Chlouvānem/Morphology: Difference between revisions
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* '''benefactive-trigger''' (''hulābādmęlīnūkire tadgeroe''); | * '''benefactive-trigger''' (''hulābādmęlīnūkire tadgeroe''); | ||
* '''antibenefactive-trigger''' (''tadlunsusūkire tadgeroe''); | * '''antibenefactive-trigger''' (''tadlunsusūkire tadgeroe''); | ||
* '''locative-trigger''' ('' | * '''locative-trigger''' (''yuñcūkire tadgeroe''); | ||
* '''dative-trigger''' (''męliausire tadgeroe'') (mostly ditransitive verbs); | * '''dative-trigger''' (''męliausire tadgeroe'') (mostly ditransitive verbs); | ||
* '''instrumental-trigger''' (''drausire tadgeroe'') (morphologically possible for all verbs, but not always meaningful). | * '''instrumental-trigger''' (''drausire tadgeroe'') (morphologically possible for all verbs, but not always meaningful). | ||
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The last inflectional category of Chlouvānem verbs is the '''mood''' (''darišam'', pl. ''darišye''). Chlouvānem grammarians traditionally distinguish only three moods, which are those that cannot be combined: | The last inflectional category of Chlouvānem verbs is the '''mood''' (''darišam'', pl. ''darišye''). Chlouvānem grammarians traditionally distinguish only three moods, which are those that cannot be combined: | ||
* '''indicative''' ('' | * '''indicative''' (''chlåñjausire darišam'') - the realis mood; | ||
* '''optative''' (''purmanūkire darišam'') - used to express wishes or hopes, as well as orders or commands; | * '''optative''' (''purmanūkire darišam'') - used to express wishes or hopes, as well as orders or commands; | ||
* '''subjunctive''' (''milkausire darišam'') - used to express general advices (jussive use), purpose (supine use), unreal things that may happen or might have happened, and also syntactically conditioned by some particles. | * '''subjunctive''' (''milkausire darišam'') - used to express general advices (jussive use), purpose (supine use), unreal things that may happen or might have happened, and also syntactically conditioned by some particles. | ||
There are a few more forms that can't be strictly considered moods because they can appear in all of the five actual moods, and are thus called ''''' | There are a few more forms that can't be strictly considered moods because they can appear in all of the five actual moods, and are thus called '''''junya''''', pl. '''''junyai''''' (literally "shade, hue, dye") by Chlouvānem grammarians: they are actually regular derivational patterns, that are considered inflectional due to them being possible for all verbs. There are four ''juniai'': | ||
* '''desiderative''' ('' | * '''desiderative''' (''daudyūkire junya'') - used to express a desire or will (e.g. I want to X); | ||
* '''necessitative''' (''rileyūkire | * '''necessitative''' (''rileyūkire junya'') - used to express need or obligation (e.g. I have to X); | ||
* '''potential''' (''novire | * '''potential''' (''novire junya'') - used to express the ability to do something (e.g. I can [= am able to] X, also "I may [= it is possible that I] X") | ||
* '''permissive''' (''drippūkire | * '''permissive''' (''drippūkire junya'') - used to express the permission to do something (e.g. I can [= I’m allowed to] X) | ||
Finally, there are a further two forms which are called "secondary moods" (''šudarišam'', pl. ''-šye''). They are two '''consequential moods''', the first one expressing ''cause'' (e.g. “because X”), and the other ''opposition'' (e.g. “although X”).<br/> | Finally, there are a further two forms which are called "secondary moods" (''šudarišam'', pl. ''-šye''). They are two '''consequential moods''', the first one expressing ''cause'' (e.g. “because X”), and the other ''opposition'' (e.g. “although X”).<br/> | ||
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In four basic verbs, ''-yā-'' in the infinitive and most stems becomes ''-im-'' in the present and in the subjunctive. These are: | In four basic verbs, ''-yā-'' in the infinitive and most stems becomes ''-im-'' in the present and in the subjunctive. These are: | ||
* ''-tyāke'' (all verbs meaning "to stay", such as '' | * ''-tyāke'' (all verbs meaning "to stay", such as ''tatyāke'') — ''-timē, -tyāk, -(ɂ)atyā'' | ||
* ''vjyāke'' (to grate, grind) — ''vjimē, vjyāk, avjyā'' | * ''vjyāke'' (to grate, grind) — ''vjimē, vjyāk, avjyā'' | ||
* ''myāke'' (to carefully look, examine) — ''mimē, myāk, amyā'' | * ''myāke'' (to carefully look, examine) — ''mimē, myāk, amyā'' | ||
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* ''khluke'' “to search, look for” = ''khlu- → ukhlu-'' | * ''khluke'' “to search, look for” = ''khlu- → ukhlu-'' | ||
* ''hilkake'' “to dye, colour” = ''hilk- → ihilk-'' | * ''hilkake'' “to dye, colour” = ''hilk- → ihilk-'' | ||
* ''męlike'' “to give” = '' | * ''męlike'' “to give” = ''męly → emęly-'' | ||
'''æ''' uses '''i'''; '''o''', '''å''', and '''ṛ''' use '''a''' (except for ''ṛ-'' initial verbs, which have ''ṝ-''); diphthongs usually only take their first component, exceptions being '''ai''' (→ e) and '''au''' (→ o): | '''æ''' uses '''i'''; '''o''', '''å''', and '''ṛ''' use '''a''' (except for ''ṛ-'' initial verbs, which have ''ṝ-''); diphthongs usually only take their first component, exceptions being '''ai''' (→ e) and '''au''' (→ o): | ||
* ''dældake'' “to speak” = ''dæld- → idæld-'' | * ''dældake'' “to speak” = ''dæld- → idæld-'' | ||
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* Thematic verbs add '''-ake'''; | * Thematic verbs add '''-ake'''; | ||
* All other verbs just add '''-ke'''. There are a few cases where this is not always how it surfaces: | * All other verbs just add '''-ke'''. There are a few cases where this is not always how it surfaces: | ||
** verbs ending in | ** verbs ending in ''-y-'' turn it into the vowel ''-i-'' (e.g. ''męly-ke'' → ''męlike'' (to give)); | ||
** verbs whose roots end in any single or postnasal unvoiced dental, retroflex, or palatal stop or affricate, assimilate the ''-k-'' of the suffix (e.g. ''kit-ke'' → ''kitte'' (to put, place)); | ** verbs whose roots end in any single or postnasal unvoiced dental, retroflex, or palatal stop or affricate, assimilate the ''-k-'' of the suffix (e.g. ''kit-ke'' → ''kitte'' (to put, place)); | ||
** verbs whose roots end in any single or postnasal voiced, non-velar stop, assimilate the voicing of the suffix ''-k-'' (e.g. ''dįb-ke'' → ''dįbge'' (to kick)); | ** verbs whose roots end in any single or postnasal voiced, non-velar stop, assimilate the voicing of the suffix ''-k-'' (e.g. ''dįb-ke'' → ''dįbge'' (to kick)); | ||
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Knowing the root form of the verb is necessary as two different roots may have the same infinitive, e.g. ''mulke'' for both ''mul-'' "to drink" (''molu'', ''mulau'', ''umulim'') and ''mun-'' "to be able to" (''maunu'', ''munau'', ''umunim''). | Knowing the root form of the verb is necessary as two different roots may have the same infinitive, e.g. ''mulke'' for both ''mul-'' "to drink" (''molu'', ''mulau'', ''umulim'') and ''mun-'' "to be able to" (''maunu'', ''munau'', ''umunim''). | ||
The infinitive can also be used as a noun, declining as ''-eh'' ones and getting a final ''-h'' in the direct case. Compared to derived ''-anah'' nouns, which denote a process, the nominalized infinitive is often more gnomic or perfective in meaning (''dhūlti baucanah'' makes sense, meaning "learning to write", while ''dholtani baucanah'' is grammatically correct but meaningless), but it can also be synonymous in some expressions (e.g. '' | The infinitive can also be used as a noun, declining as ''-eh'' ones and getting a final ''-h'' in the direct case. Compared to derived ''-anah'' nouns, which denote a process, the nominalized infinitive is often more gnomic or perfective in meaning (''dhūlti baucanah'' makes sense, meaning "learning to write", while ''dholtani baucanah'' is grammatically correct but meaningless), but it can also be synonymous in some expressions (e.g. ''nenyai naviṣyi dholtanęs væse'' or ''nenyai naviṣyi dhūltęs væse'', both meaning "while writing this book" — if a distinction should be rendered in English, the first one would be translated "during the writing process of this book"). | ||
===Hues ('' | ===Hues (''junyai'')=== | ||
Chlouvānem verbs are typically defined by the three (four) stems detailed above in the verb class section: present, past, perfect, and infinitive stem. | Chlouvānem verbs are typically defined by the three (four) stems detailed above in the verb class section: present, past, perfect, and infinitive stem. | ||
The four "hues" (better known by their native term of '' | The four "hues" (better known by their native term of ''junyai'', sg. ''junya'') are regularly formed verb forms with different meanings: desiderative, necessitative, potential, and permissive. They are not considered moods because each of them may be found in all three Chlouvānem moods, even though they lack an infinitive form. All of them are built starting from the infinitive stem. | ||
====General consonant reduplication rules==== | ====General consonant reduplication rules==== | ||
The following rules are used in reduplicating the initial consonant while forming '' | The following rules are used in reduplicating the initial consonant while forming ''junya'' stems, as well as in the derivation of frequentative verbs. Variations on these rules are explained when referring to a particular ''junya''. | ||
Reduplication adds the first consonant of the verb (except prefixes) and its first vowel (always oral short).There are however some special rules followed in reduplicating: | Reduplication adds the first consonant of the verb (except prefixes) and its first vowel (always oral short).There are however some special rules followed in reduplicating: | ||
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* '''h-''' is reduplicated as '''k-'''; | * '''h-''' is reduplicated as '''k-'''; | ||
* '''k-''' as '''š-''';
| * '''k-''' as '''š-''';
| ||
* ''' | * '''ƾ-''' as '''ƾ-''', but in the root it becomes '''ɂ'''. | ||
* '''l-''' in the initial clusters '''lk-''', '''lkh-''', '''lg-''', or '''lgh-''' reduplicates as '''n-'''. | * '''l-''' in the initial clusters '''lk-''', '''lkh-''', '''lg-''', or '''lgh-''' reduplicates as '''n-'''. | ||
** Some roots beginning with '''l''' have '''ħ''' as their reduplication, most notably ''lun-'' → ''ħuloṃs-'' (to go on foot, walk (monodirectional)). This is because these roots began with the Pre-Chlouvānem cluster *ħl, which was then simplified to just '''l'''; originally, the reduplication was also regular (e.g. *ħlun → *ħuħloṃs-). | ** Some roots beginning with '''l''' have '''ħ''' as their reduplication, most notably ''lun-'' → ''ħuloṃs-'' (to go on foot, walk (monodirectional)). This is because these roots began with the Pre-Chlouvānem cluster *ħl, which was then simplified to just '''l'''; originally, the reduplication was also regular (e.g. *ħlun → *ħuħloṃs-). | ||
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* '''-š-s''' becomes '''-kṣ'''; | * '''-š-s''' becomes '''-kṣ'''; | ||
* '''-y-s''' becomes '''-š'''; | * '''-y-s''' becomes '''-š'''; | ||
* '''-l-s''' becomes '''- | * '''-l-s''' becomes '''-ly''' when prevocalic and '''-lš''' when preconsonantal, but '''-rl-s''' always becomes '''-rely-'''. | ||
The resulting stem, athematic, is used as the present and past stem. The perfect stem vocalic augment is short if the vowel in the root is long (or ''o, å'', or a diphthong), otherwise it is long (cf. ''nanāmvsute'' "I want to crush", ''ananāmvsaṃte'' "I have wanted to crush" vs. ''šukhlusute'' "I want to search", ''ūšukhlusaṃte'' "I have wanted to search"). | The resulting stem, athematic, is used as the present and past stem. The perfect stem vocalic augment is short if the vowel in the root is long (or ''o, å'', or a diphthong), otherwise it is long (cf. ''nanāmvsute'' "I want to crush", ''ananāmvsaṃte'' "I have wanted to crush" vs. ''šukhlusute'' "I want to search", ''ūšukhlusaṃte'' "I have wanted to search"). | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! rowspan=2 | Indicative<br/>and Optative !! Present<br/>Opt. Imperfective | ! rowspan=2 | Indicative<br/>and Optative !! Present<br/>Opt. Imperfective | ||
| -u || -i || colspan=3 | -ē || -ice || -sme || - | | -u || -i || colspan=3 | -ē || -ice || -sme || -dya || -de || -icen || -mim || -šin || colspan=3 | -āhai || -auja | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Past<br/>Opt. Perfective | ! Past<br/>Opt. Perfective | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! rowspan=2 | Subjunctive !! Imperfective | ! rowspan=2 | Subjunctive !! Imperfective | ||
| -ati || - | | -ati || -īs || colspan=4 | -ī || -īndu || -īndi || colspan=2 | -ī || -īnam || -īnes || colspan=4 | -ī | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Perfective | ! Perfective | ||
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Its conjugation is mostly regular but has some particularities: | Its conjugation is mostly regular but has some particularities: | ||
* The indicative present exterior is as for ''ah-verbs'' but shortened: ''tilah - tilši - tilah - tilāhai - tilądia - tiląde - tiląmim - tiląšin - tilah''; the present interior is as for all regular ''ah-verbs'' (''tilęru, tilęri, tilęre...''). | * The indicative present exterior is as for ''ah-verbs'' but shortened: ''tilah - tilši - tilah - tilāhai - tilądia - tiląde - tiląmim - tiląšin - tilah''; the present interior is as for all regular ''ah-verbs'' (''tilęru, tilęri, tilęre...''). | ||
* The causative forms show haplology of *il-ild to '' | * The causative forms show haplology of *il-ild to ''ild'': ''tildu, tildi, tilde...'' interior ''tildru, tildri, tildre...'' | ||
* The indicative past exterior uses a stem ''ny-'' in the singular and dual and just ''ni-'' in the plural: ''nyau - nyei - nyek - nyaram - nyares - nyadat - nībhe - nīṣe - nyaika''; the interior and the causative are regular using ''ny-er-'', ''ny-eld(r)-'' (''nyerau, nyerei, nyerek...'' ''nyeldau, nyeldei, nyeldek...'' ''nyeldrau, nyeldrei, nyeldrek...''). | * The indicative past exterior uses a stem ''ny-'' in the singular and dual and just ''ni-'' in the plural: ''nyau - nyei - nyek - nyaram - nyares - nyadat - nībhe - nīṣe - nyaika''; the interior and the causative are regular using ''ny-er-'', ''ny-eld(r)-'' (''nyerau, nyerei, nyerek...'' ''nyeldau, nyeldei, nyeldek...'' ''nyeldrau, nyeldrei, nyeldrek...''). | ||
* The perfect exterior has the stem ''nīl-'' and has a shortened 1PL and 2PL: ''nīlam - nīles - nīla - nīlara - nīlari - nīla - nīlьma - nīlьša - nīla''. The interior has '' | * The perfect exterior has the stem ''nīl-'' and has a shortened 1PL and 2PL: ''nīlam - nīles - nīla - nīlara - nīlari - nīla - nīlьma - nīlьša - nīla''. The interior has ''nīlr-'' (''nīlram, nīlres, nīlrā...'') and the causative ''nīld-'' (''nīldam, nīldes, nīldā...'' ''nīldṛm, nīldṛs, nīldirā...''). | ||
* The future is regular, but the endings (as well as the interior and the causative forms) all start with ''e'' instead of ''i'': ''tileṣyam, tileṣyes, tileṣya...'' Note that the causative forms have dissimilation of the stem to ''tireld-'' (''tireldiṣyam...'' ''tireldirṣyam...''). | * The future is regular, but the endings (as well as the interior and the causative forms) all start with ''e'' instead of ''i'': ''tileṣyam, tileṣyes, tileṣya...'' Note that the causative forms have dissimilation of the stem to ''tireld-'' (''tireldiṣyam...'' ''tireldirṣyam...''). | ||
* The subjunctive imperfective exterior is regular with the stem ''til-'' in the 1SG (''tilati'') and only ''t'' in the others ('' | * The subjunctive imperfective exterior is regular with the stem ''til-'' in the 1SG (''tilati'') and only ''t'' in the others (''tīs, tī...''). The interior has ''tiler-'' and the causative ''tireld-''. | ||
* The subjunctive perfective exterior always has the stem ''t-'' (''tēta, tēti, tēt...''); the interior has '' | * The subjunctive perfective exterior always has the stem ''t-'' (''tēta, tēti, tēt...''); the interior has ''tilr-'' and the causative ''tild-'') | ||
* The optative is completely regular, with the (regular) stem ''tilūy-''. | * The optative is completely regular, with the (regular) stem ''tilūy-''. | ||
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* '''-mǣ''' for instrumental-trigger voice; | * '''-mǣ''' for instrumental-trigger voice; | ||
* '''-(m)bi''' for dative-trigger voice. | * '''-(m)bi''' for dative-trigger voice. | ||
Examples of voice marking are '' | Examples of voice marking are ''męlyē'' (he/she/it is given) — ''męlyegde'' (he/she/it gives) (and ''męlyu'' (I am given) → ''męlyute'' "I give") — ''męlyēkæ'' (something is given for him/her/it) — ''męlyētū'' (something is given against him/her/it) — ''męlyērā'' (something is given in him/her/it) — ''męlyēmǣ'' (something is given with him/her/it) — ''męlyēmbi'' (something is given to him/her/it). | ||
In prefixed verbs, voice marking is a bit different as the voice marker is inserted between the prefix and the stem, thus forms like ''yāyųlē'' (he/she/it is eaten too much) → ''yāteyųlē'' (he/she/it eats too much). Saṃdhi is applied if needed, e.g. "something is eaten for him/her/it directly from a tree" is ''taktæyųlē'' (morphemically ''tad-kæ-yųlē'', verb ''tadyųlake''). | In prefixed verbs, voice marking is a bit different as the voice marker is inserted between the prefix and the stem, thus forms like ''yāyųlē'' (he/she/it is eaten too much) → ''yāteyųlē'' (he/she/it eats too much). Saṃdhi is applied if needed, e.g. "something is eaten for him/her/it directly from a tree" is ''taktæyųlē'' (morphemically ''tad-kæ-yųlē'', verb ''tadyųlake''). | ||
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Impersonal verbs, in Chlouvānem, are those verbs that are defective and only conjugated in third person exterior (with the partial exception of ''giṃšake'') and only used in patient-trigger voice. There are six such -basic- verbs: | Impersonal verbs, in Chlouvānem, are those verbs that are defective and only conjugated in third person exterior (with the partial exception of ''giṃšake'') and only used in patient-trigger voice. There are six such -basic- verbs: | ||
* ''gårḍake'' (to be meant to) | * ''gårḍake'' (to be meant to) | ||
* '' | * ''hælte'' (to be moved, touched) | ||
* ''maṣvake'' (to feel compassion, pity) | * ''maṣvake'' (to feel compassion, pity) | ||
* ''ñæṃħake'' (to repent, to feel remorse, to be sorry for) | * ''ñæṃħake'' (to repent, to feel remorse, to be sorry for) | ||
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These verbs all have their cause in the exessive case (or a subjunctive verb) and the affected being in the dative; ''gårḍake'' usually only has a subjunctive. Examples: | These verbs all have their cause in the exessive case (or a subjunctive verb) and the affected being in the dative; ''gårḍake'' usually only has a subjunctive. Examples: | ||
: ''loh | : ''loh tamyāt maivat hæltek'' “what (s)he said <small>(literally: his/her word)</small> moved me.” | ||
: ''nīdrēta loh ñæṃħē'' “I’m sorry for how I behaved.” | : ''nīdrēta loh ñæṃħē'' “I’m sorry for how I behaved.” | ||
: ''sęi tū | : ''sęi tū pryūsimęlyati gårḍek'' “you were meant to give it back to me” (literally: it was meant that you give it back to me<ref>Note that in such a phrase the perfective subjunctive would have a different meaning, namely “to have already given it back to me”.</ref>) . | ||
Derived forms usually behave as impersonal too, like ''taprābake'' (to hate) — e.g. '' | Derived forms usually behave as impersonal too, like ''taprābake'' (to hate) — e.g. ''taprāblelyom taprābiṣya'' "haters gonna hate". | ||
===Irregular verbs=== | ===Irregular verbs=== | ||
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Excluding the highly irregular ''jalle'' and ''tilah'', treated in the next sections, the other verbs with suppletive stems are: | Excluding the highly irregular ''jalle'' and ''tilah'', treated in the next sections, the other verbs with suppletive stems are: | ||
* ''lulke'' (to go on foot, to walk (monodirectional)) — ''lun-, dāmek, elīsa'' | * ''lulke'' (to go on foot, to walk (monodirectional)) — ''lun-, dāmek, elīsa'' | ||
** The singular present indicative forms are irregular ''lå, lin, liven'' - the other ones are regular, non-ablauting (''lunasme, | ** The singular present indicative forms are irregular ''lå, lin, liven'' - the other ones are regular, non-ablauting (''lunasme, lunadya...''). | ||
** Also has the irregular optative stem ''lūy-'' (instead of expected *lunūy-). | ** Also has the irregular optative stem ''lūy-'' (instead of expected *lunūy-). | ||
* ''milke'' (to take, seize, catch, capture, get) — ''milūk-, milkek, ilaka'' | * ''milke'' (to take, seize, catch, capture, get) — ''milūk-, milkek, ilaka'' | ||
** The singular present indicative forms use the stem ''milk-'': ''milku, milki, milkē'' - the other ones are regular (''milūkṣme, | ** The singular present indicative forms use the stem ''milk-'': ''milku, milki, milkē'' - the other ones are regular (''milūkṣme, milūgdya...''). | ||
** Also has the irregular stem ''mūṃchl-'' for the desiderative junia. | ** Also has the irregular stem ''mūṃchl-'' for the desiderative junia. | ||
* ''mṛcce'' (to run (monodirectional)) — ''marcē, pañcek, amṛca'' | * ''mṛcce'' (to run (monodirectional)) — ''marcē, pañcek, amṛca'' | ||
** Suppletive in the past stem only (pañc-). The present stem is ablauting. | ** Suppletive in the past stem only (pañc-). The present stem is ablauting. | ||
* ''mišake'' (to see) — ''mešē, āsmik, imiša'' | * ''mišake'' (to see) — ''mešē, āsmik, imiša'' | ||
** Suppletive in the past stem only ( | ** Suppletive in the past stem only (āsmy-). The present stem is ablauting. | ||
* ''lilke'' (to live) — ''lilah, lilek, lælī'' | * ''lilke'' (to live) — ''lilah, lilek, lælī'' | ||
** Suppletive in the perfect only. ''-ah'' verb in the present, non-ablauting. | ** Suppletive in the perfect only. ''-ah'' verb in the present, non-ablauting. | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! 2nd | ! 2nd | ||
| jelli || ekres || reri || jalṣyari || | | jelli || ekres || reri || jalṣyari || ēdya | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3rd | ! 3rd | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st | ! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st | ||
| jalim || ekāja || rima || jalṣīma || | | jalim || ekāja || rima || jalṣīma || ekmim | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 2nd | ! 2nd | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! 2nd | ! 2nd | ||
| gīndi || | | gīndi || joyadya || jijālšadya || jājalšūdya || jelādya || jījalūndya | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3rd | ! 3rd | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st | ! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st | ||
| gīnam || | | gīnam || joyamim || jijālmim || jājalšūmim || jelmim || jījalūdmim | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 2nd | ! 2nd | ||
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** ''tatiākenūkhute'' "I'm still standing" | ** ''tatiākenūkhute'' "I'm still standing" | ||
* ''imperfective subjunctive'' + ''daudike'' (to want): to want to X (alternative to the desiderative ''junia'' commonly used especially in the Northeast). If the triggered argument is the same and the trigger is agent-trigger on both, it can be omitted in the subjunctive verb: | * ''imperfective subjunctive'' + ''daudike'' (to want): to want to X (alternative to the desiderative ''junia'' commonly used especially in the Northeast). If the triggered argument is the same and the trigger is agent-trigger on both, it can be omitted in the subjunctive verb: | ||
** ''kulati(te) | ** ''kulati(te) daudyute'' "I want to talk" (= ''šukiliute'') | ||
* ''imperfective subjunctive'' + ''širgake'' (to be possible): may X (non-ambiguous alternative to the potential) | * ''imperfective subjunctive'' + ''širgake'' (to be possible): may X (non-ambiguous alternative to the potential) | ||
** ''dratite šergē'' "I may do (it)" (= ''dadrenānute'') | ** ''dratite šergē'' "I may do (it)" (= ''dadrenānute'') | ||
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Adjectival verbs may be turned into adverbs (''khladaradhausire haloe'', pl. ''khladaradhausirāhe halenī'') by simply adding '''-ęe''' to the stem. Thus: | Adjectival verbs may be turned into adverbs (''khladaradhausire haloe'', pl. ''khladaradhausirāhe halenī'') by simply adding '''-ęe''' to the stem. Thus: | ||
* ''tarlausake'' (scientific) → ''tarlausęe'' (scientifically, according to science) | * ''tarlausake'' (scientific) → ''tarlausęe'' (scientifically, according to science) | ||
* '' | * ''namęlyausake'' (stakanovist) → ''namęlyausęe'' (continuously; without any break) | ||
* ''prātūkke'' (windy) → ''prātūkęe'' (windy; like the wind) | * ''prātūkke'' (windy) → ''prātūkęe'' (windy; like the wind) | ||
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* ''chlærūm'' (light) → ''chlære'' (easily) (but note its synonym ''chlærausęe'' from the related verb ''chlærausake'' (easy)) | * ''chlærūm'' (light) → ''chlære'' (easily) (but note its synonym ''chlærausęe'' from the related verb ''chlærausake'' (easy)) | ||
* ''dilake'' (same) → ''diledile'' (exactly the same way; emphatic version of ''dilęe''<ref>''dilęe'' also has the other meaning of "the same", as in ''lili dilęe dadrāṃte'' "I have done the same". ''diledile'' does not have this other meaning.</ref> but more common.) | * ''dilake'' (same) → ''diledile'' (exactly the same way; emphatic version of ''dilęe''<ref>''dilęe'' also has the other meaning of "the same", as in ''lili dilęe dadrāṃte'' "I have done the same". ''diledile'' does not have this other meaning.</ref> but more common.) | ||
* ''ṣati'' (way, mode) suffixed to a possessive adjective forms '' | * ''ṣati'' (way, mode) suffixed to a possessive adjective forms ''lilyāṣati'' (from my point of view; my way; in my opinion), ''sāmyāṣati'' (from your point of view; your way; in your opinion), ''demyāṣati'', ''tamyāṣati'', and so on. | ||
====Underived adverbs==== | ====Underived adverbs==== | ||
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Forms expressing a continuous enhancement are made by deriving new verbs with the ''naš-'' prefix, e.g. ''yaiva pārṇame našñæñuchlire'' - (s)he becomes more beautiful each day. | Forms expressing a continuous enhancement are made by deriving new verbs with the ''naš-'' prefix, e.g. ''yaiva pārṇame našñæñuchlire'' - (s)he becomes more beautiful each day. | ||
Equatives are made by using '''e''' (like) (requiring essive case) instead of the ablative; optionally ''enūḍa'' (this much) may be added: '' | Equatives are made by using '''e''' (like) (requiring essive case) instead of the ablative; optionally ''enūḍa'' (this much) may be added: ''sąs e (enūḍa) yæyute'' "I read just as much as you". For "not as ... as", use ''gu taili'' (not as much) instead of ''enūḍa''. | ||
====Irregular forms==== | ====Irregular forms==== | ||