I Kronurum: Difference between revisions
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| Middle I Kronurum | |
|---|---|
| "that which is spoken" | |
 | |
| Pronunciation | [/ˈʔi ˈkɾo̞.nu.ɾum/] |
| Created by | Nicolás Straccia |
| Setting | Yrḳuti conworlding project |
| Native to | The Marks of Ifarka (i-Étrir, i-Jókláran, i-Fóþrhir, [...]) and some exclaves under their influence |
Northern Languages
| |
Early forms | Proto-Northern
|
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | qkm |
The language known as I Kronurum is a conlang being created and developed by Nicolás Straccia since 2013. It is part of the Yrḳuti conworlding project.
Background
The language known as I Kronurum (IK) is a part of the Northern Languages linguistic family, which populates the northern region of the central continent.
Notwithstanding the several subgroups that have split from this branch at different stages, this Central Branch of the family has been studied as a continuity in which four main stages can be identified: Ancient IK (AIK), Old IK (OIK), Middle IK (MIK; together with Early-MIK, EMIK) and Modern IK (MoIK; together with Early-MoIK, EMoIK).
The developmental stage presented in this article is that of Middle IK (MIK). At this stage, a group of OIK speakers has already moved westwards from the AIK speaker's cultural Urheimat, which was located in the plains in the northern region of the central continent. MIK is thus the main variety spoken in the region nearby and at the shores of the northern sea.
The endonym of this region is Ifarka (/ʔi.ˈfɑɾ.kɐ/), which is translated as "The Land". It is divided in several administrative provinces, called Igódánafáreþ (/ʔi.ˈgu̜.dɑi̯.nɐ.ˌfɑi̯.ɾe̞θ/; "Marks"), which hold periodical meetings regarding whichever matters would affect the generality of the hold.
Grammar
In a nutshell:
OSV
A/N
Pro-drop
[...]
PHONOLOGY
Vowels
Vowel inventory
| Front | Near-front | Central | Near-back | Back | ||
| Close | 
| |||||
| Near‑close | ||||||
| Close‑mid | ||||||
| Mid | ||||||
| Open‑mid | ||||||
| Near‑open | ||||||
| Open | ||||||
Vowel allophony
· /ɑ/ becomes /ɐ/ in unstressed syllables and /a/ in word medial unstressed syllables.
· /e̞/ becomes /ɘ/ in unstressed syllables and /ɛ/ in word medial unstressed syllables.
Umlaut and diphthongs by umlaut
In the course from Old Ikronurum to Middle Ikronurum the OIK long vowels suffered a process of diphthongization which replaced their phonemic length contrast distinction. Since there is a certain, albeit small, change in the quality of the vowels as compared with their short counterparts (lowered vowels appear to be heightened -normalized- as part of the diphthong), these are called "diphthongs by umlaut".
Evolution of the OIK long vowels through to MIK diphtongs:
| OIK | EMIK | MIK | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ⟨ā⟩ | /ɑː/ | ⟨ā⟩ | /ɑə̯/ | ⟨á⟩ | /ɑi̯/~[ai̯]~[ɐi̯] |
| ⟨ē⟩ | /eː/ | ⟨ē⟩ | /eɪ̯/ | ⟨é⟩ | /ei̯/~[ɘi̯] |
| ⟨ī⟩ | /ɪː/ | ⟨ī⟩ | /ɪi̯/ | ⟨í⟩ | /ei̯/~[ɛi̯] |
| ⟨ō⟩ | /oː/ | ⟨ō⟩ | /oʊ̯/ | ⟨ó⟩ | /u̹/~[ʊ] |
Other diphtongs
| ⟨i.o⟩ → /io̯/~/jo/(N/R) | |
| ⟨oj⟩ → /o̞j/~/oi̯/ | |
| ⟨ój⟩ → /u̜j/~/ui̯/ | "fish" strójr /ˈstɾu̜.jɾ̩/1, "fishy" strójrin /ˈstɾuj.ɾin/ [ˈstɾui̯.ɾin] |
| 1 the conservative pronunciation of strójr ranges between /ˈstɾu̜.jɾ̩/ and [ˈstɾu̹.ɟɾ̩]; a less conservative pronunciation is [ˈstɾu̹ɪ̯ɾ], which has regularized the diphthong and coalesced the word into a single syllable. | |
Consonants
Consonant inventory
| Bilabial | Labio-dental | Dental | Alveolar | Post-alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Plosive | p b | t d | k g | ʔ | ||||
| Nasal | m | n | [ɲ] | [ŋ] | ||||
| Trill | r | |||||||
| Tap or flap | ɾ | |||||||
| Fricative | [β] | f | θ ð | s | ʃ | x [ɣ] | h | |
| Lateral fric. | [ɬ] | |||||||
| Approximant | w | j | ||||||
| Lateral app. | l |
Onset mutations
| Mutation grade | ||
|---|---|---|
| 0 | 1 | 2 |
| b- /b/~/β/ | p- /p/ | f- /f/ |
| d- /d/ | ð- /ð/ | þ- /θ/ |
| f- /f/ | p- /p/ | b- /b/~/β/ |
| h- /h/~/χ/ | k- /k/ | g- /g/~/ɣ/ |
| j- /j/ | jw- /jʷ/ | ñ- /ɲ/ |
| k- /k/ | g- /g/~/ɣ/ | h- /h/~/χ/ |
| l- /l/ | l- /l / | lh- /ɬ/ |
| m- /m/ | mw- /mʷ/ | w- /w/ |
| n- /n/ | nw- /nʷ/ | ñ- /ɲ/ |
| s- /s/ | þ- /θ/ | ś- /ʃ/ |
| t- /t/ | d- /d/ | ð- /ð/ |
| w- /w/ | gw- /gʷ/ | ƕ- /hw/~/hv/ |
Onset mutations posit a great challenge for the diachronic analysis of I Kronurum. Since the previous stages of the language are not yet well documented, most of the information on this regard is a matter of scientific speculation.
Given the data available and the currently valid synchronic analysis, they are analysed as conforming a continuum of mutation grades from 0 to 2. The 0 degree of mutation is that of the onset consonant as it appears in the citation form of the root (nominative, unmarked). A first and second degree of mutation will be triggered by the prepositions governing the genitive and the accusative cases: the preposition ‹ó› governs the genitive (GEN) and triggers the first degree of mutation. The preposition ‹tró› governs the accusative (ACC) and triggers the second degree of mutation. Thus the mutations of ‹d› /d/, ‹ð› /ð/ and ‹þ› /θ/, are considered part of a continuum as in the example below.
Eg. duma {fox:nom}, ó ðumen {gen fox-gen}, tró þuma {acc fox:acc}
Some of the occurring phenomena are nasalization, labialization, palatalization, velarization, fricativization, voicing and devoicing.
Phonotaxis
Syllable structure
The structure of the longest possible syllable is (C)(C)(C)nu(C)(S), where the nucleus nu must be either a vowel or a syllabic [R] or [N]. In coda position, a cluster can end only with a continuant (S), typically either a nasal, a rhotic, or an /s/.
Sandhi
These are some situations where sandhi rules apply. Generalized rules to follow.
| -/ren/-/rin/ → -/relin/, -/ro/-/rion/ → -/rolion/ | ash-coloured, grey agoróśigrelin {agor-ó-śigren-rin} → {agor-ó-śigrelin} |
| jw+u- /jʷu/ → jub- /juβ/ [+labialization][+methatesis] | sky juska /ˈjus.kɐ/ ; of the sky ó jubsken /ʔu̹.ˈjuβs.ke̞n/ |
| -/u̜.j/- → -/ui̯/- | fish strójr /ˈstɾu̜.jɾ̩/ ; fish (pl.) strójran /ˈstɾui̯.ɾɐn/ |
| -/m/·/b/- → -/mb̥/- | small animal som breja /ˈso̞m.ˌb̥ɾe̞.jɐ/ |
| -/Vg/·/l/- → -/Vg̊l/- | portion, part, section abágli / ˈʔɑ.bai̯.g̊li / |
| -/ɾ/·/d/-, -/l/·/d/- → -/ɾ.d̥/-, -/l.d̥/- | _ balda /ˈbɑl.d̥ɐ/ |
| -/d/ → -/d̥/ | flax ljód /ˈlju̹d̥/ |
| -/ɾ/·/ð/- → -/ɾ.d/- | _ larða **/ˈlɑɾ.ðɐ/ → /ˈlɑɾ.dɐ/ |
| -/t/·/n/- → -/d/- | In the case of the attenuative infix ‹t›, e.g.:
to work, to labour hénur /ˈhei̯.nuɾ/ → to do chores hé·t·nur > hédur /ˈhei̯.duɾ/ |
| /lu/-/wa/- → /ˈlu.ʔa/- | to strike, to hit waŕtur /ˈwɑr.tuɾ/ → to beat lu·waŕtur > luaŕtur /ˈlu.ʔar.tuɾ/ |
MORPHOLOGY
Nominal morphology
Nouns are marked for case, number and definiteness. The marking of the nouns happens according to the following hierarchy:
| preposition | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| gen, acc | √noun | det | pl | and | nom, gen, acc, dat, inst, loc, all |
Grammatical case
| • Nominative |
| The nominative case marks both the subject of an intransitive verb phrase and the agent of a transitive verb phrase. It is morphologically unmarked, recognized as a null-morpheme (written as ∅; glossed: nom). The nominative singular form, being the least marked possible, is the citation form of a noun. |
| • Accusative |
| The accusative case marks the object/patient of a transitive verb and the . It is morphologically marked by the proposition tró (glossed: acc.i); traditionally, a null-morpheme (∅, glossed: acc.ii) is marked as suffixed to the noun, probably by analogy with the genitive marking. The preposition tró triggers a second degree mutation in the following onset (see Onset mutations above). |
| • Genitive |
| The genitive case conveys the following meanings: origin (procedence, ablative and partitive genitive), posession (possessive genitive), topicality (“x-gen” → “about x”), [...].
It is morphologically marked by the preposition ó (glossed GEN.I), which presents an excrecent r before a vowel, and the suffix -(e)n (glossed GEN.II); e.g. ór okren /ˈʔu̹ɾ ʔo̞.kɾe̞n/. The preposition ó triggers a first degree mutation in the following onset (see Onset mutations above). Some older genitive compounds, however, do not display the onset mutation of the second element (which follows the genitive preposition). For instance, the word hissóhéuren /ˈhi.sːu̹.hɘ.ju.ɾe̞n/ should be rendered as **hissókéuren /ˈhi.sːu̹.kɘ.ju.ɾe̞n/ (i.e. "hiddenly worm", crysalis). This is part of the Discrepance on onset mutations controversy. |
| • Dative |
| The dative case marks the theme argument of a distransitive verb phrase. |
| • Instrumental |
| The instrumental case has two basic functions: a plain instrumental marking for nouns of the inanimate and indefinite genders, and a commitative marking for animate nouns. |
| • Locative |
| The locative functions as a general locative and adessive locative. Locative phrases can be concatenated to specify a particular location within a broader location stated before (e.g. "bághirliftó, héuraftó“, "in the grove, by the river"; "tr‘ostaftó, órostenaftó lugraftó", "by him/her, in his/her hand"). |
| • Allative |
| The allative marks, as a lative case, movement towards something. It can be used as a benefactive marker. With ditransitive verbs like "to inflict“, it marks the object/patient in stead of the accusative marker → «to.inflict {x}-dat upon {Y}-all». |
Declension particles and affixes
| Case | Marker | Notes | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| nom | Nominative | ∅ | The nominative case is not marked | ||
| gen | Genitive | ó(r) _-(e)n | /ˈʔu̹ɾ/ _-/e̞n/ | preposition, suffix | Triggers mutation 1. Excrecent r before a vowel: ór okren /ˈʔu̹ɾ ʔo̞.kɾe̞n/ |
| akk | Accusative | tró | /ˈtɾu̹/ | preposition | Triggers mutation 2 |
| dat | Dative | -(r)is | -/ɾis/ | suffix | |
| instr | Instrumental/Commitative | -(n)ion | -/nio̯n/ | suffix | Inanimate nouns: instrumental. Animate nouns: comitative |
| loc | Locative/Adessive ("with", "by", "at") | -(a)ftó | -/f.ˈtu̹/ | suffix | þaneftó /θɐ.nɘf.ˈtu/, “at the house”, “at home” |
| all | Allative | -(o)rion | -/o̞.ɾio̯n/ | suffix | þanerion /ˈθɑ.nɘ.ɾio̞n/ "homebound" |
Grammatical number
[Here: singular vs. plural vs. collective]
· Plural marking
| Grammatical gender | Plural form | Example | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Animate | umlaut+-n | {´}n | ‹´›-/n/ | ‹fara› /ˈfɑ.ɾɐ/ → ‹fáran› /ˈfɑi̯.ɾɐn/ (fara-{´}an) |
| umlaut+-an | {´}n | ‹´›-/ɐn/ | ||
| Inanimate | umlaut+-ran | {´}ran | ‹´›-/ɾɐn/ | ‹þane› /ˈθɑ.nɘ/ → ‹þáneran› /ˈθɑi̯.nɘ.ɾɐn/ (þane-{´}ran) |
| umlaut+-eþ | {´}eþ | ‹´›-/eθ/ | ‹baga› /ˈbɑ.gɐ/ → ‹bágeþ› /ˈbɑi̯.geθ/ (baga-{´}eþ) | |
| Indefinite | umlaut+-aþ | aþ | -/ɐθ/ | |
Definiteness
The definiteness of a noun can be marked either with a numeral, stating the quantity of the noun, or by the determiner suffix (det) -rum (See Derivational particles and affixes below).
- When used to mark the subject of a verb in the imperative voice, it serves the function of a vocative marker.
Other forms
· Diminutives
| Grammatical gender | Diminutive form | Example | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Animate | umlaut+-(e)jar | {´}(e)jar | ‹´›-/e̞.jɐɾ/ | ‹gángrejar›, little dog |
| preposition | ‹som›* | /so̞m/ | ‹som lugr›, little hand; ‹som breja›, little animal. | |
| Inanimate | ||||
| umlaut+-þu | {´}þu | ‹´›-/θu/ | ‹bágaþu›, little eye | |
| umlaut+-li | {´}li | ‹´›-/li/ | ‹noþa›, package; ‹nódali›, bag | |
| Indefinite | umlaut+-isi | {´}(i)si | ‹´›-/isi/ | ‹iarisi›, sorrow (little emptyness) |
· Augmentatives
| Grammatical gender | Augmentative form | Example | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Animate | -ónr | (ó)nr | -/u̹.nɾ̩/ | ‹gangrónr›, big dog |
| preposition | ‹det›* | /de̞t/ | ‹det koŕa›, big door; ‹det hlár›, big flower. | |
| Inanimate | ||||
| -lår | lår | -/lɑɾ/ | ‹faltalår›, big table | |
| Indefinite | -(a)śar | (a)śar | -/a.ʃɐɾ/ | ‹grébaśar›, great harm |
* The use of the particles ‹det› and ‹som› as diminutive and augmentative particles respectively may not be confused with their use in other forms. For the former, for instance, forms such as "x-ful", "very x, "having x (n.)" or "very x (adj.)", since it is not bound to the word it modifies, neither as an affix+word lexicalization (as in ‹detjalatti›, expected, from ‹det› -"with, having"- and ‹i-alatti› -"expectation"-); nor as an affix+word construction (as in ‹det-hjol›, with walls, walled, from ‹det› -"with, having"- and ‹hjol› -wall-).
Many of this both forms, diminutives and augmentatives, have been lexicalized, mainly in derivation of nouns of inanimate and indeterminate grammatical gender.
Personal pronouns
Personal pronouns are declined for grammatical case in the same manner as nouns. For the instrumental (inst), locative (loc) and allative (all) cases in the third person, the declined form is that of the third person indefinite (3s.ind and 3p.ind) for all grammatical genders.
| Person | Grammatical case | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| nom | gen | acc | dat | inst | loc | all | |||
| Singular | 1 | ‹angr› /ˈʔɑŋ.gr̩/ |
‹ór angren› /ˈʔu̜ɾ ˈʔɑŋ.gɾɘn/ |
‹tró angr› /ˈtɾu̜ ˈʔɑŋ.gr̩/ |
‹angris› /ˈʔɑŋ.gɾis/ |
‹angrion› /ˈʔɑŋ.gɾio̯n/ |
‹angraftó› /ʔɑŋ.gɾɐf.ˈtu̹/ |
‹angorion› /ˈʔɑŋ.go̞.ɾio̯n/ | |
| 2 | ‹setr› /ˈse̞.tr̩/ |
‹ó þetren› /ʔu̹ ˈθe̞.tɾɘn/ |
‹tró śetr› /ˈtɾu̜ ˈʃe̞.tr̩/ |
‹setris› /ˈse̞.tɾis/ |
‹setrion› /ˈse̞.tɾio̯n/ |
‹setraftó› /se̞.tɾɐf.ˈtu̹/ |
‹setorion› /ˈse̞.to̞.ɾio̯n/ | ||
| 3 | anim | ‹osta› /ˈʔo̞s.tɐ/ |
‹ór osten› /ʔu̹ɾ ˈʔo̞s.tɘn/ |
‹tró osta› /ˈtɾu̜ ˈʔo̞s.tɐ/ |
‹ostris› /ˈʔo̞s.tɾis/ |
‹estrion› /ˈʔe̞s.tɾio̯n/ |
‹estraftó› /ʔe̞s.tɐf.ˈtu̹/ |
‹estarion› /ˈʔe̞s.tɐ.ɾio̯n/ | |
| inan | ‹masta› /ˈmɑs.tɐ/ |
‹ó mwasten› /ʔu̹ ˈmʷɑs.tɘn/ |
‹tró wasta› /ˈtɾu̜ ˈwɑs.tɐ/ |
‹mastris› /ˈmɑs.tɾis/ | |||||
| ind | ‹esta› /ˈʔe̞s.tɐ/ |
‹ór esten› /ʔu̹ɾ ˈʔe̞s.tɘn/ |
‹tró esta› /ˈtɾu̜ ˈʔe̞s.tɐ/ |
‹estris› /ˈʔe̞s.tɾis/ | |||||
| Plural | 1 | ‹óstr› /ˈʔu̜s.tɾ̩/ |
‹ór óstren› /ˈʔu̜ɾ ˈʔu̜s.tɾən/ |
‹tró óstr› /ˈtɾu̜ ˈʔu̜s.tɾ̩/ |
‹óstris› /ˈʔu̜s.tɾis/ |
‹óstrion› /ˈʔu̜s.tɾio̯n/ |
‹óstraftó› /ʔu̜s.tɾɐf.ˈtu̜/ |
‹óstrorion› /ʔu̜s.tɾo̞.ɾio̯n/ | |
| 2 | ‹hagr› /ˈhɑ.gɾ̩/ |
‹ó kagren› /ˈʔu̜ ˈkɑ.gɾɘn/ |
‹tró gagr› /ˈtɾu̜ ˈgɑ.gɾ̩/ |
‹hagris› /ˈhɑ.gɾis/ |
‹hagrion› /ˈhɑ.gɾio̯n/ |
‹hagraftó› /hɑ.gɾɐf.ˈtu/ |
‹hagorion› /ˈhɑ.gɾo̞.ɾio̯n/ | ||
| 3 | anim | ‹jóka› /ˈju̜.kɐ/ |
‹ó jóbken› /ˈʔu̜ ˈju̜β.kɘn/ |
‹tró ñóka› /ˈtɾu̜ ˈɲu̜.kɐ/ |
‹jókris› /ˈju̜.kɾis/ |
‹narkrion› /ˈnɑɾ.kɾio̯n/ |
‹narkaftó› /nɑɾ.kɐf.ˈtu/ |
‹narkorion› /ˈnɑɾ.ko̞.ɾio̯n/ | |
| inan | ‹méka› /ˈmei̯.kɐ/ |
‹ó mwéken› /ˈʔu̜ ˈmʷei̯.kɘn/ |
‹tró wéka› /ˈtɾu̜ ˈwei̯.kɐ/ |
‹mékris› /ˈmei̯.kɾis/ | |||||
| ind | ‹narka› /ˈnɑɾ.kɐ/ |
‹ó nwarken› /ˈʔu̜ ˈnʷɑɾ.kɘn/ |
‹tró ñarka› /ˈtɾu̜ ˈɲɑɾ.kɐ/ |
‹narkris› /ˈnɑɾ.kɾis/ | |||||
Adjectives
Adjectives precede the noun they modify. They agree in case and number with the modified noun.
Relatives: comparative and equative
· a is x-er than b (comparative)
In the case of comparative constructions, deviating from the norm, the modified noun precedes the "adjective", i.e. the comparative construction (adjective plus compared-to noun or nominal phrase). The compared-to term is affixed with the comparative suffix comp.than -(a)los (from losi, adj. “(to be) the other”). The adjective, in turn, is affixed with the comparative suffix comp.more de- (from det, adj. “with x, x-ful, having x (n.); very x (adj.)”).
| · comp | -(a)los | -/ɐlos/ | comparative | suffix. | From losi, adj. “(to be) other” |
| · det | /ˈde̞t/ | adjective particle, | (adj.) with x, x-ful, having x (n.); very x |
The structure of the comparative construction is:
| [X] | (is) | er-[α] | [Y]-than |
|---|---|---|---|
| (theme, what is being described) | more-[adjective] | [compared-to-noun]-than | |
| [noun:nom] | de-[adjective] | [compared-to-noun]-(a)los |
For example:
| [X] | (is) | er-[α] | [Y]-than |
|---|---|---|---|
| [wolf/dog] | er-[small] | [house]-than | |
| [gangr] | de-[som] | [þane]-los | |
| ‹gangr de-som þanelos› | |||
| "a dog is smaller than a house" | |||
· a is as x as b (equative)
Perifrastic workaround: “as for A and B, their respective x-ity is equal”
Relative forms use the following affixes:
| comp.more | de- | /de̞/- | compared-by adjective | from det, adj. “with x, x-ful, having x (n.); very x (adj.)” |
| comp.than | -(a)los | -/ɐ.lo̞s/ | compared-to noun | from losi, adj. “(to be) the other” |
| comp.as | -wes | -/we̞s/ | equative | from wesse,adj. „(to be) equal“ |
Superlatives
Superlative forms are marked as follows:
| Grammatical gender | Superlative form | Example | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Animate | -(n)aur | (n)aur | -/nau̯ɾ/ | ‹knegaur›, the tallest (anim.) |
| preposition | ‹dette› | /de̞.tːɘ/ | (dette < det-det) | |
| Inanimate | preposition | ‹dette› | /de̞.tːɘ/ | (dette < det-det) |
| Indefinite | -jós | jós | -/ju̜s/ | ‹netreriñós›, the most orderly (ind.) |
For example, when used as the superlative of a certain group or list:
| [X] | (is) | er-[α] | [Y]-than | , | but | est | [α] | [Z] | (dat dem. pronoun) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| [house] | er-[big] | [wolf/dog]-than | but | est | [big] | [mountain] | (dem.distal.dat.pl “to them”) | ||
| [þane] | de-[dag] | [gangr]-los | harhaŕa | dette | [dag] | [fóþr] | (tréþraris) | ||
| ‹þane de-dag gangralos, harhaŕa dette dag fóþr tréþraris› | |||||||||
| "a house is bigger than a dog, but a mountain is tallest (in respect) to them" | |||||||||
Colour terms
Ikronurum has two classes of colour terms: a closed set, including basic colour terms and standardized derived colour terms, and an open set, including further ad hoc colour terms, which can be derived as needed.
All derived colour terms, both standardized and ad hoc, are constructed as genitive compounds composed of the word "colour" (agoro /ˈʔɑ.go̞ɾo̞/) and the noun which carries the colour one wants to refer to; this compounds are then marked with the adjectivizer suffix adjz -rin.
The verb used to refer to something being "of x colour“ is nontur /ˈno̞n.tuɾ/, "to.take.with, to.take.along, to.bring.with, to.bring.along; to.carry" (used also with flavours and some attributes to convey the meaning of "having X“, e.g. "having strength", or "being X“, e.g. "being sweet").
| Basic colour terms | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| alta | ˈʔɑl.tɐ | n | in | green |
| áþi | ˈʔɑi̯.θi | adj | q | black |
| us | ˈʔus | adj | q | white |
| mól | ˈmu̹l | adj | q | blue, azure |
| þír | ˈθei̯ɾ | adj | q | brown, dun |
| ... | ||||
| Derived colour terms (agor-ó-X.en-rin, colour-of-X.of-adjz) | ||||
| agoróśigrelin | ˈʔɑ.go̞.ɾʊ.ˌʃi.gɾɘ.lin | adj | q | ash-coloured, grey (agor-ó-śigren-rin) → (agor-ó-śigrelin) |
| agorókenallin | ˈʔɑ.go̞.ɾʊ.ˌkɘ.nɐ.lːin | adj | q | blood-coloured, red (agor-ó-kennan-rin) → (agor-ó-kenallin) |
| agoróparkarin | ˈʔɑ.go̞.ɾʊ.ˌpɑɾ.kɐ.ɾin | adj | q | earth-coloured, brownish black (agor-ó-parkan-rin) |
Verbal morphology
Verbs are marked for person, number, tense, aspect, mood and voice. The marking of the verbs happens according to the following hierarchy:
| preposition | -1 | 0 | 1 | 2 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Passive voice marker | Aspect marker prefix | √verb | Conjugation affix for person, number and mood | Aspect marker suffix |
Verb conjugation paradigms
There are five basic verb conjugation paradigms or classes (i, ii, iii, iv and v).
While the table could be less redundant, it is meant to aid in the search for the correct suffix, thus presenting all forms already in the manner in which they should be applied.
The first vowels in the roots marked as "√´-" (i.e., "root+acute accent") undergo umlaut (e.g. kronur /ˈkɾo̞.nuɾ/ 1s.pres.ind.act → krónur /ˈkɾu̹.nuɾ/ 1s.pres.subj.act).
i. -nur
- Mostly verbs of movement.
| finite forms | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| indicative | subjunctive | imperative | ||||||
| active | passive | active | passive | |||||
| past | singular | |||||||
| 1 | √-nura | þar √-nura | √´-nura | þar √´-nura | n/a | |||
| 2 | √-neþan | þar √-neþan | √´-neþan | þar √´-neþan | ||||
| 3 | anim | √-naran | þar √-naran | √´-naran | þar √´-naran | |||
| inan | √-nera | þar √-nera | √´-nera | þar √´-nera | ||||
| ind | √-nturan | þar √-nturan | √´-nturan | þar √´-nturan | ||||
| plural | ||||||||
| 1 | √-nurtan | þar √-nurtan | √´-nurtan | þar √´-nurtan | ||||
| 2 | √-néþan | þar √-néþan | √´-néþan | þar √´-néþan | ||||
| 3 | anim | √-náran | þar √-náran | √´-náran | þar √´-náran | |||
| inan | √-néren | þar √-néren | √´-néren | þar √´-néren | ||||
| ind | √-nturan | þar √-nturan | √´-nturan | þar √´-nturan | ||||
| present | singular | |||||||
| 1 | √-nur | þar √-nur | √´-nur | þar √´-nur | n/a | |||
| 2 | √-neþ | þar √-neþ | √´-neþ | þar √´-neþ | √-neþur | |||
| 3 | anim | √-nara | þar √-nara | √´-nara | þar √´-nara | √-niri | ||
| inan | √-nere | þar √-nere | √´-nere | þar √´-nere | ||||
| ind | √-ntur | þar √-ntur | √´-ntur | þar √´-ntur | ||||
| plural | ||||||||
| 1 | √-nurtu | þar √-nurtu | √´-nurtu | þar √´-nurtu | n/a | |||
| 2 | √-néþu | þar √-néþu | √´-néþu | þar √´-néþu | √-néþur | |||
| 3 | anim | √-náru | þar √-náru | √´-náru | þar √´-náru | √-níri | ||
| inan | √-nére | þar √-nére | √´-nére | þar √´-nére | ||||
| ind | √-nturu | þar √-nturu | √´-nturu | þar √´-nturu | ||||
| future | singular | |||||||
| 1 | √-sur | þar √-sur | √´-sur | þar √´-sur | n/a | |||
| 2 | √-set | þar √-set | √´-set | þar √´-set | ||||
| 3 | anim | √-sar | þar √-sar | √´-sar | þar √´-sar | |||
| inan | √-ser | þar √-ser | √´-ser | þar √´-ser | ||||
| ind | √-þur | þar √-þur | √´-þur | þar √´-þur | ||||
| plural | ||||||||
| 1 | √-su | þar √-su | √´-su | þar √´-su | ||||
| 2 | √-sétur | þar √-sétur | √´-sétur | þar √´-sétur | ||||
| 3 | anim | √-sárur | þar √-sárur | √´-sárur | þar √´-sárur | |||
| inan | √-séru | þar √-séru | √´-séru | þar √´-séru | ||||
| ind | √-þurtu | þar √-þurtu | √´-þurtu | þar √´-þurtu | ||||
| non-finite forms | ||||||||
| infinitive | √-nni | |||||||
| past participle | e(n)-√-nuri | |||||||
| present participle | ë-nna | |||||||
ii. -tur
- Mostly stative verbs.
| finite forms | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| indicative | subjunctive | imperative | ||||||
| active | passive | active | passive | |||||
| past | singular | |||||||
| 1 | √-tura | þar √-tura | √´-tura | þar √´-tura | n/a | |||
| 2 | √-teþan | þar √-teþan | √´-teþan | þar √´-teþan | ||||
| 3 | anim | √-taran | þar √-taran | √´-taran | þar √´-taran | |||
| inan | √-tera | þar √-tera | √´-tera | þar √´-tera | ||||
| ind | √-turan | þar √-turan | √´-ðuran | þar √´-ðuran | ||||
| plural | ||||||||
| 1 | √-turtan | þar √-turtan | √´-turtan | þar √´-turtan | ||||
| 2 | √-téþan | þar √-téþan | √´-téþan | þar √´-téþan | ||||
| 3 | anim | √-táran | þar √-táran | √´-táran | þar √´-táran | |||
| inan | √-téren | þar √-téren | √´-téren | þar √´-téren | ||||
| ind | √-ðuran | þar √-ðuran | √´-ðuran | þar √´-ðuran | ||||
| present | singular | |||||||
| 1 | √-tur | þar √-tur | √´-tur | þar √´-tur | n/a | |||
| 2 | √-teþ | þar √-teþ | √´-teþ | þar √´-teþ | √-teþur | |||
| 3 | anim | √-tara | þar √-tara | √´-tara | þar √´-tara | √-tiri | ||
| inan | √-tere | þar √-tere | √´-tere | þar √´-tere | ||||
| ind | √-ttur | þar √-ttur | √´-ður | þar √´-ttur | ||||
| plural | ||||||||
| 1 | √-turtu | þar √-turtu | √´-turtu | þar √´-turtu | n/a | |||
| 2 | √-téþu | þar √-téþu | √´-téþu | þar √´-téþu | √-téþur | |||
| 3 | anim | √-táru | þar √-táru | √´-táru | þar √´-táru | √-tíri | ||
| inan | √-tére | þar √-tére | √´-tére | þar √´-tére | ||||
| ind | √-turu | þar √-ðuru | √´-ðuru | þar √´-ðuru | ||||
| future | singular | |||||||
| 1 | √-þur | þar √-þur | √´-þur | þar √´-þur | n/a | |||
| 2 | √-þet | þar √-þet | √´-þet | þar √´-þet | ||||
| 3 | anim | √-þar | þar √-þa | √´-þar | þar √´-þar | |||
| inan | √-þer | þar √-þer | √´-þer | þar √´-þer | ||||
| ind | √-þur | þar √-þur | √´-þur | þar √´-þur | ||||
| plural | ||||||||
| 1 | √-þu | þar √-þu | √´-þu | þar √´-þu | ||||
| 2 | √-þétur | þar √-þétur | √´-þétur | þar √´-þétur | ||||
| 3 | anim | √-þárur | þar √-þárur | √´-þárur | þar √´-þárur | |||
| inan | √-þéru | þar √-þéru | √´-þéru | þar √´-þéru | ||||
| ind | √-þurtu | þar √-þurtu | √´-þurtu | þar √´-þurtu | ||||
| non-finite forms | ||||||||
| infinitive | √-tti | |||||||
| past participle | e(n)-√-turi | |||||||
| present participle | ë-tta | |||||||
iia. -dur
- Attenuated verbs of the first class (-t·nur → -dur) are conjugated by analogy after the conjugation of the second class (-tur).
| finite forms | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| indicative | subjunctive | imperative | ||||||
| active | passive | active | passive | |||||
| past | singular | |||||||
| 1 | √-dura | þar √-dura | √´-dura | þar √´-dura | n/a | |||
| 2 | √-deþan | þar √-deþan | √´-deþan | þar √´-deþan | ||||
| 3 | anim | √-daran | þar √-daran | √´-daran | þar √´-daran | |||
| inan | √-dera | þar √-dera | √´-dera | þar √´-dera | ||||
| ind | √-duran | þar √-dduran | √´-ðuran | þar √´-ðuran | ||||
| plural | ||||||||
| 1 | √-durtan | þar √-durtan | √´-durtan | þar √´-durtan | ||||
| 2 | √-déþan | þar √-déþan | √´-déþan | þar √´-déþan | ||||
| 3 | anim | √-dáran | þar √-dáran | √´-dáran | þar √´-dáran | |||
| inan | √-déren | þar √-déren | √´-déren | þar √´-déren | ||||
| ind | √-ðuran | þar √-ðuran | √´-ðuran | þar √´-ðuran | ||||
| present | singular | |||||||
| 1 | √-dur | þar √-dur | √´-dur | þar √´-dur | n/a | |||
| 2 | √-deþ | þar √-deþ | √´-deþ | þar √´-deþ | √-deþur | |||
| 3 | anim | √-dara | þar √-dara | √´-dara | þar √´-dara | √-diri | ||
| inan | √-dere | þar √-dere | √´-dere | þar √´-dere | ||||
| ind | √-ddur | þar √-ddur | √´-ður | þar √´-ddur | ||||
| plural | ||||||||
| 1 | √-durtu | þar √-durtu | √´-durtu | þar √´-durtu | n/a | |||
| 2 | √-déþu | þar √-déþu | √´-déþu | þar √´-déþu | √-déþur | |||
| 3 | anim | √-dáru | þar √-dáru | √´-dáru | þar √´-dáru | √-díri | ||
| inan | √-dére | þar √-dére | √´-dére | þar √´-dére | ||||
| ind | √-duru | þar √-ðuru | √´-ðuru | þar √´-ðuru | ||||
| future | singular | |||||||
| 1 | √-þur | þar √-þur | √´-þur | þar √´-þur | n/a | |||
| 2 | √-þet | þar √-þet | √´-þet | þar √´-þet | ||||
| 3 | anim | √-þar | þar √-þa | √´-þar | þar √´-þar | |||
| inan | √-þer | þar √-þer | √´-þer | þar √´-þer | ||||
| ind | √-þur | þar √-þur | √´-þur | þar √´-þur | ||||
| plural | ||||||||
| 1 | √-þu | þar √-þu | √´-þu | þar √´-þu | ||||
| 2 | √-þétur | þar √-þétur | √´-þétur | þar √´-þétur | ||||
| 3 | anim | √-þárur | þar √-þárur | √´-þárur | þar √´-þárur | |||
| inan | √-þéru | þar √-þéru | √´-þéru | þar √´-þéru | ||||
| ind | √-þurtu | þar √-þurtu | √´-þurtu | þar √´-þurtu | ||||
| non-finite forms | ||||||||
| infinitive | √-ddi | |||||||
| past participle | e(n)-√-duri | |||||||
| present participle | ë-dda | |||||||
iii. -rur
- [...]
| finite forms | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| indicative | subjunctive | imperative | ||||||
| active | passive | active | passive | |||||
| past | singular | |||||||
| 1 | √-runa | þar √-runa | √´-runa | þar √´-runa | n/a | |||
| 2 | √-reþan | þar √-reþan | √´-reþan | þar √´-reþan | ||||
| 3 | anim | √-ranan | þar √-ranan | √´-ranan | þar √´-ranan | |||
| inan | √-rena | þar √-rena | √´-rena | þar √´-rena | ||||
| ind | √-rtunan | þar √-rtunan | √´-rtunan | þar √´-rtunan | ||||
| plural | ||||||||
| 1 | √-runtan | þar √-runtan | √´-runtan | þar √´-runtan | ||||
| 2 | √-réþan | þar √-réþan | √´-réþan | þar √´-réþan | ||||
| 3 | anim | √-ránan | þar √-ránan | √´-ránan | þar √´-ránan | |||
| inan | √-rénen | þar √-rénen | √´-rénen | þar √´-rénen | ||||
| ind | √-rtunan | þar √-rtunan | √´-rtunan | þar √´-rtunan | ||||
| present | singular | |||||||
| 1 | √-rur | þar √-rur | √´-rur | þar √´-rur | n/a | |||
| 2 | √-reþ | þar √-reþ | √´-reþ | þar √´-reþ | √-reþur | |||
| 3 | anim | √-rana | þar √-rana | √´-rana | þar √´-rana | √-rini | ||
| inan | √-rene | þar √-rene | √´-rene | þar √´-rene | ||||
| ind | √-rtur | þar √-rtur | √´-rtur | þar √´-rtur | ||||
| plural | ||||||||
| 1 | √-runtu | þar √-runtu | √´-runtu | þar √´-runtu | n/a | |||
| 2 | √-réþu | þar √-réþu | √´-réþu | þar √´-réþu | √-réþur | |||
| 3 | anim | √-ránu | þar √-ránu | √´-ránu | þar √´-ránu | √-ríni | ||
| inan | √-réne | þar √-réne | √´-réne | þar √´-réne | ||||
| ind | √-rturu | þar √-rturu | √´-rturu | þar √´-rturu | ||||
| future | singular | |||||||
| 1 | √-sur | þar √-sur | √´-sur | þar √´-sur | n/a | |||
| 2 | √-set | þar √-set | √´-set | þar √´-set | ||||
| 3 | anim | √-sar | þar √-sar | √´-sar | þar √´-sar | |||
| inan | √-ser | þar √-ser | √´-ser | þar √´-ser | ||||
| ind | √-þur | þar √-þur | √´-þur | þar √´-þur | ||||
| plural | ||||||||
| 1 | √-su | þar √-su | √´-su | þar √´-su | ||||
| 2 | √-sétur | þar √-sétur | √´-sétur | þar √´-sétur | ||||
| 3 | anim | √-sánur | þar √-sánur | √´-sánur | þar √´-sánur | |||
| inan | √-sénu | þar √-sénu | √´-sénu | þar √´-sénu | ||||
| ind | √-þuntu | þar √-þuntu | √´-þuntu | þar √´-þuntu | ||||
| non-finite forms | ||||||||
| infinitive | √-ŕí | |||||||
| past participle | e(n)-√-ruri | |||||||
| present participle | √´-ŕa | |||||||
iv. -jur
- Mostly verbs of some abstraction (e.g. derived causative verbs).
| finite forms | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| indicative | subjunctive | imperative | ||||||
| active | passive | active | passive | |||||
| past | singular | |||||||
| 1 | √-juna | þar √-juna | √´-juna | þar √´-juna | n/a | |||
| 2 | √-jeþan | þar √-jeþan | √´-jeþan | þar √´-jeþan | ||||
| 3 | anim | √-janan | þar √-janan | √´-janan | þar √´-janan | |||
| inan | √-jena | þar √-jena | √´-jena | þar √´-jena | ||||
| ind | √-jtunan | þar √-jtunan | √´-jtunan | þar √´-jtunan | ||||
| plural | ||||||||
| 1 | √-juntan | þar √-juntan | √´-juntan | þar √´-juntan | ||||
| 2 | √-jéþan | þar √-jéþan | √´-jéþan | þar √´-jéþan | ||||
| 3 | anim | √-jánan | þar √-jánan | √´-jánan | þar √´-jánan | |||
| inan | √-jénen | þar √-jénen | √´-jénen | þar √´-jénen | ||||
| ind | √-jtunan | þar √-jtunan | √´-jtunan | þar √´-jtunan | ||||
| present | singular | |||||||
| 1 | √-jur | þar √-jur | √´-jur | þar √´-jur | n/a | |||
| 2 | √-jeþ | þar √-jeþ | √´-jeþ | þar √´-jeþ | √-jeþur | |||
| 3 | anim | √-jana | þar √-jana | √´-jana | þar √´-jana | √-jini | ||
| inan | √-jene | þar √-jene | √´-jene | þar √´-jene | ||||
| ind | √-jtur | þar √-jtur | √´-jtur | þar √´-jtur | ||||
| plural | ||||||||
| 1 | √-juntu | þar √-juntu | √´-juntu | þar √´-juntu | n/a | |||
| 2 | √-jéþu | þar √-jéþu | √´-jéþu | þar √´-jéþu | √-jéþur | |||
| 3 | anim | √-jánu | þar √-jánu | √´-jánu | þar √´-jánu | √-jini | ||
| inan | √-jéne | þar √-jéne | √´-jéne | þar √´-jéne | ||||
| ind | √-jturu | þar √-jturu | √´-jturu | þar √´-jturu | ||||
| future | singular | |||||||
| 1 | √-sjur | þar √-sjur | √´-sjur | þar √´-sjur | n/a | |||
| 2 | √-sjet | þar √-sjet | √´-sjet | þar √´-sjet | ||||
| 3 | anim | √-sjar | þar √-sjar | √´-sjar | þar √´-sjar | |||
| inan | √-sjer | þar √-sjer | √´-sjer | þar √´-sjer | ||||
| ind | √-śur | þar √-śur | √´-śur | þar √´-śur | ||||
| plural | ||||||||
| 1 | √-sju | þar √-sju | √´-sju | þar √´-sju | ||||
| 2 | √-sjétur | þar √-sjétur | √´-sjétur | þar √´-sjétur | ||||
| 3 | anim | √-sjánur | þar √-sjánur | √´-sjánur | þar √´-sjánur | |||
| inan | √-sjénu | þar √-sjénu | √´-sjénu | þar √´-sjénu | ||||
| ind | √-śunt | þar √-śuntu | √´-śuntu | þar √´-śuntu | ||||
| non-finite forms | ||||||||
| infinitive | √-jti | |||||||
| past participle | e(n)-√-juri | |||||||
| present participle | ë-ja | |||||||
v. -kur
- [...]
| finite forms | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| indicative | subjunctive | imperative | ||||||
| active | passive | active | passive | |||||
| past | singular | |||||||
| 1 | √-kuna | þar √-kuna | √´-kuna | þar √´-kuna | n/a | |||
| 2 | √-keþan | þar √-keþan | √´-keþan | þar √´-keþan | ||||
| 3 | anim | √-kanan | þar √-kanan | √´-kanan | þar √´-kanan | |||
| inan | √-kena | þar √-kena | √´-kena | þar √´-kena | ||||
| ind | √-kkunan | þar √-kkunan | √´-kkunan | þar √´-kkunan | ||||
| plural | ||||||||
| 1 | √-kuntan | þar √-kuntan | √´-kuntan | þar √´-kuntan | ||||
| 2 | √-kéþan | þar √-kéþan | √´-kéþan | þar √´-kéþan | ||||
| 3 | anim | √-kánan | þar √-kánan | √´-kánan | þar √´-kánan | |||
| inan | √-kénen | þar √-kénen | √´-kénen | þar √´-kénen | ||||
| ind | √-kkuna | þar √-kkuna | √´-kkuna | þar √´-kkuna | ||||
| present | singular | |||||||
| 1 | √-kur | þar √-kur | √´-kur | þar √´-kur | n/a | |||
| 2 | √-keþ | þar √-keþ | √´-keþ | þar √´-keþ | √-keþur | |||
| 3 | anim | √-kana | þar √-kana | √´-kana | þar √´-kana | √-kini | ||
| inan | √-kene | þar √-kene | √´-kene | þar √´-kene | ||||
| ind | √-kkur | þar √-kkur | √´-kkur | þar √´-kkur | ||||
| plural | ||||||||
| 1 | √-kuntu | þar √-kuntu | √´-kuntu | þar √´-kuntu | n/a | |||
| 2 | √-kéþu | þar √-kéþu | √´-kéþu | þar √´-kéþu | √-kéþur | |||
| 3 | anim | √-kánu | þar √-kánu | √´-kánu | þar √´-kánu | √-kini | ||
| inan | √-kéne | þar √-kéne | √´-kéne | þar √´-kéne | ||||
| ind | √-kkuru | þar √-kkuru | √´-kkuru | þar √´-kkuru | ||||
| future | singular | |||||||
| 1 | √-skur | þar √-skur | √´-skur | þar √´-skur | n/a | |||
| 2 | √-sket | þar √-sket | √´-sket | þar √´-sket | ||||
| 3 | anim | √-skar | þar √-skar | √´-skar | þar √´-skar | |||
| inan | √-sker | þar √-sker | √´-sker | þar √´-sker | ||||
| ind | √-hur | þar √-hur | √´-hur | þar √´-hur | ||||
| plural | ||||||||
| 1 | √-sku | þar √-sku | √´-sku | þar √´-sku | ||||
| 2 | √-skétur | þar √-skétur | √´-skétur | þar √´-skétur | ||||
| 3 | anim | √-skánur | þar √-skánur | √´-skánur | þar √´-skánur | |||
| inan | √-skénu | þar √-skénu | √´-skénu | þar √´-skénu | ||||
| ind | √-hunt | þar √-huntu | √´-huntu | þar √´-huntu | ||||
| non-finite forms | ||||||||
| infinitive | √-kki | |||||||
| past participle | e(n)-√-kuri | |||||||
| present participle | ë-ka | |||||||
Verbal aspect markers
Almost all verbal aspect markers are prefixed to the root. Only the attenuative aspect marker atten is infixed between the root and the declension suffix (in this cases, sandhi rules may apply to it).
| aspect | marker | theme | Notes | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| consonant | vowel | ||||
| Continuous | cont | Ø- (unmarked) | ‹Ikronurum (angr) kronur›, I’m speaking Ikronurum | ||
| Gnomic | gnom | [conjugated verb] ini | /ˈʔi.ni/ | (postposition) ‹Ikronurum (angr) kronur ini›, I speak Ikronurum | |
| Perfect | perf | j(ó)- | /ju̹.ˈ/- | /ˈjV/- | Vowel theme: ‹j-›; consonant theme: ‹jó-› |
| Imperfect | imp | ke- | /ke̞.ˈ/- | /ke̞.ˈʔ/- | Vowel theme: there’s a glottal stop before the root-vowel. |
| Intensive1 | int1 | ja(g)- | /jɑˈɣ/- | Movement: to.walk → to.parade | |
| Intensive2 | int2 | a(l)- | /ʔɑ.ˈ/ | /ʔɑ.ˈlV/ | Abstract: to.wish → to.hope |
| Attenuative | atten | -(e)t- | -/ɘt/- | -/t/- | (infix) to.water → to.sprinkle(with water) |
Particles and affixes
| Function | Marker | Notes | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| pvm | Passive voice marker | þar | /ˈθɑɾ/ | particle/preposition | |
| aux | Auxiliar particle | gar | /ˈgɑɾ/ | particle/preposition | "composite" verbs: „gesagt haben“, «gar ekronuri» |
| hort | Hortative particle | heŕan | /ˈhe̞.rɐn/ | particle/preposition | [HORT]+[pers.pron.+DAT]+[verb] |
| neg | Negation of an action | ren | /ˈre̞n/ | particle/preposition | (it won’t x, it doesn’t x) |
| caus | Causative | -a- | -/ɑ/- | affix | Derives a causative verb from a noun after the template [noun.root]-caus-[verb.declension]
nimr water; nimrajur to.make.moist,to.water (a plant,etc) |
Marking hierarchy
Derivational morphology
· Nominalizer (nmlz)
Derivation of nouns from verbs (deverbal nouns):
- nmlz-[verb in the infinitive]
Derivation of nouns from adjectives and past-participles:
- nmlz-[adjective/ppl]
- dag, big; i-dag, bigness.
Nominalization of past participles When a past participle is nominalized to mean “one or any instance of this deverbal form”, a contraction of the participial suffix happens as follows:
- [-nuri → -ni], [-turi → -ti], [-ruri → -ri], [-juri → -ji].
Deverbal adjectives
- verb.inf+adjz
Denominal adjectives
- - adjz -rin
- - “with” (det-)
- - “without” (har-)
- - verb:
- nontur “to.take.with/along, to.bring.with/along; to.carry” → “to.have [noun+ACC]” → “to be [adj]”, e.g.
- “to.have strength-acc” → “to be strong”
- “to.have sweetness-acc” → “to be sweet”
Derivational particles and affixes
· Grammatical
| Function | Marker | Notes | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| nmlz | Nominalizer | i | /ˈʔi/ | preposition | Mostly paired with the determiner suffix ‹-rum›
kronur “I speak” 1s.pres.ind i kronurum, {i kro-nur-rum} [NMLZ to.speak-1s.pres.ind-det] = "was ich spreche", “that what I’m speaking”; speech, language. |
| det | Determiner | -rum | -/ɾum/ | suffix | "the x" (instead of "a x") |
| and | Coordinator | -ór | -/u̹ɾ/ | preposition | "and" |
| advm | Adverbializer | -(u)ŕó | -/u.ˈru̹/ | suffix | "x-ly", "in the maner of x"
turns nouns into adverbs of manner turns verbs of motion in adverbs of manner |
| adj | Adjetivizer | -rin | -/ɾin/ | suffix | Forms adjectives of quality. sigr "ash", agor-ó-śigrelin "ash-coloured" |
· Lexical and partially grammaticalized lexical forms
| Function | Marker | Notes | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| pers | Associated person | -rir | -/ɾiɾ/ | suffix | Forms actor nouns from verbs and nouns; from ríra, “person”
hlajur v. to.make, hlajrir n. maker. assa n. forge, assarir n. smith. |
| tool | Associated artifact, tool | -(e)nar | -/ɘnɐɾ/ | suffix | From nara, “thing, artifact, contraption”
iltur “to.rest” > ilturenar “chair” |
| place | Associated place | -fér | -/fei̯ɾ/ | suffix | From féra, “place”. |
| col | Colective noun | -hir | -/hiɾ/ | suffix | From hitr, “pack, herd”
sigra “drop” > sigrahir “rain” |
Discourse particles
| List of discourse particles | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Type | <> | [] | Translation | Notes |
| adjective | det | ˈde̞t | with | with x, x-ful, having x (n.); very x (adj.) |
| adjective | har | ˈhɑɾ | without | without; no x, not x, un-x, x-less |
| adverbial | feŕ | ˈfe̞r | thus | |
| adverbial | pórhaŕa | ˈpʰu̜ɾ.ha.rɐ | whenever | “each-while” |
| adverbial | ídihaŕa | ˈʔei̯.di.ha.rɐ | always | “all-while” |
| adverbial | sig | ˈsix | until | |
| adverbial | haŕa | ˈhɑ.rɐ | while | When used figuratively: “while x, y” - Order: “while X, Y then[=won] Z” |
| adverbial | won | ˈwo̞n | then | |
| connective | ána | ˈʔɑi̯.nɐ | so, therefore | |
| connective | -ór | -u̹ɾ | and | suffix, word connector |
| connective | or | word or sentence disjunctor | ||
| connective | om | ˈʔo̞m | and/or | |
| connective | harhaŕa | ˈhɑɾ.ha.rɐ | but | “not-while” |
| connective | man | ˈmɑn | so | Ger. also; “and” as coordinator of propostitions |
| connective | hurman | huɾ.ˈmɑn | “and so, indeed, ...” | |
| connective | as | ˈʔɑs | because (of) | +gen |
| connective | nwo | ˈnʷo̞ | that | (hen-won, "this-then") Ger. dass - Used with “I experience (see, hear, etc) that ...” |
| connective | losihiraftó | ˈlo̞.si.hi.ɾaf.ˈtu̹ | “as for the rest, ...” | From losihirum-aftó, the.rest-loc (losihir’aftó, the det -rum is dropped) |
| connective/ adverbial |
losiŕó | lo̞.si.ˈru̹ | otherwise | adv.m “other-ly, in the manner of the.other”, introduces an option |
| hortative | heŕan | ˈhe̞.rɐn | “let’s ...” | preposition; [hort]+[pers.pron.+dat]+[verb] |
| intensifier | hur | ˈhuɾ | indeed | intensifier |
| negation | no | of a proposition, of a sentence | ||
| negation | ren | ˈre̞n | not | negation of an action (it won’t x, it doesn’t x, etc) |
| subord | nun | ˈnun | which, RLTZ2 | introduces non-restrictive bound finite relative clauses |
| subord | fror | ˈfɾo̞ɾ | which, RLTZ1 | introduces restrictive bound finite relative clauses |
| pórja | ˈpʰu̜.ɾjɐ | whatever | “each-any” | |
| og | ˈʔo̞x | hence | ||
| nog | ˈno̞x | thence | (hen-og, "this-hence") | |
Deictics
Spatial deixis
Temporal deixis
Proper nouns
Proper nouns can have forms which are inconsistent with the current vocabulary. Some of this oddities come from older compounding strategies and words, or are the result of loan translations into Ikronurum. For example, the name Faradur, meaning “horse-son”, is not the word for foal, DURÓPARAN, which is a horse’s son. Likewise the surname Artassarir, meaning “swordsmith, swordmaker”, is not the word for swordsmith, ASSARIRÓARTEN, which is the proper name of the occupation.
Anthroponyms
An Ikronurum name consists minimally of a first name and a surname. First names Surnames are typically either ocupational (e.g. “swordmaker”), genitive (e.g. “of Greenwall”) or patronymic (e.g. Dur-Kríhrafn), amongst wich the oldest can be found.
For example:
| Faradur Ór-Altahjol | /ˈfɑ.ɾɐ.duɾ | ʔu̹ɾ.ˈʔɑl.tɐ.hjo̞l/ | "Horse-son | of Greenwall" | ||
| Énor* Artassarir | /ˈʔei̯.no̞ɾ | ˈʔɑɾ.ta.sːɐ.ɾiɾ/ | "Bear(paw) | Swordmaker" | ||
| Héurbrok Dur-Kríhrafr | /ˈhei̯.uɾ.bɾo̞k | duɾ.ˈkɾei̯.ˌhɾɐ.fɾ̩/ | "Riverstone | son of Eaglewing" | ||
| *(Énor < Énorag) |
Toponyms
There is a variety of toponymical forms for the names of topological and anthropogenic landmarks, which are used exclusively in the formation of toponymical proper nouns. Though derived from the common nouns, some of the toponymical forms can vary notably.
Groups: A) anthropogenic structures; B) abrupt terrain; C) waterfront; D) plain terrain; E) vegetation and other terrain.
| Group | Toponymical form | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| a | ||||
| hamlet | -þåjn | -/θɑi̯n/ | top. “-ham”, from þánerum, hamlet | |
| town | -þåjl | -/θɑi̯l/ | top. “-ton”, from -þåjnl, in turn from þánelår, town | |
| path | -års | -/ɑɾs/ | top. from arso, path, way; street, road | |
| b | ||||
| hill | -neþ | -/nɘθ/ | top. from neþo, hill | |
| valley | -låjn | -/lɑi̯.n/ | top. from lánr, valley | |
| cove | -lor | -/lo̞ɾ/ | top. from lora, cavity; nook, cranny; cove, bay | |
| chasm | -luþ | -/luθ/ | top. from luþlor, “deep cavity”, pit, chasm; well | |
| cliff | -hråjl | -/hɾɑi̯l/ | top. from hrál, cliff; out-jutting rock, Sp. farallón | |
| c | ||||
| sea | -jår | -/jɑɾ/ | top. from jarl, sea | |
| bay | -fjór | -/fju̜ɾ/ | top. from fjór, pond, shallow lake; shallow bay | |
| port | -fjórd | -/fju̜ɾd̥/ | top. port, haven (< fjórþ, fjór-þåjn, fjór-þánerum) | |
| beach | -håjf | -/hɑi̯f/ | top. from háfr, beach, shoreline | |
| shore | -jók | -/ju̜k/ | top. from jóke, border, Ger. Rand; side, coast | |
| d | ||||
| land | -får(k) | -/fɑɾk/ | top. region, region-name; from farka, earth | |
| field | -lól | -/lu̹l/ | top. from lótli, field | |
| e | ||||
| forest | -bågh | -/bɑx/ | top. from baghir, forest | |
| grove | -båjg | -/bɑi̯x/ | top. from bághirli, grove | |
| swamp | -kóg | -/kʰu̹x/ | top. from kóg, bog, moor, swamp | |
Demonyms
Syntax
Word order per sentence type
| Sentence type | Word order | Marking | Notes | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Declarative sentences | Active sentences | Intransitive verbs | SV | nom-v | - |
| Monotransitive verbs | OSV | acc-nom-v | - | ||
| Ditransitive verbs | OTSV | acc-dat-nom-v | - | ||
| Passive sentences | SOV | nom-acc-pvm-v | - | ||
| Questions | - | - | Focus fronting | ||
| Imperative sentences | OVS | acc-v-nom+det | - | ||
Lexicon
Citation forms:
· Nouns: nominative singular;
· Adjectives: nominative singular
· Verbs: first person singular present indicative active.
Leipzig-Jakarta list
Some terms which are listed as one entry in the Leipzig-Jakarta list but have more than one distinct term in Ikronurum have become as many entries as needed to accommodate the scope of its vocabulary. For instance, the term “arm/hand” becomes two entries given that there is a lexical distinction between arm and hand. Because of this accommodation to the scope of the Ikronurum lexicon, the list will have more entries than the original hundred, just as it would have needed to be for other languages, such as English.
| English | I Kronurum | |
|---|---|---|
| ‹› | // | |
| ant | urna | ˈʔuɾ.nɐ |
| arm | nidr | ˈni.dɾ̩ |
| hand | lugr | ˈlu.gɾ̩ |
| ash | sigr | ˈsi.gɾ̩ |
| back | ikanrin | ʔi.ˈkɑn.ɾin |
| big | dag | ˈdɑx |
| bird | unda | ˈʔun.dɐ |
| to bite (human) | þistånur | ˈθis.tɑ.nuɾ |
| to bite (animal) | ðanur | ˈðɑ.nuɾ |
| bitter | ljur | ˈljuɾ |
| black | áþi | ˈʔɑi̯.θi |
| blood | henna | ˈhe̞.nːɐ |
| to blow | þuntur | ˈθun.tuɾ |
| bone | hamr | ˈhɑ.mɾ̩ |
| breast | boðr | ˈbo̞.ðɾ̩ |
| to burn (intransitive) | orkjur | ˈʔo̞ɾ.kjuɾ |
| to carry | nontur | ˈno̞n.tuɾ |
| child (reciprocal of parent) | sente | ˈse̞n.tɘ |
| to come | herjonur | ˈhe̞.ɾjo̞.nuɾ |
| to crush/to grind | luhestur | ˈlu.he̞s.tuɾ |
| to cry/to weep | nasjur | ˈnɑ.sjuɾ |
| to do/to make | hlajur | ˈhlɑ.juɾ |
| dog | gangr | ˈgɑn.gɾ̩ |
| to drink | wentur | ˈwe̞n.tuɾ |
| ear | náa | ˈnɑ.jɐ |
| to eat | nistur | ˈnis.tuɾ |
| egg | gaŕa | ˈgɑ.rɐ |
| eye | bagra | ˈbɑ.gɾɐ |
| to fall | ||
| far | sór | ˈsu̜ɾ |
| fire | okre | ˈʔo̞.kɾɘ |
| fish | strójr | ˈstɾu̜.jɾ̩ |
| flesh/meat | fegr | ˈfe̞.gɾ̩ |
| fly | jaŕan | ˈjɑ.rɐn |
| to give | hajur | ˈhɑ.juɾ |
| to go | arnur | ˈʔɑɾ.nuɾ |
| good | sag | ˈsɑx |
| hair (human) | vór | ˈvu̹ɾ |
| hard | breg | ˈbɾe̞x |
| he/she (3S.AN.NOM) | osta | ˈʔo̞s.tɐ |
| it (3S.IN.NOM) | masta | ˈmɑs.tɐ |
| him/her (3S.ACC) | tró osta | ˈtɾu̜ ˈʔo̞s.tɐ |
| to hear | nátur | ˈnɑi̯.tur |
| heavy | bro | ˈbɾo̞ |
| to hide (intransitive) | ||
| to hide (transitive) | fráråjur | ˈfɾɑi̯.ɾɑ.juɾ |
| to hit | waŕtur | ˈwɑr.tuɾ |
| to beat | luaŕtur | ˈlu.ʔar.tuɾ |
| horn | ðrófa | ˈðɾu̜.fɐ |
| house | þane | ˈθɑ.nɘ |
| I | angr | ˈʔɑŋ.gr̩ |
| me | tró angr | ˈtɾu̜ ˈʔɑŋ.gr̩ |
| in (loc) | -aftó | -ɐf.ˈtu̹ |
| knee | þranár | ˈθɾɑn.ʔɐi̯ɾ |
| to know | arajur | ˈʔɑ.ɾɐ.juɾ |
| to laugh | reþinur | ˈre̞.θi.nuɾ |
| leaf | brefa | ˈbɾe̞.fɐ |
| leg | þran | ˈθɾɑn |
| foot | jona | ˈjo.nɐ |
| liver | geś | ˈge̞ʃ |
| long | bran | ˈbɾɑn |
| louse | ||
| mouth (human) | þiste | ˈθis.te̞ |
| name | lok | ˈlo̞k |
| navel | hjarma | ˈhjɑɾ.mɐ |
| neck | mele | ˈme̞.lɘ |
| new | krim | ˈkɾim |
| night | hjól | ˈhju̜l |
| nose | fróð | ˈfɾu̹ð |
| not (of an action) | ren | ˈre̞n |
| old | þrór | ˈθɾu̜ɾ |
| one | jog | ˈjox |
| rain | sigrahir | ˈsi.gɾɐ.hiɾ |
| red | agorókenallin | ˈʔɑ.go̞.ɾʊ.ˌkɘ.nɐ.lːin |
| root | suma | ˈsu.mɐ |
| rope | hjara | ˈhjɑ.ɾɐ |
| to run | ekanur | ˈʔe̞.ka.nuɾ |
| salt | fora | ˈfo̞.ɾɐ |
| sand | bisso | ˈbi.sːo̞ |
| to say | kronur | ˈkɾo̞.nuɾ |
| to see | bagråjur | ˈbɑ.gɾɑ.juɾ |
| shade/shadow | wegr | ˈwe̞.gɾ̩ |
| skin (human) | gród | ˈgɾu̹d̥ |
| hide | kuŕa | ˈkʰu.rɐ |
| small | som | ˈso̞m |
| smoke | þóste | ˈθu̹s.tɘ |
| soil | farka | ˈfɑɾ.kɐ |
| to stand | étrur | ˈʔei̯.truɾ |
| star | fár | fɑi̯ɾ |
| stone | broka | ˈbɾo̞.kɐ |
| rock | ibroke | ʔi.ˈbɾo̞.kɘ |
| to suck | fiþinur | ˈfi.θi.nuɾ |
| sweet | ónðr | ˈʔu̜n.ðɾ̩ |
| tail (animal) | sikr | ˈsi.kɾ̩ |
| to take (away) | tróśórkánur | ˈtɾu̜.ʃu̜ɾ.ˌkɑi̯.nuɾ |
| thick | san | ˈsɑn |
| thigh | kneg-þran | ˈkne̞x.θɾɑn |
| this (prox. to speaker, NOM) | nédor | ˈnei̯.do̞ɾ |
| to tie | hjarmåjur | ˈhjɑɾ.mɑ.juɾ |
| tongue | silr | ˈsi.lɾ̩ |
| tooth | taga | ˈtʰɑ.gɐ |
| water | nimr | ˈni.mɾ̩ |
| what? | ||
| who? | ||
| wide | aða | ˈʔɑ.ðɐ |
| wind | þunr | ˈθu.nɾ̩ |
| wing | hrafr | ˈhɾɑ.fɾ̩ |
| wood | linda | ˈlin.dɐ |
| yesterday | unþróƕarta | ˈʔun.θɾu̹.ˌhʷɐɾ.tɐ |
| you (singular, NOM) | setr | ˈse̞.tr̩ |
Orthography
Besides the history of the in-world, "native" orthographies of the different historical stages of I Kronurum, there are two transliteration standards: a romanization, and a "gautification" (a variation on Ulfilas' Gothic script).
| Orthographies | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Consonants | ||||
| IPA value | Latin letter | Gothic letter | Native orthography | Notes |
| p | p | 𐍀 | - | - |
| b | b | 𐌱 | - | - |
| t | t | 𐍄 | - | - |
| d | d | 𐌳 | - | - |
| k | k | 𐌺 | - | - |
| g | g | 𐌲 | - | - |
| m | m | 𐌼 | - | - |
| n | n | 𐌽 | - | - |
| ɲ | ñ, ń, nj | 𐌽𐌹 | - | - |
| r | ŕ, rr | 𐍂𐍂 | - | - |
| ɾ | r | 𐍂 | - | - |
| f | f | 𐍆 | - | - |
| θ | þ | 𐌸 | - | - |
| ð | ð | 𐍊 | - | - |
| s | s | 𐍃 | - | - |
| ʃ | ś | 𐌶 | - | - |
| h | h | 𐌷 | - | - |
| w | w | 𐍅 | - | - |
| j | j | 𐌾 | - | - |
| l | l | 𐌻 | - | - |
| ɬ | lh | 𐍁 | - | - |
| hʷ | ƕ | 𐍈 | - | - |
| Vowels | ||||
| IPA value | Latin letter | Gothic letter | Native orthography | Notes |
| ɑ | a, å | 𐌰 | - | The spelling ‹å› is used for instances of ‹a› which need to be pronounced as /ɑ/ but happen in positions in which the realization would be either /a/ or /ɐ/. For instance, the causative marker caus ‹-a-›, which happens word-medially, would otherwise be pronounced /a/. |
| ɑi̯~ɐi̯~ai̯ | á | 𐌰𐌰 | - | From an early long a vowel; AIK ‹â›, OIK ‹ā› /ɑː/, EMIK ‹ó› /ɑə̯/ |
| i | i | 𐌹 | - | - |
| ei̯~ɛi̯ | í | 𐌹𐌹 | - | From an early long i vowel; AIK ‹î› /ɪː/, OIK ‹ī› /ɪː/, EMIK ‹ī› /ɪi̯/ |
| e̞ | e | 𐌴 | - | - |
| ei̯~ɘi̯ | é | 𐌴𐌴 | - | From an early long o vowel; AIK ‹ê›, OIK ‹ē› /eː/, EMIK ‹é› /eɪ̯/ |
| o̞ | o | 𐍉 | - | - |
| u̹ | ó | 𐍉𐍉 | - | From an early long o vowel; AIK ‹ô› /ɔː/, OIK ‹ō› /oː/, EMIK ‹ó› /oʊ̯/ |
| u | u | 𐌿 | - | - |
Samples
Sentences
| ·:𐍉𐍉:𐍀𐌰𐌲𐍂𐌿𐌼𐍉𐍉𐍂𐌽:𐌿𐌽𐌳𐍂𐌿𐌼𐍉𐍉𐍂𐌽:𐍆𐌰𐍂𐍂𐌿𐌼𐌴𐌽:· | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ‹Ó pagrumórn, undrumórn, faŕumen› | |||||
| /ˈʔu̜ | ˈpɑ.gɾu.mu̜ɾn | | | ˈʔun.dɾu.mu̜ɾn | | | ˈfɑ.ru.mɘn/ |
| ó(r) | {b→p}aga-rum-ór-(e)n | unda-rum-ór-(e)n | fara-rum-(e)n | ||
| gen | tree-det-and-gen | bird-det-and-gen | horse-det-gen | ||
| "of/about the tree, the bird and the horse" | |||||
| (name of a traditional tale) | |||||
Other samples
- I Kronurum has taken part in the Fourth Linguifex Relay. Text of the IK entry (translation from Minhast):
| Dafríra, ibóðr iknegór nonteþini. Tró angr sóraftó jaŕaftó jóherjoneþan. Tró jalíŕihirum ó þetren alastur. Hurman, ána, pórhaŕa tró pórja uŕójubskenis ankjurini, won tró esta angris hajana-ini. Tró śetr órusmarken ehajuri tró istojti finta rengodånere. Nog tró śéðŕó faga detŕó þar jójagrénturan. |
/ˈdɑf.rei̯.ɾɐ ʔi.ˈbu̜.ðɾ̩ ʔi.ˈkne̞.gu̹ɾ ˈno̞n.tɛ.ˌθi.ni/ /ˈtɾu̹ ˈʔɑŋ.gr̩ su̜ɾ.af.ˈtu̹ jɑ.raf.ˈtu̹ ju̜.he̞.ˈɾjo̞.nɛ.ˌθɐn/ /ˈtɾu̹ ˈjɑ.lei̯.ŕi.hi.ɾum ˈʔu̹ ˈθe̞.tɾɘn ʔɑ.ˈlas.tuɾ/ /huɾ.ˈmɑn ˈʔɑi̯.nɐ ˈpu̜ɾ.ha.rɐ ˈtɾu̹ ˈpu̜.ɾjɐ ˈʔo̞.ru̹.ˌjuβs.ke̞.nis ˈʔɑn.kju.ɾi.ni/ /ˈwo̞n ˈtɾu̹ ˈʔe̞s.tɐ ˈʔɑŋ.gɾis ˈhɑ.ja.nɐ ˈʔi.ni/ /ˈtɾu̹ ˈʃe̞.tr̩ ˈʔu̹.ɾus.maɾ.ke̞n ˈʔe.hɑ.ju.ɾi ˈtɾu̹ ʔi.ˈsto̞j.ti ˈfin.tɐ ˈre̞n ˈgo.dɑ.ne.ɾɘ/ /ˈno̞x ˈtɾu̹ ˈʃei̯.ðɾu̹ ˈfɑ.gɐ ˈde̞t.ru̹ ˈθɑɾ ju̜.jɑ.ˈgɾɛi̯n.tu.ɾɐn/
|
| Lord, high and strong, you who came to me in the far sea, I heed to your desire. So, to the sky-spirit. I asked him for and he gave me. You know a silver offering against death won’t protect him. That’s why yonder tree was thoroughly destroyed. |
| Ór antarumen fárarumanóren |
| Jo’harkroj’anta tró báran bagråjanan, fror jóka pór: tró pro nonttinar jog keanontaran; tró dag nóntta losi kenontaran; tró ñog ríra losi tíruŕó þarkefrenaran. Feŕ antarum tró ídi fárarum kekronaran: “ikanaftórum ór angren þisten wohtarinur, as ja ríra tró báran kearånaran kebagråjur”. Feŕ ídi fárarum tró antarum kekronaran: “tr’óstr janáteþur, antarum; pórhaŕa nédor bagråjuntu, nwo haŕa jog ríra, fror frenara ini, tró ibrohir ór ídin ántanen krojarumion estarion hlajana, won, ídi ánta har ó grojan ó jóbken nontáru; wo’nog, antarum, ikanaftórum ór óstren þístenen wohtarinurtu”. Són tróðréðr gar jónátaran, won, antarum lótrumorion jarnturan. |
| The Sheep and the Horses |
| [On a hill,] a sheep that had no wool saw horses, one of them pulling a heavy wagon, one carrying a big load, and one carrying a man quickly. The sheep said to the horses: "My heart pains me, seeing a man driving horses." The horses said: "Listen, sheep, our hearts pain us when we see this: a man, the master, makes the wool of the sheep into a warm garment for himself. And the sheep has no wool." Having heard this, the sheep fled into the plain. |
- "Story of Esro" (original English text by Rhian Davies).
I Kronurum translation of the story of Esro (original English text by Rhian Davies).
| Eþro· de’tru áþi dumarum· iltuŕu alanara ini. Ó osten i-ilttirum har-tró-śena man ó osten bágreþ tró śenasig ésénu ini. Harhaŕa i-kanaftórum ó osten þisten antara ini man de’tró huma som-i-anttitara ini· kan ó osten tarp-ó-págrumeþen agoraþór ialíŕaþór som-i-anttiaþór netrór man harnetrór imannaþór iþinnór jagarnturu ini. Ídi ó osten de’tró istojti man haristojti i-arattirumen hararattirumaftó. Man Eþro won haŕa lósan dumaruman antáru ini alanara ini. |
| The black fox, Esro, lay asleep. His rest is eternal, [&] his eyes forever shut. But he is awake in his heart and he dreams of the most beautiful things. Behind his eyelids is a theatre of colours and hopes and dreams, of order and chaos, of reason and faith. All of consciousness lies within his unconsciousness, mortal and immortal. So Esro lay asleep, while the other foxes awoke. |
- For some conlangs I wrote up samples for a thread in the Facebook group "Constructed Languages". The task was proposed as a small game: "From all your conlangs, pick one word to represent the language and describe it!":
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