar way, except that it passes through voiceless stops and not through voiced stops, fricatives, or prestopped nasals e.g.
 
 
daraeke /da&#641;&#603;ke/ - to cover, root
 
tárá /ta&#660;&#641;a&#660;/ - to cover, verb-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
 
<h4>Noun-Focus Base</h4>
 
This is used to put focus on the (non-topicalised)
noun(s) in the sentence.
 
&nbsp;
 
<h5>Regular Formation</h5>
 
The default way of forming it is by putting
breathy voice on the final vowel of the base, and changing the vowel quality in
the same way as normal e.g.
 
&nbsp;
 
éypyii /&#660;ei&#660;p&#690;i&#720;/ -
to spit out, root
 
éypyùey /&#660;ei&#660;p&#690;&#616;i&#614;/
- to spit out, noun-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
This breathy voice “spreads” to the left
until it hits a voiceless obstruent or a prestopped nasal e.g.
 
&nbsp;
 
gowpeyee /goupeje&#720;/ - to suffer a
setback, root
 
gowpòeyòoe /goup&#600;&#614;j&#600;&#720;&#614;/
- to suffer a setback, noun-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
inyelee /&#660;i&#626;ele&#720;/ - to
pierce, root
 
ùenyòelòoe /&#660;&#616;&#614;&#626;&#600;&#614;le&#720;/
- to pierce, noun-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
kiveluun /ki&#613;elu&#720;&#628;/ - to
die, root
 
kùevòelùun /k&#616;&#614;&#613;&#600;&#614;lu&#720;&#628;&#614;/
- to die, noun-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
Remember that Antarctican only permits
voiced obstruents, prestopped nasals, and fricatives other than /s/, before vowels
with modal voice. So if this vowel phonation change would produce such a
forbidden sequence, then the consonant changes e.g.
 
&nbsp;
 
hlõ /&#620;&#596;/ - to perform, root
 
lào /l&#604;&#614;/ - to perform, noun-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
These changes do not affect phonation
spreading though, as we can see from:
 
&nbsp;
 
madoze /madoze/ - to give birth,
intransitive, root
 
`màotùsòe /m&#604;&#614;tu&#614;s&#600;&#614;/
- to give birth, intransitive, noun-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
nyiibe /&#626;i&#720;be/ - to snow, root
 
`nyùeypòe /&#626;&#616;ip&#600;&#614;/ - to
snow, noun-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
san-gize /sa&#628;gize/ - to bleed, root
 
sàonkùesòe /s&#604;&#628;&#614;k&#616;&#614;s&#604;&#614;/
- to bleed, noun-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
When a consonant such as a voiceless
obstruent or prestopped nasal blocks the phonation spreading, if the vowel
preceding it is /&#616;/ or /&#600;/ with modal voice (or a diphthong beginning
with one), then fronts to /i/ or /e/ respectively e.g.
 
&nbsp;
 
yuentorõ /j&#616;&#628;to&#641;&#596;/ -
to introduce oneself, root
 
yintùrào /ji&#628;tu&#614;&#641;&#604;&#614;/
- to introduce oneself, noun-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
imuepu /&#660;im&#616;pu/ - to sit down, root
 
imipù /&#660;imipu&#614;/ - to sit down, noun-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
nuetoze /nitoze/ - to be fed on, root
 
nitùsòe /nitu&#614;s&#600;&#614;/ - to be
fed on, noun-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
poensaa /p&#600;&#628;sa&#720;/ - to be lost
in deep thought, root
 
pensàao /pe&#628;s&#604;&#720;&#614;/ - to
be lost in deep thought, noun-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
If the vowel is /&#603;/, or a diphthong
starting with /&#603;/, before the blocking consonant, then it lowers to /a/
e.g.
 
'kiraeypi /ki&#641;&#603;ipi/ - to
become scraped, root
 
'kiraypùe /ki&#641;aip&#616;&#614;/
- to become scraped, noun-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
<h5>Final Syllable Replacement</h5>
 
In addition to this, some verbs lose their
final syllable, which is replaced with –zi e.g.
 
&nbsp;
 
doleegi /dole&#720;gi/ - to drag,
intransitive, root
 
tùlòoezi /tu&#614;l&#600;&#720;&#614;zi/ –
to drag, intransitive, noun-focus (-gùe has been replaced with -zi).
 
&nbsp;
 
bilidli /bilid&#622;i/ - to make it across,
root
 
pùelùezi /p&#616;&#614;l&#616;&#614;zi/ -
to make it across, noun-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
This process happens under well defined
conditions. Both of the last two syllables of the verb root must have modal
voice. Also the final vowel must be a short /i/ and not followed by a nasal
vowel. The consonant immediately before this must be a voiced obstruent. And,
in the proto-language, the verb root must have had pitch-accent on any syllable
other than the final one.
 
&nbsp;
 
<h3>Restrictive / Non-Restrictive Modifiers</h3>
 
When verbs / adjectives are used as modifiers, the verb-focus form is used when the modifier
is non restrictive ( http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restrictiveness ), and the
noun-focus form is used when the modifier is restrictive e.g. from the work teyláae
/teil&#603;&#660;&#720;/ - shirt, we can say:
 
teyláae `ròedla /teil&#603;&#720;&#660; &#641;&#600;&#614;d&#622;a/ – a red shirt
(non-restrictive)
 
teyláae `ròedù /teil&#603;&#720;&#660; &#641;&#600;&#614;du&#614;/ – the red shirt
(restrictive)
 
 
<h3>Verbalisation</h3>
 
Antarctican has a very productive process
for to convert a noun N into an intransitive verb root meaning “to become N” /
“to be N / to do what N does”. How this is done depends on the voicing of the
last vowel of the absolutive form of the noun
 
&nbsp;
 
<h4>Last Vowel of Abs. Form has Modal Voice</h4>
 
In this case, the verb root is identical to
the absolutive form e.g.
 
&nbsp;
 
zive /zi&#613;e/ - boat, absolutive
 
zive /zi&#613;e/ - to be a boat, verb root
 
&nbsp;
 
buraza /bu&#641;aza/ - brother, absolutive
 
buraza /bu&#641;aza/ - to be a brother, verb
root
 
&nbsp;
 
yuenpiluy - /j&#616;&#628;pilui/ -
employee, absolutive
 
yuenpiluy - /j&#616;&#628;pilui/ -
employee, verb root
 
&nbsp;
 
<h4>Other Cases</h4>
 
However, if the final vowel of the
absolutive form has tense or breathy voice, the verb stem is formed from the
ergative form of the noun, minus any final –n e.g.
 
&nbsp;
 
ùylòen /&#660;ui&#614;l&#604;&#628;&#614;/
- island, absolutive
 
oylendun /&#660;oile&#628;dun/ - island,
ergative
 
oylendu /&#660;oile&#628;du/ - to be an
island, verb root
 
&nbsp;
 
péy /pei&#660;/ - book, absolutive
 
péykin /pei&#660;ki&#628;/ - book,
ergative
 
péyki /pei&#660;ki/ - to be a book, verb root
 
&nbsp;
 
támá /ta&#660;ma&#660;/ - victim of a scam
/ swindle, absolutive
 
damaesin /dam&#603;si&#628;/ - victim of a
scam / swindle, ergative
 
damaesi /dam&#603;si/ - to be a victim of a
scam / swindle, verb root
 
&nbsp;
 
màao /m&#604;&#614;&#720;/ - betel nut,
absolutive
 
pmaagin /pma&#720;gi&#628;/ - betel nut,
ergative
 
pmaagi /pma&#720;gi/ - to be a betel nut, verb
stem
 
&nbsp;
 
`pùelùe /p&#616;&#614;l&#616;&#614;/ - bridge, absolutive
 
bilidlin /bilid&#622;i&#628;/ - bridge,
ergative
 
bilidli /bilid&#622;i/ - to be bridge / to
make it across, verb stem
 
&nbsp;
 
`pàoy /p&#604;i&#614;/ - baby, absolutive
 
baybyin /baib&#690;i&#628;/ - baby,
ergative
 
baybyi /baib&#690;i/ - to be a baby, verb
stem
 
&nbsp;
 
pàoy /p&#604;i&#614;/ - page, absolutive
 
paydlin /paid&#622;i&#628;/ - page,
ergative
 
paydli /paid&#622;i/ - to be a page, verb
stem
 
<h3>Transitivity</h3>
 
&nbsp;
 
Whether a verb is transitive or intransitive {{lg|Transitivity}} is very important in Antarctican syntax. Unlike English, where a verb such as "drag" can either be used transitively (as in the sentence "He was dragging his pants along the ground"), or intransitively (as in the sentence "His pants were dragging along the ground"), Antarctican uses distinct verb roots for each case e.g.
 
&nbsp;
 
doleeju /dole&#720;&#607;u/ - to drag, intransitive, verb-focus (as in "his pants were dragging along the ground")
 
dleeju
/d&#622;e&#720;&#607;u/ - to drag, transitive, verb-focus (as in "he was dragging his pants along the ground")
 
&nbsp;
 
`tùlòoezi /tu&#614;l&#600;&#614;&#720;zi/ – to drag, intransitive,
noun-focus
 
`tlòoezi
/t&#620;&#600;&#614;&#720;zi/– to drag, transitive, noun-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
Very
commonly, transitive roots are formed from intransitive roots by deletion of
the first vowel and the second consonant. And if, out of the first and second
consonants, one was soft and the other hard, the first consonant is changed to
agree in hardness / softness with the second (deleted) consonant e.g.
 
&nbsp;
 
doleegi /dole&#720;gi/ - to drag, intransitive, root
 
dleegi /d&#622;e&#720;gi/ - to drag, intransitive, root
 
&nbsp;
 
shinari
/çina&#641;i/ - to twist, intransitive, root
 
hari
/&#967;a&#641;i/ - to twist, transitive, root
 
&nbsp;
 
The transitive roots are then inflected for focus e.g.
 
&nbsp;
 
shinari
/çina&#641;i/ - to twist, intransitive, root
 
shinali /çinali/ - to twist, intransitive, verb-focus
 
yùenàorùe
/j&#616;&#614;n&#604;&#614;&#641;&#616;&#614;/ - to twist, intransitive,
noun-focus
 
&nbsp;
 
hari
/&#967;a&#641;i/ - to twist, transitive, root
 
hali
/&#967;ali/ - to twist, transitive, verb-focus
 
ràorùe
/&#641;&#604;&#614;&#641;&#616;&#614;/ - to twist, transitive, noun-focus
 
 
<h3>Voice and Object Marking</h3>
 
Grammatical voice is very important in
Antarctican. It is conflated with pronominal object marking, both only
affecting transitive verbs and usually using infixes that come immediately after
the first consonant of the verb base. As with elsewhere in the language, these
are not differentiated for number, although there is an inclusive and exclusive
“us”.
 
<h4> Infixation </h4>
 
This is the default way of marking pronominal objects and grammatical voice. In each case there are two forms of the infix, one that contains a hard consonant that is used with verbs beginning
with hard consonants, and another that contains a soft consonant that is used
with verbs beginning with soft consonants. Note that there is no infix to mark 3rd person objects. Instead the antipassive voice is used. The infixes are listed below in pairs,
with the hard version coming first and then the soft version.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+Infixes for Voice and Object Pronouns
|-
|
|Hard Form
|Soft Form
|-
|1PS Exclusive
|em
|imy
|-
|1PS Inclusive
|as
|ehl
|-
|2PS
|õs
|õhl
|-
|who
|ar
|el
|-
|what
|ab
|eby
|-
|Reflexive
|er
|il
|-
|Perfective Antipassive
|ut / ów(tq)s (see below)
|atl
|-
|Imperfective Antipassive
|am
|emy
|-
|Superordinate
|át(q)
|áet(q)l
|}
 
 
These come immediately after the first
consonant of the verb base e.g.
 
 
damaehlu /dam&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam / swindle, verb-focus
 
dõsamaehlu /d&#596;sam&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam / swindle you, verb-focus
 
 
damaehlu /dam&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam, verb-focus
 
demamaehlu /dem&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam me / us (not including you), verb-focus
 
 
All of the usual rules about phonation
spreading apply e.g.
 
 
pyùu /p&#690;u&#720;&#614;/ - to purify, noun-focus
 
pyùemyùu /p&#690;&#616;&#614;mp&#690;u&#720;&#614;/ - to purify me / us (not including you, noun-focus
 
pyòelùu /p&#690;&#600;&#614;lu&#720;&#614;/ - to purify who, noun-focus
 
 
The infixes with non-back vowels and
voiceless consonants also undergo vowel mutation if the following vowel has
modal voice. This is the exact same as has been described before for noun and verb prefixes e.g.
 
 
damaehlu /dam&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam / swindle, verb-focus
 
daesamaehlu /d&#603;sam&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam / swindle us (including you), verb-focus
 
deramaehlu /de&#641;am&#603;&#620;u/ - to scam / swindle oneself, verb-focus
 
 
If the first vowel of the verb base has
breathy or tense voice, and the infix inserted would contain /&#620;/ (which
can only occur before modal voice vowels), then it becomes /l/ and /t&#620;/ respectively. However it
still blocks the spread of the voicing e.g.
 
 
pyùu /p&#690;u&#720;&#614;/ - to purify,
noun-focus
 
pyolùu /p&#690;&#596;lu&#720;&#614;/ - to purify you, noun-focus
 
pyelùu /p&#690;elu&#720;&#614;/ - to purify
ourselves (including you), noun-focus
 
 
The last example this is distinct
from pyòelùu /p&#690;&#600;&#614;lu&#720;&#614;/ - to purify who,
noun-focus, which has breathy voice spreading onto the infix.
 
Note that, for the purposes of the syntax, using any of these infixes turns a transitive verb into an intransitive verb. This means that the subject of such an infixed verb can no longer take ergative case e.g.
 
 
*yuenpiluy - /j&#616;&#628;pilui/ - employee, absolutive
*yuenpiloy /j&#616;&#628;piloi/ - employee, ergative
*sõwdla - /s&#596;ud&#622;/ - soldier, absolutive
*damasùe - /damas#616;&#614;/ - to scam / swindle, noun-focus
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| yuenpiloy || damasùe || sõwdla
|-
| j&#616;&#628;piloi || damas#616;&#614; || s&#616;ud&#622;
|-
|- employee-ERG || scam-NFCS || soldier-ABS
|}
An employee scammed a soldier
 
 
Above, we can see that the word for "employee" is in the ergative case, and must come before the verb. However, when the object is a pronoun, the word for "employee" must take the absolutive case e.g.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| yuenpiluy || daesamasùe
|-
| j&#616;&#628;pilui || d&#603;samas#616;&#614;
|-
| employee-ABS || <1PS.INC.OBJ>scam-NFCS
|}
An employee scammed us (including you)
 
 
Antarctican also permits the subjects of intransitive verbs to come after the verb, so the following sentence is also grammatical (and perhaps more common):
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| daesamasùe || yuenpiluy 
|-
| d&#603;samas#616;&#614; || j&#616;&#628;pilui
|-
| <1PS.INC.OBJ>scam-NFCS || employee-ABS
|}
An employee scammed us (including you)
 
 
<h4>Antipassive Voice</h4>
 
 
Antarctican has extremely productive antipassivisation ({{lg|Antipassive_voice}}). There are two infixes, which depend on whether the verb has perfective or imperfective aspect.
 
 
<h5>Perfective Antipassive</h5>
 
This is used for when the action described by the verb is not viewed as having any internal structure ({{lg|Perfective_aspect}}). It can be used for past, present or future actions e.g.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| duetamasùe || yuenpiluy
|-
| d&#616;tamas#616;&#614; || j&#616;&#628;pilui
|-
| <PFV.AP>scam-NFCS || employee-ABS
|}
An employee scammed / will scam (someone who does not need to be mentioned here).
 
 
However, remember that alveolar stops (e.g. /t/) can never occur before /i/ and /&#654;/ (with any phonation), nor before tense voice /e&#660;/ and /&#600;&#660;/, nor before diphthongs starting with these. If a verb begins with a hard consonant followed by one of these vowels, a different infix is used, normally -óws- e.g.
 
 
inyeli-aa /&#660;i&#626;eli&#660;a&#720;/ - to pierce, verb-focus
 
ówsinyeli-aa /&#660;ou&#660;si&#626;eli&#660;a&#720;/ - to pierce, verb-focus, perfective antipassive
 
 
kiveliqewn /ki&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628;/ - to die, verb-focus
 
kówsiveli-ewn /kou&#660;si&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628;/ - to die, verb-focus, perfective antipassive
 
 
siséychu /sisei&#660;cu/ - to stab, verb focus
 
sówsiséychu /sou&#660;sisei&#660;cu/ - to stab, verb focus, perfective antipassive
 
 
However, if the first vowel of the verb root had tense voice, the ejective -tqs- is used instead e.g.
 
 
'kátla /ka&#660;t&#620;a/ - to make someone's acquaintance, verb focus
 
'kówtqsátla /kou&#660;ts&#700;a&#660;t&#620;a/ - to make someone's acquaintance, verb-focus, perfective antipassive
 
 
éypyi-eey /&#660;ei&#660;p&#690;i&#660;e&#720;i/ - to spit out, verb-focus
 
ówtqséypyi-eey /&#660;ou&#660;ts&#700;ei&#660;p&#690;i&#660;e&#720;i/ - to spit out, verb-focus, perfective antipassive
 
 
<h5>Imperfective Antipassive</h5>
 
This is used for ongoing, habitual and repeated action ({{lg|Imperfective_aspect}}).
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| damamasùe || yuenpiluy
|-
| damamas#616;&#614; || j&#616;&#628;pilui
|-
| <IMPV.AP>scam-NFCS || employee-ABS
|}
An employee is / was / will be scamming (someone who does not need to be mentioned here).
 
 
<h4>Superordinate Voice</h4>
 
Like the antipassive, this also reduces a transitive verb's valency (the number of arguments it has, see here http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valency_(linguistics)) by one, and requires that its subject take the absolutive case. However, it requires some other verb to come afterwards to be subordinate to it e.g.
 
 
*wonnye /wo&#628;&#626;e/ - to want (something), verb-focus
*wátonnye /wa&#660;to&#628;&#626;e/ - to want (to do something / something to happen), verb-focus
 
 
*chi-iin /ci&#660;i&#720;&#628;/ - to fear (something), verb-focus
*cháetli-iin /c&#603;t&#620;i&#660;i&#720;&#628;/ - to fear (that something will happen), verb-focus
 
 
So using the nouns below:
 
*yuenpiluy - /j&#616;&#628;pilui/ - employee, absolutive
*yuenpiloy /j&#616;&#628;piloi/ - employee, ergative
*sõwdla - /s&#596;ud&#622;/ - soldier, absolutive
*sõwdlan - /s&#596;ud&#622;&#628;/ - soldier, ergative
*nayba /naiba/ - neighbour, absolutive
*nayban /naiba&#628;/ - neighbour, ergative
*tõn /t&#596;&#628;/ - change (as in coins, money), absolutive
*tãn /t&#594;&#628;/ - change, ergative
 
 
We can say:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| yuenpiloy || wonnye || tõn
|-
| j&#616;&#628;piloi || wo&#628;&#626;e || t&#596;&#628;
|-
| employee-ERG || want-VFCS || change-ABS
|}
An employee wants change.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| yuenpiluy || 'wátonnye || sõwdla || damasùe
|-
| j&#616;&#628;pilui || wa&#660;to&#628;&#626;e || s&#596;ud&#622;a || damas&#616;&#614;
|-
| employee-ABS || <SPR>want-VFCS || soldier-ABS || scam-NFCS
|}
An employee wants to scam a soldier.
 
 
Note that in the second sentence, the case for the word "employee" has changed from ergative to absolutive. And since Antarctican allows nouns in the absolutive case to also come after the verb, the following sentences would also be grammatical, and all mean roughly the same thing:
 
 
wátonnye yuenpiloy sowdla damasùe
 
yuenpiloy wátonnye damasùe sõwdla
 
wátonnye yuenpiloy damasùe sõwdla
 
 
Similarly, using the verb meaning "to fear", we can say:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| yuenpiloy || chi-iin || sõwdla
|-
| j&#616;&#628;piloi || ci&#660;i&#720;&#628; || s&#596;ud&#622;a
|-
| employee-ERG || fear-VFCS || soldier-ABS
|}
The employee fears the soldier
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| yuenpiloy || 'cháetli-iin || sõwdla || damasùe
|-
| j&#616;&#628;piloi || c&#603;t&#620;i&#660;i&#720;&#628; || s&#596;ud&#622;a || damas&#616;&#614;
|-
| employee-ERG || <SPR>fear-VFCS || soldier-ABS || scam-NFCS
|}
The employee fears he will scam / has scammed the soldier.
 
 
The words in this sentence can be ordered in the same fashion as before.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| yuenpiloy || 'cháetliqiin || sõwdlan || damasùe
|-
| j&#616;&#628;piloi || c&#603;t&#620;i&#660;i&#720;&#628; || s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || damas&#616;&#614;
|-
| employee-ERG || <SPR>fear-VFCS || soldier-ERG || scam-NFCS
|}
The employee fears the soldier will scam / has scammed him.
 
 
Here, while the word for "employee" can come after the verb meaning "to fear", the word for "soldier", cannot, since it takes the ergative case (as it is the subject of the transitive verb damasù meaning "to scam").
 
 
<h4>Vowel Replacement</h4>
 
All Antarctican verbs use infixation to mark 1st person exclusive objects, whom, what (as a direct object), reflexive objects, the imperfective antipassive, and the superordinate voice. However, there is a subset of verbs that use vowel replacement to mark 1st person inclusive objects, 2nd person objects, and the perfective antipassive.
 
These are verbs where either a) the first vowel is short, modally voiced /i/, the second vowel has breathy voice, and there is no nasal intervening (plain nasals, prestopped nasals, and the placeless nasal /&#628;/ all count) or b) the first vowel is short, modally voiced /&#654;/, which is immediately followed by a voiceless obstruent, without /&#628;/ intervening or c) the first vowel is short, modally voiced /&#654;/, which is immediately followed by an approximant and then a vowel with breathy voice, without /&#628;/ intervening
 
The vowel replacements depend on whether the verb begins with a hard or soft consonant, but are regular (and have tense voice) and given in the table below:
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+Vowel Replacements for Voice and Object Pronouns
|-
|
|Hard Form
|Soft Form
|-
|1PS Inclusive
|á
|áe
|-
|2PS
|áo
|áo
|-
|Perfective Antipassive
|N/A use the -éys- infix instead
|ów
|}
 
 
For example:
 
 
siséychu /sisei&#660;cu/ - to stab, verb focus
 
sáséychu /sa&#660;sei&#660;cu/ - to stab us (including you), verb focus
 
sáoséychu /s&#604;&#660;sei&#660;cu/ - to stab you, verb focus
 
 
Note that the perfective antipassive form is created using the infix -éys- i.e. séysiséychu /sei&#660;sisei&#660;cu/ - to stab, verb focus, perfective antipassive. It is only with verbs starting with soft consonants that vowel replacement is used.
 
 
Also note that, for the other persons and voices, infixation is used e.g.
 
semiséychu /semisei&#660;cu/ - to stab me / us (not including you), verb focus
 
seriséychu /se&#641;isei&#660;cu/ - to stab oneself, verb focus
 
sariséychu /sa&#641;isei&#660;cu/ - to stab who, verb focus
 
sabiséychu /sabisei&#660;cu/ - to stab what, verb focus
 
samiséychu /samisei&#660;cu/ - to stab, verb focus, imperfective antipassive
 
 
More examples:
 
 
kiràomùe /ki&#641;&#604;&#614;m&#616;&#614;/ - to bite, verb focus
 
kimyiràomùe /kim&#690;i&#641;&#604;&#614;m&#616;&#614;/ - to bite me / us (not including you), verb focus
 
'káràomùe /ka&#660;&#641;&#604;&#614;m&#616;&#614;/ - to bite us (including you), verb focus
 
'káoràomùe /k&#604;&#660;&#641;&#604;&#614;m&#616;&#614;/ - to bite you, verb focus
 
keriràomùe /ke&#641;i&#641;&#604;&#614;m&#616;&#614;/ - to bite oneself, verb focus
 
kariràomùe /ka&#641;i&#641;&#604;&#614;m&#616;&#614;/ - to bite who, verb focus
 
kabiràomùe /kabi&#641;&#604;&#614;m&#616;&#614;/ - to bite what, verb focus
 
'kówràomùe /kou&#660;&#641;&#604;&#614;m&#616;&#614;/ - to bite, verb focus, perfective antipassive
 
kamiràomùe /kami&#641;&#604;&#614;m&#616;&#614;/ - to bite, verb focus, imperfective antipassive
 
 
shuetinju /&#231;&#616;ti&#628;&#607;u/ - to count, verb focus
 
shimyuetinju /&#231;im&#690;&#616;ti&#628;&#607;u/ - to count me / us (not including you), verb focus
 
yáetinju /j&#603;&#660;ti&#628;&#607;u/ - to count us (including you), verb focus
 
yáotinju /j&#604;&#660;ti&#628;&#607;u/ - to count you, verb focus
 
shiluetinju /&#231;il&#616;ti&#628;&#607;u/ - to count oneself, verb focus
 
sheluetinju /&#231;el&#616;ti&#628;&#607;u/ - to count who, verb focus
 
shebyuetinju /&#231;eb&#690;&#616;ti&#628;&#607;u/ - to count what, verb focus
 
yówtinju /jou&#660;ti&#628;&#607;u/ - to count, verb focus, perfective antipassive
 
shemyuetinju /&#231;em&#690;&#616;ti&#628;&#607;u/ - to count, verb focus, imperfective antipassive
 
 
(The /&#231;/ is lenited to /j/ when the vowel is replaced, since Antarctican does not like words starting with fricatives other than /s/ if the next vowel has tense voice.
 
 
<h4>Reciprocal Voice</h4>
 
One other voice that needs to be mentioned here is the reciprocal voice. This carries to meaning of "to do to each other / one another". It is formed by reduplicating the first syllable of the verb base e.g.
 
 
wonnye /wo&#628;&#626;e/ - to want, verb focus
 
wowonnye /wowo&#628;&#626;e/ - to want each other, verb focus
 
 
darakòe /da&#641;ak&#600;&#614;/ - to cover, noun-focus
 
dadarakòe /dada&#641;ak&#600;&#614;/ - to cover each other, noun-focus
 
 
shuetinju /&#231;&#616;ti&#628;&#607;u/ - to count, verb focus
 
shueshuetinju /&#231;&#616;&#231;&#616;ti&#628;&#607;u/ - to count each other, verb focus
 
 
However, the reduplicated syllable cannot contain a long vowel, a diphthong, or the placeless nasal /&#628;/. If the first syllable of the verb base contains any of these, then it is truncated e.g.
 
 
ziitlàoji /zi&#720;t&#620;&#604;&#614;&#607;i/ - to know (a person), verb-focus
 
ziziitlàoji /zizi&#720;t&#620;&#604;&#614;&#607;i/ - to know each other, verb-focus
 
 
yinwùumùe /ji&#628;wu&#720;&#614;m&#616;/ - to turn in, noun-focus
 
yiyinwùumùe /jiji&#628;wu&#720;&#614;m&#616;/ - to turn each other in, noun-focus
 
 
kaaeykyu /k&#603;&#720;i&k#690;u/ - to sell, verb-focus
 
kaekaaeykyu /k&#603;k&#603;&#720;ik&#690;u/ - to sell each other, verb-focus
 
 
The reduplicated syllable has whatever floating phonation is at the start of the word e.g.
 
 
'kátla /ka&#660;t&#620;a/ - to make someone's acquaintance, verb focus
 
'kákátla /ka&#660;ka&#660;t&#620;a/ - to make each other's acquaintance, verb focus
 
 
This may not be the same phonation as is on the first syllable of the word e.g.
 
 
'kamyu /kam&#690;u/ - to inflate (someone's ego), verb-focus
 
'kákamyu /ka&#660;kam&#690;u/ - to inflate each other('s ego), verb-focus
 
 
'kaypùe /kaip&#616;&#614;/ - to scrape, noun-focus
 
'kákaypùe /ka&#660;kaip&#616;&#614;/ - to scrape each other, noun-focus
 
 
Any changes to vowel quality that happen because of vowel phonation changes, also happen here e.g.
 
 
'puytlù /puit&#620;u&#614;/ - to pick a fight, noun-focus
 
'póyputlu /poi&#660;puit&#620;u&#614;/ - to pick a fight with each other, noun-focus
 
 
As well as all the other regular vowel quality changes that happen when a noun takes a prefix e.g.
 
 
hali /&#967;ali/ - to twist, transitive, verb-focus
 
haehali /&#967;&#603;&#967;ali/ - to twist, transitive, verb-focus
 
 
As with reciprocal possession, a few verbs have irregular forms in the reciprocal voice e.g.
 
 
ràorùe /&#641;&#604;&#614;&#641;&#616;&#614;/ - to twist, transitive, noun-focus
 
haràorùe /&#967;a&#641;&#604;&#614;&#641;&#616;&#614;/ - to twist each other, transitive, noun-focus
 
 
Generally, if a noun has an irregular reciprocal possessive form, then any verbs derived from it will also have irregular reciprocal voice forms e.g.
 
 
wùeròen /w&#616;&#614;&#640;&#600;&#628;&#614;/ - friend, absolutive
 
fiwùeròen /fiw&#616;&#614;&#640;&#600;&#628;&#614;/ - friends (of each other), absolutive
 
 
wòenzi /w&#600;&#628;&#614;/ - to befriend, noun-focus
 
fiwòenzi /fiw&#600;&#628;&#614;/ - to befriend each other, noun-focus
 
 
These irregularities happen for the same reason in reciprocal verbs as they do in reciprocal nouns, namely because there is an underlying initial consonant that changes form to something else because it is before a vowel with breathy voice or tense voice (which prohibit some consonants from coming before it). However, if there is modal floating phonation, then the underlying forms can resurface in the reduplication.
 
 
<h3>Pronominal Subject Prefixes</h3>
 
Instead of using pronouns to indicate subject, Antarctican uses prefixes on verbs. Which prefix is used depends on the tense of the verb (normally unmarked). They do not inflect for number. They are listed in the table below:
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! !! Past !! Present !! Future
|-
| 1PS Exclusive || uy || omyi || ow
|-
| 1PS Inclusive || chi || we|| wi
|-
| 2PS || nyin || ya || yu
|-
| 3PS || day || de || daw
|-
| Who / What || wu || hew || ri
|}
 
 
Note that, for habitual actions in the present, the past tense is used. Also the present tense is used for imminent actions in the future (where English might use "about to").
 
 
===Emphatic Forms===
 
All of the pronomnial affixes have emphatic forms that are generated by lengthening the vowel e.g.
 
 
chisàon-gùe /cis&#604;&#614;&#628;g&#616;&#614;/ you bleed, verb-focus
 
chiisàon-gùe /ci&#720;s&#604;&#614;&#628;g&#616;&#614;/ you (emphatic) bleed, verb-focus
 
 
However, the emphatic forms cannot be used with noun-focus forms, so while chisàonkùesòe /cis&#604;&#628;&#614;k&#616;&#614;s&#604;&#614;/ - to bleed, noun-focus is grammatical, chiisàonkùesòe /ci&#720;s&#604;&#628;&#614;k&#616;&#614;s&#604;&#614;/ would not be.
 
 
This lengthening can also be used on infixes marking objects e.g.
 
 
pyõhli-uu /p&#690;&#596;&#620;i&#660;u&#720;/ - purify you, verb focus
 
pyõohli-uu /p&#690;&#596;&#720;&#620;i&#660;u&#720;/ - purify you (emphatic), verb focus
 
 
If an object would be formed by vowel replacement (instead of an infix), then the emphatic form is created by lengthening the first vowel e.g.
 
 
siséychu /sisei&#660;cu/ - to stab, verb focus
 
sáoséychu /s&#604;&#660;sei&#660;cu/ - to stab you, verb focus
 
sáaoséychu /s&#604;&#720;&#660;sei&#660;cu/ - to stab you (emphatic), verb focus
 


==Syntax==
==Syntax==


===Basic Word Order===
While on the surface [[Antarctican Syntax]] may look superficially similar to English (i.e. they both permit SVO sentences and place relative clauses after the noun), it is actually is quite different from English, being topic-prominent and syntactically ergative.
 
Antarctican is a syntactically ergative ({{lg|Ergative absolutive_language}}), topic-prominent language ({{lg|Topic-prominent_language}}). The basic word order is (Topic) (Ergative Noun) Verb (Absolutive Noun). So in intransitive sentences the word order is either V-S or S-V (if the subject is topicalised) e.g.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sõwdla || kiveli-ewn
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a || ki&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628;
|-
| soldier.ABS || die.VFCS
|}
 
The soldier died.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| kiveli-ewn || sõwdla
|-
|  ki&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628; || s&#596;ud&#622;a
|-
| die.VFCS  || soldier.ABS
|}
 
A soldier died.
 
 
In transitive sentences, the possible word orders are S-V-O and O-S-V e.g.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sõwdlan || amelaykùe || wùerù
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || &#660;amelaik&#616;&#614; || w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614;
|-
| soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
|}
A soldier is hunting frogs.
 
 
If we topicalise the object, the sentence becomes:
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| wùerù || sõwdlan || amelaykùe
|-
| w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614; || s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || &#660;amelaik&#616;&#614;
|-
| frog.ABS || soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS
|}
The frogs are being hunted by a soldier.
 
 
In SVO sentences, it is also possible to topicalise the subject. This does not create any "visible" effect in the word order, however it does mean that the subject takes the absolutive case e.g.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sõwdla || amelaykùe || wùerù
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || &#660;amelaik&#616;&#614; || w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614;
|-
| soldier.ABS || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
|}
The soldier is hunting frogs.
 
 
Note that sentence can only have one topic, so if the object of a transitive sentence is topicalised, then the subject cannot be (and must therefore stay in the ergative case). Hence utterances like "wùeru sowdla amelaykùe" are ungrammatical.
 
 
===Topicalisation and Possession===
 
 
Antarctican has two 3rd person possessive prefixes that nouns can take, wa- and si-. They are not interchangable. When the possessor is the noun that has been taken up as the topic, wa- is used. If not, si- is used instead. Compare the following two sentences:
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sõwdla || amelaeychu || wawùerù
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || &#660;amel&#603;icu || waw&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614;
|-
| soldier.ABS || hunt.NFCS || TPCPOSS-frog.ABS
|}
The soldier is hunting his frogs (i.e. the ones that the soldier owns).
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sõwdla || amelaeychu || siwùerù
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || &#660;amel&#603;icu || siw&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614;
|-
| soldier.ABS || hunt.NFCS || 3POSS-frog.ABS
|}
The soldier is hunting his / her frogs (that someone else other than the soldier owns).
 
 
In both cases above, the soldier has been taken up as the topic, indicated by putting it immediately before a transitive verb (indicating that it is the subject of that verb), while keeping it in the absolutive case. Hence, whenever wa- is used, it indicates something belonging to the topic (i.e. the soldier). However, when si- is used, it indicates something belonging to someone or something other than the topic.
 
 
Now look at sentences where the soldier has not been topicalised (indicated by keeping it in the ergative case):
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sõwdlan || amelaykùe || wawùerù
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || &#660;amelaik&#616;&#614; || waw&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614;
|-
| soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || TPCPOSS-frog.ABS
|}
A soldier is hunting his / her frogs (not belonging to the soldier, but to whoever / whatever has been taken up as a topic previously).
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sõwdlan || amelaykùe || siwùerù
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || &#660;amelaik&#616;&#614; || siw&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614;
|-
| soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || 3POSS-frog.ABS
|}
A soldier is hunting his / her frogs (This sentence is ambiguous, but most likely the frogs belong to the soldier, and definitely not to whoever / whatever has been taken up as a topic previously).
 
 
Similar differences in meaning apply in OVS sentences (i.e. where the object of a transitive verb has been topicalised) e.g.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sáaeynátqóey || waesõwdlan || amelaeychu
|-
| s&#603;&#720;i&#660;na&#660;t&#700;&#600;i&#660; || w&#603;s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || &#660;amel&#603;icu
|-
| general.ABS || TPCPOSS-soldier-ERG || hunt.VFCS
|}
The general is being hunted by his (own) soldiers.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sáaeynátqóey || suesõwdlan || amelaeychu
|-
| s&#603;&#720;i&#660;na&#660;t&#700;&#600;i&#660; || s&#616;s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || &#660;amel&#603;icu
|-
| general.ABS || 3POSS-soldier-ERG || hunt.VFCS
|}
The general is being hunted by his / her soldiers (not his own).
 
 
====Implicit Topicalisation====
 
Whenever a noun is the object of a transitive verb or the subject of an intransitive verb, it is, by default, taken up as the topic for any verbs following it e.g.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| byaenka || damaehlu || sõwdla || wáetow || kaen-guchi || wabiraza
|-
| b&#690;&#603;&#628;ka || dam&#603;&#620;u || s&#596;ud&#622;a || w&#603;&#660;tou || k&#603;&#628;guci || wabi&#641;aza
|-
| banker.ABS || swindle.VFCS || soldier.ABS || occur during.NFCS || be a prisoner.VFCS || TPCPOSS-brother
|}
The banker swindled the soldier while his brother was in prison (the soldier's brother).
 
 
While the phrase "his brother" in English translation is ambiguous (since both the banker and the soldier can be male), in Antarctican is not. It can only mean "the soldier's brother" because, by being the object of a transitive verb, the soldier has been implicitly taken up as the topic for the next utterance, which uses the topic possessive prefix wa-. However, if we replace wa- with si- the non-topicalised possessive prefix, then the meaning changes:
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| byaenka || damaehlu || sõwdla || wáetow || kaen-guchi || sibiraza
|-
| b&#690;&#603;&#628;ka || dam&#603;&#620;u || s&#596;ud&#622;a || w&#603;&#660;tou || k&#603;&#628;guci || sibi&#641;aza
|-
| banker.ABS || swindle.VFCS || soldier.ABS || occur during.NFCS || be a prisoner.VFCS || 3POSS-brother
|}
The banker swindled the soldier while his brother was in prison.
 
 
In this case, it is not the soldier's brother that is in prison (most likely the banker's brother).
 
 
===Serial Verbs===
 
Antarctican often uses serial verb constructions.
 
====Intransitive Verbs====
 
If a verb is intransitive, it is simple to serialise it by placing another verb after it e.g.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sõwdla || byowchi-i || kiveli-ewn
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a || b&#690;ouci&#660;i || ki&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628;
|-
| soldier.ABS || sick.VFCS || die.VFCS
|}
The soldier got sick and died.
 
 
The subject comes either immediately before the first verb (as above), or immediately after it e.g.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| byowchi-i || sõwdla  || kiveli-ewn
|-
| b&#690;ouci&#660;i || s&#596;ud&#622;a || ki&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628;
|-
| sick.VFCS || soldier.ABS || die.VFCS
|}
The soldier got sick and died.
 
 
Of course, it is perfectly possible to string together three or more verbs e.g.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sõwdla || byowchi-i || sàon-gùe || kiveli-ewn
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a || b&#690;ouci&#660;i || s&#604;&#614;&#628;g&#616;&#614; || ki&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628;
|-
| soldier.ABS || sick.VFCS || bleed.VFCS || die.VFCS
|}
The soldier got sick, bled, and died.
 
 
====Transitive Verbs====
 
It is also perfectly possible to use transitive verbs in serial verb constructions, subject to the constraint that all of the verbs share the same noun '''absolutive argument''' (i.e. object for transitive verbs, subject for intransitive verbs). Take the following sentence:
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sõwdlan || kiràomùesòe || wùerù || kiveli-ewn
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || ki&#641;&#604;&#614;m&#616;&#614;s&#600;&#614; || w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614; || ki&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628;
|-
| soldier-ERG || bite.NFCS || frog.ABS || die.VFCS
|}
A soldier bit a frog and it died.
 
 
This sentence can only ever mean that it was the frog that died. Topicalising the subject of the transitive verb (by putting it into the absolutive case) makes no difference to the meaning:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sõwdla || kiràomùesòe || wùerù || kiveli-ewn
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a || ki&#641;&#604;&#614;m&#616;&#614;s&#600;&#614; || w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614; || ki&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628;
|-
| soldier.ABS || bite.NFCS || frog.ABS || die.VFCS
|}
The soldier bit a frog and it died.
 
 
Topicalising the object of the verb by putting it at the front of the sentence makes no difference either:
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| wùerù || sõwdlan || kiràomùesòe || kiveli-ewn
|-
| w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614; || s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || ki&#641;&#604;&#614;m&#616;&#614;s&#600;&#614; || ki&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628;
|-
| frog.ABS || soldier-ERG || bite.NFCS || die.VFCS
|}
The frog was bitten by a soldier and (it) died.
 
 
=====Antipassivisation=====
 
To say things like "The soldier bit a frog and died" (as in it was the soldier that died), then the verb meaning "to bite" must be converted into an intransitive verb by putting it in the antipassive voice e.g.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sõwdla || 'kówràomùe || kiveli-ewn
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a || kou&#660;&#641;&#604;&#614;m&#616;&#614; || ki&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628;
|-
| soldier.ABS || <PFV.AP>bite.VFCS || die.VFCS
|}
The soldier bit it and died.
 
 
======Patient Re-introduction======
If we want to re-introduce the frog into the sentence, it needs to come after both the antipassivised verb and the subject, take the ergative case, and be followed by the oblique marker '''nyùe''' e.g.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| 'kówràomùe || sõwdla || wùerùgin || `nyùe || kiveli-ewn
|-
| kou&#660;&#641;&#604;&#614;m&#616;&#614; || s&#596;ud&#622;a || w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614;gi&#628; || &#626;&#616;&#614; || ki&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628;
|-
| <PFV.AP>bite.NFCS || soldier.ABS || frog-ERG || OBL || die.VFCS
|}
A soldier bit a frog and died.
 
 
The (now absolutive) argument of the verb can be topicalised by putting it at the front of the sentence e.g.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sõwdla || 'kówràomùesòe || wùerùgin || `nyùe || kiveli-ewn
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a || kou&#660;&#641;&#604;&#614;m&#616;&#614;s&#600;&#614; || w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614;gi&#628; || &#626;&#616;&#614; || ki&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628;
|-
| soldier.ABS || <PFV.AP>bite.VFCS || frog-ERG || OBL || die.VFCS
|}
The soldier bit a frog and died.
 
 
However, the noun that was re-introduced with `nyùe cannot be topicalised, so the following sentence is ungrammatical:
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| wùerùgin || `nyùe || sõwdla || 'kówràomùesòe || kiveli-ewn
|-
| w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614;gi&#628; || &#626;&#616;&#614; || s&#596;ud&#622;a || kou&#660;&#641;&#604;&#614;m&#616;&#614;s&#600;&#614; || ki&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628;
|-
| frog-ERG || OBL || soldier.ABS || <PFV.AP>bite.VFCS || die.VFCS
|}
The soldier bit a frog and died. (ungrammatical)
 
 
====Subject Pronominal Affixes====
 
Pronouns must be marked by prefixes on every single verb that they are the subject of in a serial verb construction e.g.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| wuebyowchi-i || wuekiveli-ewn
|-
| w&#616;b&#690;ouci&#660;i || w&#616;ki&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628;
|-
| 1PS.INC.SUBJ.FUT-sick.VFCS || 1PS.INC.SUBJ.FUT-die.VFCS
|}
We (including you) will get sick and die.
 
 
With transitive verbs, there is no need for antipassivisation if the subject is a pronoun e.g.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| wuekiràomùe || wùerù || wuekiveli-ewn
|-
| w&#616;ki&#641;&#604;&#614;m&#616;&#614; || w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614; || w&#616;ki&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628;
|-
| 1PS.INC.SUBJ.FUT- bite.VFCS || frog.ABS || 1PS.INC.SUBJ.FUT-die.VFCS
|}
We (including you) will bite a frog and die.
 
 
Leaving the pronominal prefix off a verb in a serial verb construction means that that pronoun is no longer the subject of that verb. This changes the meaning entirely e.g.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| wuekiràomùe || wùerù || kiveli-ewn
|-
| w&#616;ki&#641;&#604;&#614;m&#616;&#614; || w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614; || ki&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628;
|-
| 1PS.INC.SUBJ.FUT- bite.VFCS || frog.ABS || 1PS.INC.SUBJ.FUT-die.VFCS
|}
We (including you) will bite a frog and it will die.
 
 
Note that, if a transitive verb takes a subject pronominal affix, then it can never take antipassive voice.
 
 
===Relative Clauses===
 
These follow the noun they modify. There are no relative pronouns or relativising particles. However, the accessibility hierarchy is very important in Antarctican ({{lg|Relative_clause#Accessibility_hierarchy}}). Only absolutive arguments (objects of transitive verbs and subjects of intransitive verbs) can be relativised. So the following two phrases are grammatical:
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| wùerù || kiveli-ewn
|-
| w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614; || ki&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628;
|-
| frog.ABS || die.VFCS
|}
The frog, which died.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| wùerù || sõwdlan || amelaykùe
|-
| w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614; || s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || &#660;amelaik&#616;&#614;
|-
| frog.ABS || soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS
|}
The frogs the soldier hunted.
 
 
However, to say "the soldier that hunted frogs", the verb must be put into the antipassive voice e.g.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sõwdla || utamelaykùe || wùerù || `nyùe
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || &#660;utamelaik&#616;&#614; || w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614; || &#626;&#616;&#614;
|-
| soldier.ABS || <PFV.AP>hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS || OBL
|}
The soldier that hunted frogs.
 
 
Once a transitive verb takes the antipassive voice, the oblique argument (i.e. what used to be its object) can be freely left out e.g.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sõwdla || utamelaykùe
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || &#660;utamelaik&#616;&#614;
|-
| soldier.ABS || <PFV.AP>hunt.NFCS
|}
The soldier that hunted.
 
 
===Negation===
 
Negation in Antarctican is achieved by using one of two particles, nõ /n&#596;/ (known as general negation) and nay /nai/ (known as specific negation).
 
====The Particle nõ /n&#596;/ (General Negation)====
 
The normal way to negate a sentence is to put this immediately before the verb e.g.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sõwdlan || amelaykùe || wùerù
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || &#660;amelaik&#616;&#614; || w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614;
|-
| soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
|}
Soldiers are hunting frogs.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sõwdlan || nõ || amelaykùe || wùerù
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || n&#596; || &#660;amelaik&#616;&#614; || w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614;
|-
| soldier-ERG || NEG.GEN || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
|}
Soldiers aren't hunting frogs.
 
 
Either the noun-focus form of the verb (as above), or the verb-focus form can be used e.g.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sõwdlan || nõ || amelaeychu || wùerù
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || n&#596; || &#660;amel&#603;icu || w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614;
|-
| soldier-ERG || NEG.GEN || hunt.VFCS || frog.ABS
|}
Soldiers aren't hunting frogs.
 
 
The default position for the particle is immediately before the verb, however it can be moved to in front of a noun as well. Doing so puts emphasis on negating that noun e.g.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| nõ || sõwdlan || amelaykùe || wùerù
|-
| n&#596; || s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || &#660;amelaik&#616;&#614; || w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614;
|-
| NEG.GEN || soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
|}
''Soldiers'' aren't hunting frogs (but someone else is).
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sõwdlan || amelaykùe || nõ || wùerù
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || &#660;amelaik&#616;&#614; || n&#596; || w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614;
|-
| soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || NEG.GEN || frog.ABS
|}
Soldiers aren't hunting ''frogs'' (but they are hunting something else).
 
 
Note that in both of the above cases, the noun-focus form is used. Using the verb focus form "amelaykùe" here would be ungrammatical.
 
 
Also note that, if a noun is topicalised, then the particle cannot occur before it. So the following sentence is ungrammatical:
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| nõ || sõwdla || amelaykùe || wùerù
|-
| n&#596; || s&#596;ud&#622;a || &#660;amelaik&#616;&#614; || w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614;
|-
| NEG.GEN || soldier.ABS || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
|}
 
 
====The Particle nay /nai/ (Specific Negation)====
 
This is always placed after a verb, which must be in the verb-focus form. It is used for negation with emphasis on the verb e.g.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sõwdla || amelaeychu || nay || wùerù
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a || &#660;amel&#603;icu || nai || w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614;
|-
| soldier.ABS || hunt.VFCS || NEG.SPFC|| frog.ABS
|}
Soldiers aren't ''hunting'' frogs (but they are doing something else to them).
 
 
It is also used for negating a verb in a relative clause e.g.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| wùerù || kiveli-ewn || `ròedla
|-
| w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614; || ki&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628; || &#641;&#600;&#614;d&#622;a
|-
| frog.ABS || die.VFCS || red.VFCS
|}
The frog, which died, was red.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| wùerù || kiveli-ewn || nay || `ròedla
|-
| w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614; || ki&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628; || nai || &#641;&#600;&#614;d&#622;a
|-
| frog.ABS || die.VFCS || NEG.SPFC || red.VFCS
|}
The frog, which didn't die, was red.
 
 
And since Antarctican makes no distinction between adjectives and verbs, and hence no distinction between an attributive adjective (one describing a noun), and a verb in a relative clause, this particle is also used to negate adjectives when they are describing nouns e.g.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sõwdlan || amelaykùe || wùerù || `ròedla
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || &#660;amelaik&#616;&#614; || w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614; || &#641;&#600;&#614;d&#622;a
|-
| soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS || red.VFCS
|}
Soldiers are hunting red frogs.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sõwdlan || amelaykùe || wùerù || `ròedla || nay
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || &#660;amelaik&#616;&#614; || w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614; || &#641;&#600;&#614;d&#622;a || nai
|-
| soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS || red.VFCS || NEG.SPFC
|}
Soldiers aren't hunting ''red'' frogs (maybe they're hunting another colour).
 
 
===Polar Questions===
 
A Yes/No question is formed by using either the particle du /du/, or /ka/ /ka/. These are known as the general and specific interrogatives respectively, and the usage of them very closely parallels the /no/ and /nai/ negative particles.
 
 
====The Particle du (General Interrogative)====
 
The normal way to ask a polar question is to put this immediately before the verb e.g.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sõwdlan || amelaykùe || wùerù
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || &#660;amelaik&#616;&#614; || w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614;
|-
| soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
|}
Soldiers are hunting frogs.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sõwdlan || du || amelaykùe || wùerù
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || du || &#660;amelaik&#616;&#614; || w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614;
|-
| soldier-ERG || INT.GEN || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
|}
Are soldiers hunting frogs?
 
 
Either the noun-focus form of the verb (as above), or the verb-focus form can be used e.g.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sõwdlan || du || amelaeychu || wùerù
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || du || &#660;amel&#603;icu || w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614;
|-
| soldier-ERG || INT.GEN || hunt.VFCS || frog.ABS
|}
Are soldiers hunting frogs?
 
 
The default position for the particle is immediately before the verb, however it can be moved to in front of a noun as well. Doing so puts emphasis on questioning that noun;s involvement in the event being described, rather than whether or not the event actually happened e.g.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| du || sõwdlan || amelaykùe || wùerù
|-
| du || s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || &#660;amelaik&#616;&#614; || w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614;
|-
| INT.GEN || soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
|}
Are ''soldiers'' hunting frogs (or is it someone else)?
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sõwdlan || amelaykùe || du || wùerù
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || &#660;amelaik&#616;&#614; || du || w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614;
|-
| soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || INT.GEN || frog.ABS
|}
Are soldiers hunting ''frogs'' (or something else)?
 
 
Note that in both of the above cases, the noun-focus form is used. Using the verb focus form "amelaykùe" here would be ungrammatical.
 
 
Also note that, if a noun is topicalised, then the particle cannot occur before it. So the following sentence is ungrammatical:
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| du || sõwdla || amelaykùe || wùerù
|-
| du || s&#596;ud&#622;a || &#660;amelaik&#616;&#614; || w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614;
|-
| INT.GEN || soldier.ABS || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
|}
 
 
====The Particle ka (Specific Interrogative)====
 
This is always placed after a verb, which must be in the verb-focus form. It is used when the noun's involvement in the event is not in question, rather the question is about what the action was e.g.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sõwdla || amelaeychu || ka || wùerù
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a || &#660;amel&#603;icu || ka || w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614;
|-
| soldier.ABS || hunt.VFCS || INT.SPFC || frog.ABS
|}
Are soldiers ''hunting'' frogs (or doing something else to them)?
 
 
It is also used for questioning a verb in a relative clause e.g.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| wùerù || kiveli-ewn || `ròedla
|-
| w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614; || ki&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628; || &#641;&#600;&#614;d&#622;a
|-
| frog.ABS || die.VFCS || red.VFCS
|}
The frog, which died, was red.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| wùerù || kiveli-ewn || ka || `ròedla
|-
| w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614; || ki&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628; || ka || &#641;&#600;&#614;d&#622;a
|-
| frog.ABS || die.VFCS || INT.SPFC || red.VFCS
|}
Was it the frog that died that was red?
 
 
And since Antarctican makes no distinction between adjectives and verbs, and hence no distinction between an attributive adjective (one describing a noun), and a verb in a relative clause, this particle is also used to question adjectives when they are describing nouns e.g.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sõwdlan || amelaykùe || wùerù || `ròedla
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || &#660;amelaik&#616;&#614; || w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614; || &#641;&#600;&#614;d&#622;a
|-
| soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS || red.VFCS
|}
Soldiers are hunting red frogs.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sowdlan || amelaykùe || wùerù || `ròedla || ka
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || &#660;amelaik&#616;&#614; || w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614; || &#641;&#600;&#614;d&#622;a || ka
|-
| soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS || red.VFCS || INT.SPFC
|}
Are soldiers hunting ''red'' frogs (or another colour)?
 
 
===Other Questions===
 
There are a whole host of other question particles in Antarctican, all of which have general and specific forms which follow the same syntactic rules as above.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Interrogative !! General !! Specific
|-
| Where / Which || duku || tovi
|-
| When || tòwnká || taensi
|-
| How (asking for a description) || donna || chowan
|-
| How much / How many / To what extent || kùey || chetnay
|-
| Why || tówta || tanmay
|}
 
 
Below are some example questions using the words for "where":
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sõwdlan || duku || amelaykùe || wùerù
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || duku || &#660;amelaik&#616;&#614; || w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614;
|-
| soldier-ERG || where.GEN || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
|}
Where are soldiers are hunting frogs?
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| duku || sõwdlan || amelaykùe || wùerù
|-
| duku || s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || &#660;amelaik&#616;&#614; || w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614;
|-
| where.GEN || soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS
|}
Soldiers from where are hunting frogs?
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sõwdlan || amelaykùe || duku || wùerù
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628;|| &#660;amelaik&#616;&#614; || duku || w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614;
|-
| soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || where.GEN || frog.ABS
|}
Soldiers are hunting frogs from where?
 
 
As a specific interrogative particle, tovi puts emphasis on a particular part of the question e.g.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sõwdla || amelaeychu || tovi || wùerù
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a || &#660;amel&#603;icu || tu&#613;i || w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614;
|-
| soldier.ABS || hunt.VFCS || where.SPFC || frog.ABS
|}
Where are the soldiers ''hunting'' frogs (not doing anything else to them)?
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| wùerù || kiveli-ewn || tovi || `ròedla
|-
| w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614; || ki&#613;eli&#660;eu&#628; || tu&#613;i || &#641;&#600;&#614;d&#622;a
|-
| frog.ABS || die.VFCS || where.SPFC || red.VFCS
|}
The frog that died where was red?
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sõwdlan || amelaykùe || wùerù || `ròedla || tovi
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || &#660;amelaik&#616;&#614; || w&#616;&#614;&#641;u&#614; || &#641;&#600;&#614;d&#622;a || tu&#613;i
|-
| soldier-ERG || hunt.NFCS || frog.ABS || red.VFCS || where.SPFC
|}
Where are soldiers hunting ''red'' frogs (as opposed to some other colour)?
 
 
===Ditransitives===
 
Antarctican differs from English in that it has secundative alignment ({{lg|Secundative_language}}). Take, for example, the following sentence:
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sõwdlan || àoy || yini
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || &#660;&#604;i&#614; || jini
|-
| soldier-ERG || give.NFCS || dog.ABS
|}
A soldier is giving (something to) a dog.
 
 
This can only ever mean that the soldier is giving something to a dog, never that the soldier is giving the dog to someone.
 
 
A similar situation is found when an object pronominal infix (which makes a verb intransitive for the purposes of case marking on and positioning of the subject) is used on the verb e.g.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| asàoy || sõwdla
|-
| &#660;as&#604;i&#614; || s&#596;ud&#622;
|-
| <1PS.INC.OBJ>give.NFCS || soldier.ABS
|}
A soldier is giving (something to) us (including you).
 
 
If we want to introduce the Theme (whatever is being given), the default construction places it in the ergative case, followed by `wù /wu&#614;/ and after the recipient e.g.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sõwdlan || àoy || yini || aaehaan-ga || `wù
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || &#660;&#604;i&#614; || jini || &#660;&#603;&#720;&#967;a&#720;&#628;ga || wu&#614;
|-
| soldier-ERG || give.NFCS || dog.ABS || food-ERG || THEME
|}
A soldier is giving food to a dog.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| asàoy || sõwdla || aaehaan-ga || `wù
|-
| &#660;as&#604;i&#614; || s&#596;ud&#622; || &#660;&#603;&#720;&#967;a&#720;&#628;ga || wu&#614;
|-
| <1PS.INC.OBJ>give.NFCS || soldier.ABS || food-ERG || THEME
|}
A soldier is giving us food.
 
 
If we want to remove the Recipient from the sentence, then the verb must take the antipassive voice e.g.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| àomàoy || sõwdla || aaehaan-ga || `wù
|-
| &#660;&#604;m&#604;i&#614; || s&#596;ud&#622; || &#660;&#603;&#720;&#967;a&#720;&#628;ga || wu&#614;
|-
| <IMPV.AP>give.NFCS || soldier.ABS || food-ERG || THEME
|}
A soldier is giving food.
 
 
====Pronominal Themes====
 
If the Theme is a pronoun, then instead of `wu taking a noun before it, it is prefixed with the same prefixes that mark subject on verbs (with breathy voice spread onto them) e.g.
 
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| sõwdlan || àoy || yini || `wòewù
|-
| s&#596;ud&#622;a&#628; || &#660;&#604;i&#614; || jini || w&#600;&#614;wu&#614;
|-
| soldier-ERG || give.NFCS || dog.ABS || <1PS.INCL.PRES>THEME
|}
A soldier is giving us (including you) to a dog.
 
 
If the Recipient is omitted, then the verb takes the antipassive voice as before e.g.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| àomàoy || sõwdla || `wòewù
|-
| &#660;&#604;m&#604;i&#614; || s&#596;ud&#622;a || w&#600;&#614;wu&#614;;
|-
| <IMPV.AP>give.NFCS || soldier.ABS || <1PS.INCL.PRES>THEME
|}
A soldier is giving us (to something / someone).
 
 
Like the prefixes on verbs, these prefixes inflect for tense e.g.
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| àomàoy || sõwdla || chùewù
|-
| &#660;&#604;m&#604;i&#614; || s&#596;ud&#622;a || c&#616;&#614;wu&#614;;
|-
| <IMPV.AP>give.NFCS || soldier.ABS || <1PS.INCL.PAST>THEME
|}
A soldier was giving us (to something / someone).
 
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| àomàoy || sõwdla || `wùewù
|-
| &#660;&#604;m&#604;i&#614; || s&#596;ud&#622;a || w&#616;&#614;wu&#614;;
|-
| <IMPV.AP>give.NFCS || soldier.ABS || <1PS.INCL.FUT>THEME
|}
A soldier will be giving us (to something / someone).




[[Category:Languages]][[Category:Conlangs]]
[[Category:Languages]][[Category:Languages]][[Category:Antarctican]]

Latest revision as of 02:33, 20 January 2017

Antarctican is the most widely spoken language on the continent of Antarctica in the far future, at a time when runaway global warming has melted the icecaps and rendered most of the rest of the word uninhabitable. It evolved from Proto-Antarctican, which in turn evolved from a mixture of a wide variety of modern-day languages, among them English, Spanish, Japanese and many East Asian languages.

It has a complex phonology and morphophonology, especially in the vowel system. There are a lot of features not found in English e.g. a pitch-register system, phonemic vowel length, prestopped nasals, and ejective consonants. However in other ways the phonology is quite simple compared to English, with a very limited range of syllable shapes.

The morphosyntactic alignment is split ergative (as is the syntax), with noun suffixes following an ergative-absolutive system, but person marking on verbs following a nominative-accusative system. Nouns also inflect for alienable and inalienable possession, and they can undergo some quite complex stem changes. There is no real marking of plurality of nouns.

In the verbal morphology, transitivity is clearly marked. Verbs also inflect for person and voice. Tense and aspect are much less important.

The syntax is head-initial, and adjectives are not distinguished from verbs.

Phonology

Vowels

The pronunciation of each phoneme is listed in the tables below, preceded by its romanisation.

There are 11 monophthongs:

Antarctican monophthongs
Front Central Back
Close i /i/ ue /ɨ/ u /u/
Close-mid e /e/ oe /ɘ/ o /o/
Open-mid ae /ɛ/ ao /ɜ/ õ /ɔ/
Open a /a/ ã /ɒ/


And there are 16 diphthongs. 8 of these end in [j], and another 8 end in [w]:

Diphthongs ending in /j/
Front Central Back
Close uey /ɨj/ uy /uj/
Close-mid ey /ej/ oey /ɘi/ oy /oj/
Open-mid aey /ɛj/ aoy /ɜj/
Open ay /aj/
Diphthongs ending in /w/
Front Central Back
Close uew /ɨw/
Close-mid ew /ew/ oew /ɘu/ ow /ou/
Open-mid aew /ɛw/ aow /ɜw/ õw /ɔw/
Open aw /aw/


Vowel length

Vowel length is phonemic, on both monophthongs and diphthongs e.g.


  • kow /kou/ - something absorbed in something else, absolutive
  • koow /koːu/ - a frozen object, absolutive


Vowel Phonation

Antarctican also has a pitch register system (like Burmese and Vietnamese). Modal, tense or breathy voice can occur on either short or long vowels. Vowels with tense voice (marked with a small pharyngeal stop after the syllable e.g. /aˤ/) are pronounced with a high or rising pitch, and vowels with breathy voice (marked with a small voiced /h/ after the syllable e.g. /aʱ/) are pronounced with a low or falling pitch. This distinction is phonemic e.g.


  • kow /kou/ - something absorbed in something else, absolutive
  • ków /kouˤ/ - bigot, absolutive


Tense voice cannot occur on high vowels /i/, /ɨ/, /u/, nor on diphthongs beginning with these vowels. Breathy voice cannot occur on low vowels /a/, /ɒ/, nor on diphthongs beginning with these vowels.

The vowel õ /ɔ/ cannot take breathy voice, and when it takes tense voice, it is marked with a circumflex accent i.e. ô.


Floating Phonation

Similar to floating tones in Bantu languages (see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating_tone), the beginnings of words in Antarctican can have floating phonation (unmarked for modal phonation, written with ' before the word for tense phonation, and ` before the word for breathy phonation). As an example, the following words are pronounced identically when not inflected:


ká /kaˤ/ - coconut milk, absolutive

'ká /ˤkaˤ/ - fence, absolutive


However, when they take the prefix wa- (3rd person topicalised possessive), they are different:


waká /wakaˤ/ - his / her coconut milk, absolutive

'wáká /ˤwaˤkaˤ/ - his / her fence, absolutive


Words beginning with a glottal stop only ever have modal floating phonation e.g.

ámáelái /ʔaˤmɛˤlaiˤ/ - prey, absolutive

wa-ámáelái /waʔaˤmɛˤlaiˤ/ - his / her prey, absolutive (never wá-ámáelái)


Vowel Mutation

When a process such as the above changes the phonation of a vowel, often its quality changes as well. E.g. the possessive prefix for inclusive "we" is yew- /jeu/, however, when it acquires tense voice, it becomes 'yáew- /ˤjɛuˤ/ e.g.


yewká /jeukaˤ/ - our (including you) coconut milk, absolutive

'yáewká /ˤjɛuˤkaˤ/ - our (including you) fence, absolutive


Also, the quality of a modally voiced vowel sometimes changes if the next vowel also has modal voice (this also depends on whether the intervening consonant is voice or voiceless). In the case of the prefix yew- /jeu/, this changes to yoew- /jɘu/ if the intervening consonant is voiceless (other than a glottal stop) e.g.


tõn /tɔɴ/ - change (as in coins, money), absolutive

yoewtõn /jɘutɔɴ/ - our (including you) change, absolutive


These changes are given in the table below:


Tense voice Breathy voice Modal, normal Modal, before a voiced consonant followed by another modal vowel Modal, before a voiceless consonant followed by another modal vowel
éy /eiˤ/ ùe /ɨʱ/ i /i/ i /i/ ue /ɨ/
óey /ɘiˤ/ ùey /ɨʱ/ ii /iː/ ii /iː/ uue /ɨː/
áe ~ áae /ɛ(ː)ˤ/ òe ~ òoe /ɘ(ː)ʱ/ e ~ ee /e(ː)/ e ~ ee /e(ː)/ oe ~ ooe /ɘ(ː)/
á ~ áa /a(ː)ˤ/ ào ~ àao /ɜ(ː)ʱ/ a ~ aa /a(ː) a ~ aa /a(ː)/ ae ~ aae /ɛ(ː)/
ów /ouˤ/ ù /uʱ/ u /u/ o /o/ u /u/
óew /ɘuˤ/ ùew /ɨuʱ/ uu /uː/ ow /ou/ uu /uː/
áo /ɜˤ/ ò /oʱ/ õ /ɔ/ ã /ɒ/ õ /ɔ/
áey ~ áaey /ɛ(ː)iˤ/ òey ~ òoey /ɘ(ː)iʱ/ ey ~ eey /e(ː)i/ ey ~ eey /e(ː)i/ oey ~ ooey /ɘ(ː)i/
áy ~ áay /a(ː)iˤ/ àoy ~ àaoy /ɜ(ː)iʱ/ ay ~ aay /a(ː)i/ ay ~ aay /a(ː)i/ aey ~ aaey /ɛ(ː)i/
óy ~ óoy /o(ː)iˤ/ ùy ~ ùuy /u(ː)iˤ/ uy ~ uuy /u(ː)i/ oy ~ ooy /o(ː)i/ uy ~ uuy /u(ː)i/
áew ~ áaew /ɛ(ː)uˤ/ òew ~ òoew /ɘ(ː)uʱ/ ew ~ eew /e(ː)u/ ew ~ eew /e(ː)u/ oew ~ ooew /ɘ(ː)u/
áw ~ áaw /a(ː)uˤ/ àow ~ àaow /ɜ(ː)uʱ/ aw ~ aaw /a(ː)u/ aw ~ aaw /a(ː)u/ aew ~ aaew /ɛ(ː)u/
ôw ~ ôow /ɔ(ː)wˤ/ òw ~ òow /o(ː)uʱ/ ow ~ oow /o(ː)u/ õw ~ õow /ɔ(ː)u/ ow ~ oow /o(ː)u/

Phonation Restrictions

However, not every vowel can have every kind of phonation e.g. tense voice cannot occur on high vowels /i/, /ɨ/, /u/, nor on diphthongs beginning with these vowels. Similarly, breathy voice cannot occur on low vowels /a/, /ɒ/, nor on front vowels, nor on diphthongs beginning with these vowels. The permissible combinations of vowel quality and phonation are listed in detail here (Antarctican/Phonation restrictions):

Consonants

The pronunciation of each phoneme is listed in the table below, followed by its romanisation in brackets.

Antarctican consonants
Bilabial Alveolar Palatal Velar / Uvular Glottal / Placeless
plain palatalised central lateral
Nasals plain m /m/ my /mʲ/ n /n/ ny /ɲ/ ng /ŋ/ n /ɴ/
pre-stopped pm /pm/ pmy /pmʲ/ tn /tn/ cn /cɲ/ kn /kŋ/


Stops/Affricates ejective pq /p'/ pqy /p'ʲ/ tq /t'/ tql /tɬ'/ cqh /c' ~ tɕ'/ kq /k'/
voiceless p /p/ py /pʲ/ t /t/ tl /tɬ/ ch /c ~ tɕ/ k /k/ - /ʔ/
voiced b /b/ by /bʲ/ d /d/ dl /dɮ/ j /ɟ ~ dʑ/ g /g/
Fricatives voiceless f /f/ fy /fʲ/ s /s/ hl /ɬ/ sh /ç ~ ɕ/ h /χ ~ x/
voiced z /z/
Approximant w /w/ v /ɥ/ l /l ~ ɹ ~ ʎ/ y /j/ r /ʁ ~ ʀ/


  • Consonants separated with a tilde (~) are not separate phonemes but are either allophones or in free variation e.g. /ɟ ~ dʑ/ indicates that there is a single phoneme that can either be pronounced [ɟ] or [dʑ]. The most common pronunciation is always listed first.
  • The glottal stop is unmarked word initially (since all words must begin with consonants), and is marked by a hyphen elsewhere.
  • Prestopped nasals e.g. /tn/, /pm/ etc., pattern as voiceless and as nasals (and thus sonorants) in terms of the phonology. They are only found between syllables with modal vowel phonation (or modal voice floating phonation if at the beginning of a word).
  • The placeless nasal /ɴ/ is only found at the end of syllables. Before a glottal stop or at the end of a phrase, it nasalises the preceding vowel. Otherwise it assimilates to the same place of articulation as the following consonant e.g. it becomes [n] before /d/, [m] before /b/ etc.
  • Voiced obstruents (stops, fricatives and affricates) are only found in four cases.
  1. Separating two syllables with modal voice (or a modal voice floating phonation if at the start of a word).
  2. After a syllable containing breathy phonation (or a breathy voice floating phonation if at the start of a word) and before a syllable containing modal phonation.
  3. Separating two syllables with breathy voice (or a breathy voice floating phonation if at the start of a word). In this case they are pronounced with breathy voice, like the murmured/voiced aspirated consonants of many Indian languages.
  4. /z/ can also be found before vowels with tense voice.
  • Fricatives other than /s/ and /z/ (spirant / non-sibilant fricatives) are only found separating two syllables with modal voice (or modal voice floating phonation if at the beginning of a word), or separating two syllables with tense voice (or tense voice floating phonation if at the beginning of a word).
  • Ejectives are only ever found separating two syllables with tense voice (or tense voice floating phonation if at the beginning of a word).
  • The velar nasals /kŋ/ and /ŋ/ never occur at the beginning of words.
  • The alveolar stops /t/ and /d/, and the velar fricative /χ/ are never found before /i/ and /ɨ/ (with any phonation), nor before tense voice /eˤ/ and /ɘˤ/, nor before diphthongs starting with these.
  • The phoneme /l/ is pronounced as a palatal lateral [ʎ] before a high vowel, [ɹ] before a vowel with tense voice (high vowels cannot have tense voice), and [l] elsewhere.
  • Unpalatalised labial consonants can be velarised or doubly-articulated consonants (e.g. /p/ can be pronounced as [pˠ] or [kp]). This is especially the case with /w/ and before front vowels).


Consonant Harmony

Consonants in Antarctican can be grouped into two sets, soft and hard. Many affixes have two alternate forms, one with a soft consonant and one with a hard. When they attach to a word that begins with a soft consonant, the form of the affix with the soft consonant is used. If the word begins with a hard consonant, the form of the affix with the hard consonant is used. The soft consonants are the palatal consonants, the palatalized labial consonants, and the lateral consonants. All the other consonants are hard.

For example, the antipassive voice is formed by an infix that comes after the first consonant of a word. For words that begin with a hard consonant, the infix is am /am/ (which contains a hard consonant) e.g.

  • zuutlòeji /zuːtɬɘʱɟi/ - to know (a person), indirect
  • zamuutlòeji /zamuːtɬɘʱɟi/ - to know (a person), indirect, antipassive

However, if the word begins with a soft consonant, the infix is emy /emʲ/ e.g.

  • pyi-uu /pʲiʔuː/ - to purify, indirect
  • pyemyi-uu /pʲemʲiʔuː/ - to purify, indirect, antipassive
  • hli-õ /ɬiʔɔ/ - to perform, indirect
  • hlemyi-õ /ɬemʲiʔɔ/ - to perform, indirect, antipassive (not *(hlemi-õ) /ɬmiʔɔ/)

Phonotactics

Syllable structures are extremely limited, with only shapes being CV and CVɴ.


Distribution and Dialects

Antarctican is spoken across a large continent, by a diversity of cultures. As would be expected, there is significant dialectical variation within the language. The differences are most pronounced in the vocabulary, less in the morphology, and even less in the syntax and phonology.

Most speakers of Antarctican will also be bilingual in a second language that is only spoken in their local region. Typically, Antarctican will be used in more formal situations, and the local language used with family and friends. However, it is very common for regional varieties of Antarctican to borrow words from other local languages (which will typically have many similar features to Antarctican due to the Antarctican Sprachbund).

Noun Morphology

Main article: Antarctican Nouns

Nouns inflect for case either through suffixation or a change of the final vowel, and possession (via prefixes). Unlike many European languages nouns do not inflect for either gender or number.

Verb / Adjective Morphology

Main article: Antarctican Verbs

There is no distinction between adjectives and verbs in Antarctican. Instead of attributive adjectives like “good”, “bad”, “strong”, “weak”, there are descriptive verbs meaning “to be good”, “to be bad” and so on.

Syntax

While on the surface Antarctican Syntax may look superficially similar to English (i.e. they both permit SVO sentences and place relative clauses after the noun), it is actually is quite different from English, being topic-prominent and syntactically ergative.

Retrieved from "https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Antarctican&oldid=63559"