User:IlL/A Danified analytic Neo-Arabic: Difference between revisions

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[[{{PAGENAME}}/Swadesh list]]
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Swadesh list]]


 
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Diachronics]]
{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|creator = [[User:IlL|IlL]]
|creator = [[User:IlL|Inthar]]
|nativename = {{PAGENAME}}
|nativename = Xnɪəni
|image =  
|image =  
|setting = [[User:IlL/Lõis|Lõis]]
|setting = [[Verse:Irta]]
|name = Modern Canaanite
|name = Knench
|pronunciation = /knaːniθ/
|pronunciation =  
|region =  
|states = Irta Libya
|states =  
|speakers =  
|speakers =  
|script = Latin
|date =  
|date =  
|familycolor=afroasiatic
|familycolor=afroasiatic
Line 19: Line 19:
|fam2=Semitic
|fam2=Semitic
|fam3=Central Semitic
|fam3=Central Semitic
|fam4=North Semitic
|fam4=Northwest Semitic
|fam5=Canaanite
|fam5=Canaanite
|fam6=Hebrew
|fam6=[[Knench/Ancient|Ancient Knench]]
}}
|fam7=[[Knench/Middle|Middle Knench]]
 
}}ɵ
'''Modern Canaanite''' (Canaanite: ''Knánith'' or ''sofø Knán'', Togarmite: ''Xnoniþ'') is the sole surviving descendant of Biblical Hebrew, spoken by the Knánim people in Lõis's Cyprus, Turkey, Armenia and the Levant. Some Lõisian rabbinical Jewish writings identify this language with the Lost Tribes of Israel, though they disavow the "quasi-pagan" (i.e. [[Verse:Lõis/Θāħīdaθ Hawūθan|Θāħīdaθ Hawūθan]]) religious practices of the Knánim. This is not without cause, as the language preserves quite a few Biblical words and phraseology that fell out of use in Mishnaic Hebrew, though its grammar has been greatly simplified and was completely restructured to use auxiliaries instead of the older Hebrew tenses. 
 
Numbers:
0-10: afs, ódh (m)/áth (f), sznay, szlusz, arbą, homisz, szesz, szewą, szmun, teszą, ngaxør
 
11-20: ódh/áth ngaxør, hnay ngaxør, hlusz ngaxør, arbą ngaxør, homisz ngaxør, szesz ngaxør, szew ngaxør, hmun ngaxør, teszą ngaxør, ngaxre
 
40: stay ngaxre
 
60: hlusz ngaxre
 
...
 
120: merkø
 
14400: rúø


before: kkorm
'''Knench''' (/nɛntʃ/, from Old Knench ''χnānī'' via [[Old Azalic]] ''{{ng}}noinisχ''; natively ''Xnɪəni'' /xnɪəni/ or ''nɨɨm Xnɪən'' /nɨːm xnɪən) is a Semitic language spoken in the Irta timeline and the closest living relative to Hebrew in Irta. The name of the language comes from Ancient Knench ''kanaȝn'' 'Canaan'. Knench has received strong Azalic influence throughout its history since Ancient Knench times, and genetic studies have shown that the Knench are descendants of Azalic speakers who adopted a Canaanite language. The language descends from a close relative of Biblical Hebrew which was spoken in North Africa (which was spoken instead of our Punic in Irta), but its grammar is far less synthetic than its ancestor: lexical verbs were completely restructured to use constructions with auxiliaries and infinitives instead of the older prefix and suffix conjugations, and it has lost grammatical gender like [[Togarmite]] and [[Far East Semitic]]. Knench has many loanwords from various sources including Greek, Azalic, Coptic, Berber, Arabic, Aramaic, Romance, and English.


<!--  
A majority of modern Knench people are Muslim; some are Christian, Jewish or neopagan. There is a Judeo-Knench, with Hebrew and Aramaic loanwords.


This is a short reminder of the language format policy.
It's inspired grammatically by Welsh and Irish, and aesthetically by English, Danish, [[Naeng]], and Khmer.


I. Write a short piece stating your intents and purposes when creating the language (Design goal, inspiration, ideas, and so on).
== Names ==
II. Write a short introduction to your language. (Who speaks it? When was it created? By whom? or what? are some example questions that can be answered here)
=== Native Knench names ===
III. Once done, try making sure everything is properly spelt so as to avoid unnecessary reader fatigue.
* Parm (f.) is from baśam
* Þor (m.) 'bull (from Aramaic)'


-->
Hugin and Munin (de novo derived from active participles ''*hūgi'' and ''*mūni'') are modern fantasy characters


==Orthography==
==History==
Knánith is written in an alphabet descended from the Proto-Hebrew script.


==Introduction==
==TODO==
* Focus prominence (like Welsh)
* retain vav consecutive forms of auxiliaries
* vi = "and then" (used for consecutive events; ~ BH ''wayhi'')
* -x > -rh
* A sentence consisting entirely of replacements and compounds?
** I dal bə kpeen pnaarə. = I don't see any wolves. (Heb: Ani lo ro'e ze'evim.)
* Hard mode: a sentence where every content word has a Semitic cranberry morpheme
*Swadesh list
*Swadesh list
*''bel-, ble-'' is a common prefix (conflation of ben- and ba3al-)
*''bel-, ble-'' is a common prefix (conflation of ben- and ba3al-)
*''tiwdith'' = [[Thedish]]
*Many adverbs from infinitive absolute
*''szą sze...'' = when...
*Philippi should be weaker: i > e, instead of the TibH i > a (*bint > ''peþ'' 'daughter'; TibH ''baṫ'')
*Many adverbs are froma infinitive absolute
*''Mén fows ta xett kori?'' = Why did you have to die?
*''likkori'' = to die (lit. be called)
* replace a lot of Canaanite vocabulary with other words
*''szovuą'' = week
===Some sound changes===
*''midhborø'' = conference
* Maghrebi Arabic craziness (happens early on, ca. 9th-10th century)
*נא becomes a focus clitic ''=nø'', they use it a lot
*-ə (mainly from ACub ''-ō'') becomes silent and lengthens the vowel before it
*Philippi should be weaker: i > e, instead of the TibH i > a (*bint > ''bett'' 'daughter'; TibH ''baṫ'')
*non-rhoticity (nonrhoticity has to happen after fem sg ending loss)
*ħ > x; *gt, kt, ᴋt, ħt > ht
*ś > usually x, sometimes f or fl
*d-t, t-t (morpheme boundary) > st
*xr > x
*''Ri ni b žejn i p Mednə Əśidəs'' 'I live in the United States'
* š- > h-
* univerbate like crazy


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
===Orthography===
===Consonants===
===Consonants===
/m p b f v n t d θ ð ts s z ʃ ŋ k g x h l w j r/ {{angbr|''m p b f v n t d th dh ts s/x z sz ng k g kh h l w y r''}}
*/m n ʁ̃ʷ l w j ɹ{{ret}}/ {{angbr|m n ł h l w j r}}
*/p b f v t d θ ð k g/ {{angbr|p b f v t d þ ð k g}}
*/s{{den}} z{{den}} t{{den}}{{tiebar}}s{{den}} ʃ ʒ tʃ s{{ret}} t{{ret}}{{tiebar}}s{{ret}} x h/ {{angbr|s z c š ž č ś ć x h}}
 
/t d/ are alveolar, and /θ ð/ are dental. /θ ð/ may be realized as [t̪ d̪].
 
/s{{den}} z{{den}} t{{den}}{{tiebar}}s{{den}}/ are lamino-dental, like Basque ''z''.
 
/s{{ret}} t{{ret}}{{tiebar}}s{{ret}}/ are retracted apico-alveolar, like Greek /s/.


Glottal reinforcement (transcribed by ''tt kk'') occurs before historical Biblical Hebrew emphatics /tʼ kʼ tsʼ/, and also analogically in some other cases (cf. Glottalic PIE > RP English).
Ancient Knench /l/ became /w/ in some places, especially before C or pausa.


Biblical Hebrew /l/ became /w/ in some places, especially before C.
Stops are unaspirated.
====Mutations====
Words can undergo initial lenition, as in Irish and Tiberian Hebrew:


p- b- t- d- k- g- > f- v- th- dh- kh- Ø-
Judeo-Knench has final r in borrowed Hebrew and Aramaic vocabulary.


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
/a ɛ i ɔ u ə a: ɛ: i: ɔ: u: ə: ã:/ = {{angbr|a e i o u ø á é í ó ú ǿ ą}}
{{PAGENAME}} has the largest vowel inventory of any Semitic language in Irta. It has many diphthongs.
 
Word-final /i/ is silent and palatalizes the preceding consonant.


===Prosody===
===Prosody===
====Stress====
====Stress====
Stress is always penultimate, except with some verbs where the lV- prefix does not have the stress.
Stress tends penultimate or final.


====Intonation====
===Intonation===


===Phonotactics===
===Phonotactics===
<!-- Explain the consonant clusters and vowel clusters that are permissible for use in the language. For example, "st" is an allowed consonant cluster in English while onset "ng" isn't. -->
===Morphophonology===
===Morphophonology===
==Orthography==
Modern Knench has an orthography using an alphabet descended from the Paleo-Hebrew script, where spelling reflects Middle Knench.


==Morphology==
==Morphology==
Knánith has lost the verbal inflections and triconsonantal morphology of Biblical Hebrew.
{{PAGENAME}} has lost the verbal inflections and triconsonantal morphology of Ancient Knench.


<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
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-->
-->
===Nouns and adjectives===
===Nouns and adjectives===
Nouns inflect for number and definiteness. Adjectives agree with nouns in number.
Nouns inflect for number and definiteness. Like in English, proper nouns don't take the definite article. Attributive adjectives agree with nouns in number, but predicate adjectives do not. Knench has lost grammatical gender and the construct state, although animates still have natural gender.
==== Number and definiteness ====
{{PAGENAME}} has regularized most plurals to ''-ə'' (from a merger of Ancient Knench ''-īn'' > ''*-ī'' and ''-ūδ''). ''-u'' nouns become ''-lə'' in the plural: ''þebu, þeblə'' 'a world, worlds'.
 
Nouns inflect for definiteness, as follows:
*Singular: -əs (after C), (from haz-ze and haz-zū)
*Plural: -il, replacing the plural suffix ''-ə'' if any (from ha-2ili), -u + -il > -ul
** Plurals must be memorized! For example -u may become -ləs (specifically when the -u comes from a vocalized /-l/).
 
Words ending in a schwa add an intrusive R between the final vowel and the plural suffix.
 
Some irregular plurals: ''penš, plenš'' = human


Knánith has lost grammatical gender.
Examples:
*''śadə'' /ˈs{{ret}}adə/ = an apartment/flat
*''śadrəs'' /ˈs{{ret}}adɹəs/ = the flat
*''śadrə'' /ˈs{{ret}}adɹə/ = flats
*''śadril'' /ˈs{{ret}}adɹɪl/ = the flats
*''śadə bušət'' /ˈs{{ret}}adə ˈbʊʃət/ = a big flat
*''śadrəs bušət'' /ˈs{{ret}}adɹəs ˈbʊʃət/ = the big flat
*''śadrə buštə'' /ˈs{{ret}}adɹə ˈbʊʃtə/ = big flats
*''śadril buštə'' /ˈs{{ret}}adɹɪl ˈbʊʃtə/ = the big flats


*The regular "feminine" singular suffix is -ø or -th.
''-ma'' nouns from Greek become ''-mat'' nouns: ''þemat, þematas, þematə, þematil'' 'topic, theme'.
*The regular "masculine" plural suffix is -im or ''-e''.
*The regular "feminine" plural is -uth.
*However, there are many irregular plurals, especially nouns derived from construct state constructions. e.g. ''benusz, blenusz'' = human


''køfor, køforim'' = village, villages
==== Predicative adjectives ====
The predicative/adverbial marker ''bə'' followed by the bare form is used for predicative adjectives: ''Ri śadrəs bə bušət'' 'The room is big'.


''bakkbøkk, bakkbøkkim'' = bottle, bottles
==== Degree ====
*Equative: ''de'' = as X as; equally X (~ BH ''day'' 'enough')
*Comparative/Superlative: ''-ur'' = more X or most X (from *3abūr, infinitive absolute of 'to exceed'); comparandum takes ''prej'' 'than' (from Ancient Knench ''pirūðī'' 'when I see'). The ''-ur'' form is indeclinable.


''i, iim'' = island, islands
Example: ''bušət'' 'big', ''de bušət'' 'as big as'; ''buštur'' 'bigger/biggest'


''kiszø, kiszuth'' = cucumber, cucumbers
=== Pronouns ===
Knench has a pronoun system similar to European languages, except that there is no grammatical gender and ''se'' "that" is used as an inanimate or gender-neutral pronoun. There is a T-V distinction: the 2nd person plural ''tim'' is also used as a polite pronoun.


''gøfø, gøfuth'' = corpse, corpses
''I'' (/i:/ or /ɪ/) is the default form for the 1sg subject pronoun; ''ni'' is used after a vowel or for disambiguation.


''takkrith, takkriyuth'' = incident, incidents
For gender-neutral usage, ''tu'' has been proposed as a 2nd person singular neopronoun (inspired by Indo-European languages). This isn't as common as using the 2nd person plural ''tim'' as singular, however.


Canaanite has lost the construct state. The only remnant of the construct state is the -th- interfix used in possessive constructions between two nouns that end and begin with a vowel, respectively: e.g.
Knench emphatic pronouns come from a suffixed ''-nna'' (precative).
*''hadhør-mittø'' 'bedroom'
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
*''ngønove-th-anf'' 'the grapes of wrath'
|+ Pronouns in {{PAGENAME}}, basic forms
*''nøszomø-th-ahwø'' 'spirit of brotherhood'
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person
! style="width: 75px; " | I
! style="width: 75px; " | thou (m)
! style="width: 75px; " | thou (f)
! style="width: 75px; " | he
! style="width: 75px; " | she
! style="width: 75px; " | we
! style="width: 75px; " | ye
! style="width: 75px; " | they
|-
! Basic forms
| ''i, ni''
| ''tə''
| ''ti''
| ''u''
| ''oj''
| ''nu''
| ''tim''
| ''im''
|-
! Emphatic forms
| ''(n)in''
| ''tan''
| ''ten''
| ''un''
| ''ojn, hin''
| ''nun''
| ''temnə''
| ''emnə''
|}


Degree markers:
==== Interrogative pronouns ====
*Equative: ''de-'' = as X as; equally X; X enough
* ''da, ida'' = what? (nominal) (*hajj dabar 'what thing')
*Excessive: ''ro-'' = too (from Celtic)
* ''ew'' = who? (*2ajj hū)
*Comparative/Superlative: ''-ter'' = more X or most X; comparandum takes ''broth'' 'than' (from Biblical Hebrew ''*birʔōṫī ʔeṫ'' 'when I see ACC')
** poetic ''mi''
* ''ajšə'' = which?
* ''énə'' = where?
* ''məðé'' = when?
* ''əziəp'' = why? (the reason something happened) (or from another phrase of the form "ayy [NOUN]")
* ''maləx'' = why? (the reason someone does something) (*ma lak 'what's the matter')
* ''xam'' = how many?
* ''xiəlt'' = how?


===Verbs===
===Verbs===
Verbs use only one form, usually the inherited Biblical infinitive construct, prefixed with ''l-''. Even for imperatives: ''Lathett lo hi!'' = 'Give it to her!' Some verbs instead are derived from other nouns derived from the triconsonantal root rather than the infinitive of a particular verb.
Almost all verbs use only one form. For native verbs, this form may be derived from:
====Regular pa3al verbs====
* the infinitive construct or the imperative (mostly basic verbs)
The regular pattern is *liCCuC.
* a deverbal noun pattern (most common)
* a univerbation of a verb + noun collocation


====-t verbs====
The infinitive form may or may not have a prefixed ''l-'', depending on the verb; however, even verbs without l- often display a voicing mutation attesting to the historical lV- (e.g. ''žbuð'' 'to be idle, to lie fallow'). Some verbs instead are derived from other nouns derived from the relevant triconsonantal root rather than the infinitive of a particular verb (e.g. ''benin'' 'to build', cognate to the Hebrew noun ''binyan''; from the root b-n-y)
Many of these verbs got the glottally reinforced -tt from -ʔt. The -tt then analogically spread to other verbs.
*lalakht /laˈlaxt/ = to go
*lakkakht /laʔˈkaxt/ = to take
*lasakht /laˈsaxt/ = to go back
*laszaft /laˈʃaft/ = to sit
*lathett /laˈθeʔt/ = to give
*larast /laˈrast/ = to go down
*lalast /laˈlast/ = to be born
*lasett /laˈseʔt/ = to carry
*latsett /laˈtseʔt/ = to go out
*lasątt /laˈsãːʔt/ = to travel
*laghątt /laˈɣãːʔt/ = to hit, to smite
*ladhątt /laˈðãːʔt/ = to know
*lattątt /laʔˈtãːʔt/ = to plant


====Regular nif3al====
The infinitive is also used as an imperative: ''ðeht ló oj!'' = 'Give it to her!' Imperatives are negated by placing ''bal'' or ''bawði'' before the verb.
The regular pattern is *liCoCiC where the first C is not lenited.
====Inflected verbs====
Knench has only six inflected verbs (i.e. verbs with inflected past and future forms):
*''luð'' 'to be'
*''śuð'' 'to do' (from *ʕaśō, with contamination from *paȝal): used to form past and future perfective tenses
*''buð'' 'to come' (from *bô): sometimes means 'must, have to'. ''bu'' is still used as a directional.
*''leht'' 'to go' (from *halak), also used as a passive auxilliary for dechticaetiative objects
*''kaht'' 'to take' (from *laqaħ): also used for animate patients of ditransitive verbs
*''ðeht'' 'to give' (from *natan, with contamination from *hinīħ 'to leave' and naħħil 'to bequeath'): also used for causatives
Their forms have become more similar to each other due to analogy.  


====Regular pi3el====
Knench maintains a distinction between independent and dependent forms for finite verbs, like Old Irish. The independent forms come from the Ancient Knench waw-consecutive. Using a preverb such as ''lu'' 'not', ''veə'' '(interrogative form of present marker ''ri'')', ''xaž'' 'relativizer', or ''śu'' 'I'm sure that...' (from the infinitive absolute *3aśū of *3aśō 'to do'; generalized from ''*3aśū ja3śiju'' 'he will indeed do') requires the dependent form. Dependent past forms and future forms are formally identical to independent future forms and past forms, respectively, except for ''luð'' 'to be'.
The regular pattern is *løCaCiC or *løCiCuC where the middle C is not lenited.


====Regular hif3il====
Even verbs with finite forms are defective verbs, since finite forms are always perfective (except forms of ''luð''). To express the imperfective with these verbs, you still have to use the copula + bə + VN construction. The negator ''lu'' only negates finite verbs.
The regular pattern is *laCCiC, *leCCeC, or *laCCoCø.


====Regular hithpa3el====
The present particle ''ri'' comes from ''ru{{aleph}}i'', the imperative of ''ra{{aleph}}ō'' 'to see'. ''Ri'' is not used in subordinate clauses:
The regular pattern is *lithCaCiC where the middle C is not lenited.
*'''''Ri''' Đavíð þaś žin.'' = David is about to sleep.
====Other verbs====
*'''''Pið''' Đavíð þaś žin, r'u dal bə xapuð uras.'' = When David goes to sleep, he doesn't turn off the lights.
Other verbs come from noun derivation patterns, or from earlier verb + noun collocations.
* ''Veə Đavíð þaś žin?'' = Is David going to bed? (neutral)
* '''''Ri''' Đavíð dar þaś žin.'' = David is not going to bed.


===Auxiliaries===
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width: 750px; text-align:center;"
Knánith has an auxiliary verb system similar to Colloquial Welsh. In addition, there is a T-V distinction: the 2nd person plural ''tem'' is also used as a polite pronoun.
|+ Inflected verbs in {{PAGENAME}}
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="greentable lightgreenbg" style="width: 700px; text-align:center;"
! colspan=2 style="width: 75px; "| → Person
|+ Various auxiliaries in Knánith
! style="width: 75px; " | I
! style="width: 75px; "| → Person<br/>↓ Truth value
! style="width: 75px; " | thou (m)
! style="width: 75px; " | 1sg
! style="width: 75px; " | thou (f)
! style="width: 75px; " | 2sg.m
! style="width: 75px; " | he
! style="width: 75px; " | 2sg.f
! style="width: 75px; " | she
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg.m
! style="width: 75px; " | we
! style="width: 75px; " | 3sg.f
! style="width: 75px; " | you (plural)
! style="width: 75px; " | 1pl.in
! style="width: 75px; " | they
! style="width: 75px; " | 2pl
! style="width: 75px; " | 3pl
! | Non-pronominal
|-
|-
! Affirmative
! colspan=2|Present ''ri/r' ''
| ''ni, i''
| ''i, ni''
| ''to''
| ''tə''
| ''te''
| ''ti''
| ''u''
| ''r'u''
| ''hi''
| ''r'oj''
| ''nanu, nu''
| ''nu''
| ''tem''
| ''tim''
| ''em''
| ''r'im''
| ''re, r' ''
|-
!rowspan=4| ''luð''
! future indep.
| ''wej(ð) i''
| ''wejs tə''
| ''wejs ti''
| ''wii u''
| ''wieþ oj''
| ''wejn nu''
| ''wejs tim''
| ''wilu'm''
|-
! future dep.
| ''jie i''
| ''þies tə''
| ''þies ti''
| ''jie u''
| ''þieþ oj''
| ''nien  nu''
| ''þies tim''
| ''juu'm''
|-
|-
! Present emphatic
! past indep.
| ''ngud i''
| ''waj i''
| ''ngud to''
| ''was tə''
| ''ngud te''
| ''was ti''
| ''nguden u''
| ''waj u''
| ''nguden hi''
| ''waþ oj''
| ''ngud nu''
| ''wan nu''
| ''ngud tem''
| ''was tim''
| ''ngud em''
| ''waju'm''
| ''ngud''
|-
|-
! Interrogative
! past dep.
| ''am ni, am i''
| ''hej(ð) i''
| ''am to''
| ''hejs tə''
| ''am te''
| ''hejs ti''
| ''am u''
| ''hie u''
| ''am hi''
| ''hieþ oj''
| ''am nu''
| ''hejn nu''
| ''am tem''
| ''hejs tim''
| ''am em''
| ''hilu'm''
| ''am''
|-
|-
! Negative
!rowspan=2| ''śuð''  
| ''i mul''
! future indep.
| ''to mul''
| ''fow(ð) i''
| ''te mul''
| ''fows tə''
| ''u mul''
| ''fows ti''
| ''hi mul''
| ''fow u''
| ''nu mul''
| ''foəþ oj''
| ''tem mul''
| ''fown nu''
| ''em mul''
| ''fows tim''
| ''___ mul''
| ''folu'm''
|-
|-
! Past
! past indep.
| ''si ni, sit i, sit ni''
| ''woś i''
| ''sit to''
| ''þoś tə''
| ''sit te''
| ''þoś ti''
| ''so u''
| ''joś u''
| ''sto hi''
| ''þoś oj''
| ''sin nu''
| ''noś nu''
| ''sit tem''
| ''þoś tim''
| ''su'm''
| ''jośu'm''
| ''so/sto/su''
|-
|-
! Passive present
!rowspan=2| ''buð''
| ''ur ni, ur i''
! future indep.
| ''tur to''
| ''pow(ð) i''
| ''tri te''
| ''pows tə''
| ''yur u''
| ''pows ti''
| ''tur hi''
| ''pow u''
| ''nur nu''
| ''poəþ oj''
| ''tru tem''
| ''pown nu''
| ''ru'm''
| ''pows tim''
| ''yur/tur/ru''
| ''polu'm''
|-
|-
! Passive past
! past indep.
| ''var ni, var i, vart i''
| ''pax i''
| ''vart to''
| ''tpax tə''
| ''vart te''
| ''tpaj ti''
| ''var u''
| ''pax u''
| ''vro hi''
| ''tpax oj''
| ''var nu''
| ''pax nu''
| ''vart tem''
| ''tpaw tim''
| ''vru'm''
| ''paw'm''
| ''var/vro/vru''
|-
|-
! Future/Subjunctive
!rowspan=2| ''leht''
| ''ąs i''
! future indep.
| ''tąs to''
| ''law(ð) i''
| ''tąs te''
| ''laws tə''
| ''yąs u''
| ''laws ti''
| ''tąs hi''
| ''law u''
| ''nąs nu''
| ''laəþ oj''
| ''tąsu tem''
| ''lawn nu''
| ''yąsu'm''
| ''laws tim''
| ''yąs/tąs/yąsu''
| ''lalu'm''
|-
|-
! "May"
! past indep.
| ''kekh i''
| ''lax i''
| ''tkekh to''
| ''tlax tə''
| ''tkekh te''
| ''tlej ti''
| ''kekh u''
| ''lax u''
| ''tkekh hi''
| ''tlax oj''
| ''kekh nu''
| ''lax nu''
| ''tkekhu tem''
| ''tlaw tim''
| ''kekhu'm''
| ''law'm''
| ''kekh/tkekh/kekhu''
|-
|-
! "Do X more" - present
!rowspan=2| ''kaht''
| ''usif i''
! future indep.
| ''tusif to''
| ''kaw(ð) i''
| ''tusif te''
| ''kaws tə''
| ''yusif u''
| ''kaws ti''
| ''tusif hi''
| ''kaw u''
| ''nusif nu''
| ''kaəþ oj''
| ''tusif tem''
| ''kawn nu''
| ''yusifu'm''
| ''kaws tim''
| ''usif/tusif/yusifu''
| ''kalu'm''
|-
|-
! "Do X more" - past
! past indep.
| ''seft i''
| ''kax i''
| ''seft to''
| ''tkax tə''
| ''seft te''
| ''tkaj ti''
| ''sif u''
| ''kax u''
| ''sifo hi''
| ''tkax oj''
| ''sef nu''
| ''kax nu''
| ''seft tem''
| ''tkaw tim''
| ''sifu'm''
| ''kaw'm''
| ''usif/tusif/yusifu''
|-
|-
! Cautionary
!rowspan=2| ''ðeht''
| ''zum i''
! future indep.
| ''tøzum to''
| ''naw(ð) i''
| ''tøzum te''
| ''naws tə''
| ''zum u''
| ''naws ti''
| ''tøzum hi''
| ''naw u''
| ''nøzum nu''
| ''naəþ oj''
| ''tøzmu tem''
| ''nawn nu''
| ''zmu'm''
| ''naws tim''
| ''izum/tozum/izmu''
| ''nalu'm''
|-
! past indep.
| ''nax i''
| ''tnax tə''
| ''tnaj ti''
| ''nax u''
| ''tnax oj''
| ''nax nu''
| ''tnaw tim''
| ''naw'm''
|}
|}
=====Cautionary future=====
 
The auxiliary for the cautionary future comes from the Biblical Hebrew verb ''*zāmam'' 'to scheme'. It's used to:
====Regular pa3al verbs====
* warn the listener of a future event or contingency:  
The regular pattern is *(li)CCuC.
** '''''Zum''' sąraz lovu henø kol ngeth.'' = 'The storm might come here any moment.'
 
** '''''Tøzum''' tafkestaz mul lith ngal szom!'' = 'The function might not be onto! [in a hypothetical math textbook, cautioning against a tacit assumption a reader might make]'
When the historical C1 is a pharyngeal, the ''l-'' usually resurfaces:
* often used in a threatening manner, for example: ''Lakh to mul yedhą ma '''zum''' i ląsuth lakh to!'' = 'You have no idea what I'm gonna do to you!'
* C1 = ayin: ''lubuə'' 'to go past' /lʊˈbuə/
* C1 = heth: ''litul'' 'to cease/stop' /lɪˈtʊl/
 
This doesn't happen when C1 = aleph/he: ''vuð'' /vʊð/ 'to bake, to fire', ''zuð'' /z{{den}}ʊð/ 'to be crazy, to be cool'.
 
====*-t verbs====
*leht /lɛht/ = to go by foot
*kaht /kaht/ = to take
*žeht /ʒɛht/ = to go back<!--
*łef /ʀɛf/ = to be hateful (dative-stative; Ri vivliəs bə łef u li ni 'I hate the book')-->
*žef /ʒɛf/ = to sit
*les /lɛs{{den}}/ = to be born
*res /ɹɛs{{den}}/ = to go down
*reš /ɹɛʃ/ = to acquire; to get
*ðeht /ðɛht/ = to give
*śeht /s{{ret}}ɛht/ = to carry, to owe, should
*ceht /t{{den}}{{tiebar}}s{{den}}ɛht/ = to go out, to start X-ing
*žoot /ʒoːt/ = (of time) to go by
*goot /goːt/ = to do X correctly
*doot /doːt/ = to know
*toot /toːt/ = to farm, to grow (plants)


===Prepositions===
===Prepositions===
Prepositions inflect like in Welsh: for pronominal prepositional objects, usually the preposition is inflected and is followed by the independent pronoun.
Prepositions inflect like in Welsh: for pronominal prepositional objects, usually the preposition is inflected and is followed by the independent pronoun. The inflected preposition is stressed unless the emphatic pronoun is used: ''lah tə'' /'lax tə/ 'to you' vs. ''lah tan'' /lax 'tan/ 'to you, specifically'.
 
example of a {{PAGENAME}} inflected preposition: el "for"; pə/p' 'in, at' is inflected similarly
*1sg: l'i, li ni
*2sg.m: lah tə
*2sg.f: lah ti
*3sg.m: lom u
*3sg.f: l'oj, ló oj
*3sg.n: ləze
*1pl. lon nu
*2pl. lam tim
*3pl. low'm


example of a knánith inflected preposition: lø "for"
Other prepositions:
*1sg: li, li ni
*''men'' = from
*2sg.m: lakh to
*''tubel'' = for
*2sg.f: lakh te
*''jaən'' = because of (also "reason")
*3sg.m: lu hu, lú hu
*''łaj'' = on, above
*3sg.f: lo hi, loy hi
*''jaś, jaśəm'' = with (both inst. and com.)
*1pl. lon nu, lonu
*''pəłee'' = inside, within
*2pl. lém tem
**sim. ''ləłee, məłee'' 'into, out of'
*3pl. lam em
*''pəlip'' = amidst
*''wen'' = without
*''mənie'' = before, in front of
*''kodm'' = before (temporally)
*''śni'' = after (Hitsi šeni 'second half')
*''məłææl'' = above
*''məþææl'' = below
*''þaht'' = instead of
*''til'' = like, as
*''śakə'' = until
 
=== Numbers ===
0-10: sifə, śaa, hniəm/hniə (attributive), hluž, arvu, śami, šeš, šebu, hmɨɨn, þež, łaaś
 
11-20: štoo, hnajoo, hlužoo, arvoo, śamižoo, šešoo, šeboo, hmɨɨnoo, þežoo, hniə łəəśi
 
21-30: łəəśi śaa, łəəśi hniəm, ... łəəśi łaaś
 
31-40: łəəśi štąh, ..., hniə łəəśi
 
41, 42, ...: hniə łəəśi śaa, hniə łəəśi šném, ...
 
60: hluž łəəśi
 
...
 
100: miə
 
1000: awv


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
Line 347: Line 480:
The order is tense-subject-verb-object.
The order is tense-subject-verb-object.


:'''''R'iszaz bø lékhul tapuhaz.'''''
:'''''R'ižəs ław bloo u abləs.'''''
:''The man is eating the apple.''
:''The man is eating the apple.''


:'''''Re beth-u bø dhe-rul kø liyothøn.'''''
:'''''Ri piəð u bə de kruu til stadi.'''''
:''His house is as big as a whale.''
:''His house is as big as a stadium.''


:'''''Sto hi lásuth halkkbeth-i bø muødh múhør.'''''
:'''''Fól oj ðə fluð xawgpéð oj bə ro-múxr.'''''
:''She did her homework very late.''
:''She did her homework too late.''


The negative particle ''mul'' (from ''mə'u'â lo'' 'not anything') comes after the subject pronoun and before the verb.
The negative particle ''dal'' (from ''tabar lū'' 'not anything') comes after the subject pronoun and before the verb.


===Faulty accusative===
===Faulty accusative===
Knánith has the faulty accusative particle ''tha'' (from Biblical Hebrew ''ʔeṫ ha-''). It is not used for all direct objects, but only for constituents that are separated from their heads.
{{PAGENAME}} has the faulty accusative (glossed as FA) particle ''ðə'' or ''ð' '', from Ancient Knench ''jūδ ha-''. It is actually not used for direct objects, but only for constituents that are separated from their heads. It also replaces a (TAM-marking) "preposition" in front of a lexical verb, when no preposition is used.
 
=== Noun phrase ===
Y's X = X Y-DEF: ''šem vaziləs'' = the king's name
 
To say "this X" or "that X", ''X-DEF fu'' and ''X-DEF feni'' (lit. "the X here" and "the X there") are used. To say "this" and "that", you say ''se fu'' and ''se feni'' (where the ''se'' becomes ''ilə'' in the plural).
 
''havu, haveni'' = like this, like that
 
The abstract demonstrative (referring to sentences or facts) is ''suð''.
 
===Verb phrase===
Knench allows arbitrarily long chains of pseudo-auxiliaries:
: '''''R'oj bə kofstəl* oj gąt latsææg.'''''
: 3SG.F.PRES IPFV never_fail to_do_correctly to_joke
: ''Her jokes never fail to land.''
(*) a loan from an unknown source
====VN constructions====
Knench has a rich tense-aspect system which expresses imperfective/perfective as well as progressive and perfect.
*'''''ri''' Parm '''bə''' leht oj'' = Parm goes
*'''''ri''' Parm '''ław''' leht oj'' = Parm is going
*'''''ri''' Parm '''þax''' leht oj'' = Parm is about to go
*'''''ri''' Parm '''xni''' leht oj'' = Parm has gone
*'''''ri''' Parm '''xni juð oj bə''' leht'' = Parm has been going
*'''''ri''' Parm '''dəž''' leht oj'' = Parm just went
*'''''ri''' Parm '''wen''' leht oj'' = Parm hasn't went
*'''''fól''' Parm '''ðə''' leht'' = Parm went (perfective; cf. AAVE ''She done went'')
*'''''þąf''' Parm '''ðə''' leht'' = Parm will go (perfective)
*'''''han''' Parm '''bə''' leht oj'' = Parm went (imperfective)
*'''''þé''' Parm '''bə''' leht oj'' = Parm will go (imperfective)
*''leht!'' = Go! (number neutral)
*'''''gwenu''' leht!'' (3uqbinu lekt "follow us to go") = Let's go!
 
In clauses with a copula and a verbal noun, Knench requires the pronoun corresponding to the subject to come right after the verbal noun: ''R'ižəs bø hél u ð'abwəs''. This is etymologically "See the man when he's eating the apple", cf. Biblical and literary Modern Hebrew באכלו את התפוח "when he eats the apple (but tense- and aspect-neutral)".
 
The clause-initial subject pronoun + bə colloquially tends to be omitted in the present tense when the subject is 1st or 2nd person: ''Ðób tə ð'i nr?'' 'Do you love me?'
 
==== Passive and causative ====
''Ðett'' 'to give' is used as an auxiliary for the causative:
: ''Nawð i ðə pinxadəs el kapwəs el ąnuj.''
: I made the horse bore the farmer to death.
: (lit. I gave the horse the farmer to inflict boredom)
In a ''ðett''-causative construction, the more animate object takes the dative preposition ''el''. This connects ditransitives which are causatives of transitives to the basic ditransitive verb 'give'.


===Noun phrase===
To form passives two different auxiliaries are used:
The definite article is a clitic:
* ''Kaht'' 'to take' is used as an auxiliary to raise the animate object of a ditransitive verb.
*Singular: -az (after C) or -zu (after V)
* ''leht'' 'to go' is used to raise the inanimate object of both monotransitive and ditransitive verbs (as well as the object of the original verb which is causativized).
*Plural: -il
Examples:
*''hadhør'' = a room
*''hadhraz'' = the room
*''hadhrim'' = rooms
*''hadhril'' = the rooms
*''hadhør grul'' = a big room
*''hadhør grulaz'' = the big room (< ''hah-hadhər hag-gâdhol haz-ze'')
*''botim grulim'' = big houses
*''botim grulil'' = the big houses


*''tøpuaz r' iszaz bø lékhul u'' = The apple, the man eats it
: ''Kawð u đə ląbur mitəs rup məšólə.''
: 'He was made to suffer so many things.'


There is no construct state, unlike in Biblical Hebrew. Genitives are expressed with concatenation: ''szem-mawkaz'' = the king's name.
: ''Lawð łeśwəs đə hél men kapwəs.''
: 'The grass was fed to the horse.'


To say "this X" or "that X", ''X-az fu'' and ''X-az szom'' (lit. "the X here" and "the X there") are used. To say "this" and "that", you say ''ze fu'' and ''ze szom'' (where the ''ze'' becomes ''ilø'' in the plural).
=== Balancing vs deranking conjunctions ===
Balancing conjunctions take full finite clauses (clauses with a finite verb or an auxiliary):
* ''ej'' "and"
* ''ow'' "or"
* ''mur'' (complementizer)
* ''łeþr'' "when"
* ''wí'' "if" (< *wa-kī)
* ''jern'' "because"


The abstract demonstrative is ''zuth''.
Deranking conjunctions replace finite forms of the copula ''juð'' and thus are also called ''copula-replacing conjunctions'' (e.g. by Hrafn). Some CRCs are:
* ''prí'' "than"
* ''jið'' (complementizer)
* ''pið'' "when"


===Verb phrase===
=== Time clauses ===
''Isz li rąv'' "I'm hungry"
==== ''pið''-clauses ====
A ''pið''-clause is in the same tense as the clause it's embedded in. ''Pið''-clauses denote states, things that can be marked with ''re'' + tense markers in the present tense), rather than completed actions.
==== ''łeþr''-clauses ====
''łeþr'' are used for clauses with auxiliaries other than the present tense copula.


===Sentence phrase===
===Complementizer===
===Complementizer===
There is a complementizer ''mur'' (from לאמר ''lēmōr'') or ''zuth'' depending on dialect.
There is a complementizer ''mur'' (from ''lēmūr'') or ''jið'' (from conflation of ''hajūδ'' 'to be' and ''jūδ'' accusative marker) depending on dialect.
 
===Relativizer===
In most cases, relative clauses use the relativizer ''xaž'' (from ''*χa-ʔašir'' 'like that which'). ''n'' may appear after the resumptive pronoun if one is used.
 
Subject of a copula auxiliary:
: '''''paras xaž hie __ bə gri u "pnar"'''''
: the boy who cried (would cry) wolf
 
Subject with a non-copula auxiliary:
: '''''paras xaž fow __ gri "pnar"'''''
: the boy who cried wolf (once)
 
Direct object:
: '''''vivlias xaž fown nu ðə gru (se (n))'''''
: the book that we read
 
Oblique object:
: '''''péðas xaž hieþ oj bə xun oj pəze (n)'''''
: the house she used to live in
 
To relativise the subject of a ''present'' copula, ''łom'' (from hā-3ūmid 'that is standing') is used:
 
: R' abwas pə śadə i. -> '''''abwas łom pə śadə i'''''
: the apple in my flat
 
: Ri plenžil śni leht im. -> '''''plenžil łom xni leht im'''''
: the people who have gone
 
=== Serial verb construction ===
Serial verbs are also very common in Knench:
 
: '''''Pow Móšé ðə kaht vdųś prið u. / Fow Móšé ðə buð kaht vdųś prið u. '''''
: come.PST.3SG.M Moshe FA take.INF open.INF gift 3sg.m / PST.3SG.M Moshe FA come.INF take.INF open.INF gift 3SG.M
:Moshe came, took, and opened his gift.
 
Directionals derived from verbs, such as ''leht'' '(t)hence', ''bu'' '(t)hither' and ''kub'' 'movement together with another person' are also common and may replace pronouns.
 
=== Wh-questions ===
No special treatment is observed unless the wh-word is the subject, in which case ''łom'' is used after the wh-word. However, ''łom'' is not used in a question in the form of a nominal sentence. (As always, ''ri'' is dropped in questions.)
 
:'''''Dar Petə bə fluð?'''''
:''What's Peter doing?''
 
:'''''Dar łom bə gruð?'''''
:''What's happening?''
 
:'''''Dar se fu? (*Dar łom se fu?)'''''
:''What's this?''
 
:'''''Énr ti?'''''
:''Where are you?''
 
:'''''Énr fows tə ðə leht?''''' / '''''Énr laws tr?'''''
:''Where have you been?''


==Vocabulary==
==Vocabulary==
Many words are formed form earlier construct state combinations, and are sometimes unrecognizable:  
Knench has the following vocabulary layers:
*''anvinin, anevinin'' 'brick' from אבני בניין ''*ʔaḃ(a)nē ḃinyān'' 'building stones'
*''szavdom, szavdomim'' 'carnage, destruction' from שפך דם ''*šáṗek̇ dām'' 'spilling of blood'
*''ngemem, ngememuth'' 'source' from עין מים ''ʕēn máyim'' 'spring of water'
*''laseppin'' 'to like' from נשא פני lit. 'lift the face of' meaning 'to favor'
*''kulaliv'' 'conscience' from קול הלב lit. 'voice of the heart'


The CăCiCâ verbal noun pattern is not attested (the pattern appears first in Mishnaic Hebrew).
# Most of the common words are inherited from the Semitic common ancestor of Ancient Knench and Biblical Hebrew, however they often show drastic semantic drift or univerbation. Example: ''šłúd'' 'a lot' comes from ''saȝudō'' 'feast'. Cranberry morphemes are not uncommon in Semito-Knench.
# Azalic substrate
# Ancient Greek, Aramaic
# Latin, Romance, Arabic, Turkic and Modern Greek


*bel, ble- = agentive
Although it is attested in Ancient Knench, the *CaCīCō verbal noun pattern is not as productive as the corresponding pattern in Mishnaic and Modern Hebrew.
*beth- = place noun
 
Many words are formed from earlier construct state or verb + object combinations, and are sometimes unrecognizable as such:
*''əmbein'' 'brick' from ''*habanē binjan'' 'building stones'
*''həvgom'' 'massacre; (slang) debacle, fiasco; a mess' from ''*šafx dam'' 'spilling of blood'
*''łienəm'' 'source' from ''ʕēn mayim'' 'spring of water'
*''xifin'' 'to like' from ''*śe'θ fin'' lit. 'lift the face of' meaning 'to favor'
*''xihniem (el)'' 'to look at' from ''*śe'θ 3ēnajim'' 'lift eyes'
*''krəlieb'' 'conscience' from ''*qūl hal-lēbb'' lit. 'voice of the heart'
 
Some productive affixes are:
*pen-/ple- = agentive, -ling
** ''pnar'' 'wolf' comes from older *ben harr 'mountainling'; a euphemism replacing Ancient Knench ''zēb'', which had become taboo by Old Knench
*peδ- = place noun
*pəd-/pd- = associated inanimate, esp. singulative of a collective noun (from peθθ 'daughter')
** ''pdoo'' = tree (*pett ja3r)
** ''pdam'' = wave (*pett jamm)
** ''pdəəm'' = word (irreg. metathesis from *pett himrō)
** ''pdeš'' = flame
** ''pled'' = echo
** ''pədnə'' = stream
** ''pəmtaa'' = dew (from ''mtaa'' 'rain')
** ''pədkažəm'' = (''poetic'') petrichor
*''-l'' = transitivizer or causative of verbs (from a -w ~ -ul alternation in some intransitive-transitive verb pairs)
** ''hamžəl'' 'to dry' < ''hamž'' '(archaic) sun'
* -is: -ess (from Greek)
** ''vazilis'' 'queen' < ''vazil'' 'king'
** ''mææšivis'' 'witch' < ''mææšiv'' 'mage, wizard'
* ''lið-'' = mediopassive
* ''məð-'' is more productive and is used to form verbal adjectives, serving the role of passive participles
** ''luri'' 'to amaze'; ''muri'' 'amazing'; ''məðuri'' 'amazed'


==Example texts==
==Example texts==
===UDHR, Article 1===
===UDHR, Article 1===
:'''''Kol blenuszil vru'm lalest kø hofszim; hem szowim ngal kovdaz ke tsrokkuthil. Blenuszil vru'm lifkudh bø vinø ke kulaliv, ke re ngalem lalakht ngem szuthif bø nøszomø-th-ahwø.'''''
:'''''Law xol plææžil ðə les im bə śraa ej bə haw łaj hogləs ej rejtil. Kalu'm ðə lugud jaś režən ej krəliəb, ej r'im bə śeht im liðali śad jaśəm hɨɨv p nažəm axə.'''''
:all human/PL-DEF.PL.M PASS.PRES-3PL be_born as free-M.PL; 3PL equal-PL on dignity-DEF.SG and right-DEF.F.PL. human/PL-DEF.PL.M PASS.PRES-3PL entrust with understanding and conscience, and PRES on-3PL walk with one_another with spirit-EZAFE-brotherhood.
:PASS.PST.3SG.NF all human/PL-DEF.PL be_born 3PL PRED free and PRED equal on dignity-DEF.SG and right-DEF.PL. PASS.PRES-3PL endow with reason and conscience, and PRES.3PL PRES carry 3PL behave with one_another LOC spirit brotherhood.
:''All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act toward one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''
:''All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act toward one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''
===Tower of Babel===
# ''Vro bø khow ngulømaz tha zuthø sofø lødhabir ke vru luthøm miluthil leszamisz.''
# ''Wini khi su'm bø lasątt me mizroh, su'm litakkil bø miszuraz Szinngor ke lithyaszev szom.''
# ''Ke su'm lemur: "Enø, butonu ląsuth anevinin ke léfuth em ettev." Ke su anevininil løszamisz lom em kø avonil, ke hemør kø mawtt.''
# ''Ke su'm lemur: "Enø, butonu levnuth kiriø ke mídøl bo hi, yąs ruszu hu lagią le szomayim, ki nąs nu ląsuth lonu szem, ke klu nąs nu lithpazir pli kow ngulømaz!"''
# ''Wini Eluim so u lovu mattø, ki yąs u lávitt bø kiriøzu ke mídølaz szer yu blenuszil bø levnuth.''
# ''Ke Eluim so u lemur: "Bø szą szer su'm hátholø ląsuth zuth kø ódh ngom szer bø lødhabir áth sofø,  yiye mum mikhszul mul lø madovør szer yąsu lithkawin ląsuth!''
# ''"Enø, bu tonu larest ke løvalbil sofø-th-em, klu yąsu'm lávin szuthif."''
# ''Kokh Eluim so u løfazir em, ke su'm ládul levnuth kiriøzu.''
# ''Ke me sibøzu fu szer kiriøzu bø lakkakht szemaz "Bovil" -- szom so Eluim løvalbil sofø kow ngulømaz. Me szom so Eluim løfazir em pli kow ngulømaz.''


===Schleicher's Fable===
===Schleicher's Fable===


==Other resources==
==Phrasebook==
<!-- Example: Word order, qualifiers, determinatives, branching, etc. -->
When three forms are given, the forms are respectively for addressing one man (informally), one woman (informally), and politely/gender-neutrally respectively.
 
*''Hlum!'' = Hello! / Goodbye!
<!-- Template area -->
* ''Matin tub!'' = Good morning!
 
* ''Śnitsoə tub!'' = Good afternoon!
* ''Łaab tub!'' = Good evening!
* ''Liəl tub!'' = Good night!
*''Śakə!'' = See you!
*''Bu də/di/dim!'' = Welcome!
*''Praw lah tə/ti [lam tim]!'' = Thank you!  
*''Im tsəśiəm tə/ti/tim'' = Please (etym. ''himm jimtsā Hinn ba3ēnēxa'' 'if it finds favor in your eyes')
**also ''pləiz'' (from English)
*''łeþ tub'' = have fun
* ''Ajžə heməs kaws tə/ti [kawðu tim]?'' = What's your name?
*''Kawð i ðə [NAME].'' = My name is [NAME].
*''Powð i men...'' = I'm from...
*''Lawð i les pə...'' = I was born in...
*''I bə fu.'' = I'm here.
*''(I bə) ðuəb i ðah tə/ti [ðam tim].'' = I love you.


[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Lõis]]
[[Category:Semitic languages]]
[[Category:Semitic languages]]
[[Category:Stem-Hebrew]]

Latest revision as of 01:46, 5 March 2024

IlL/A Danified analytic Neo-Arabic/Lexicon

IlL/A Danified analytic Neo-Arabic/Swadesh list

IlL/A Danified analytic Neo-Arabic/Diachronics

Knench
Xnɪəni
Created byInthar
SettingVerse:Irta
Native toIrta Libya
Afro-Asiatic

ɵ

Knench (/nɛntʃ/, from Old Knench χnānī via Old Azalic ŋnoinisχ; natively Xnɪəni /xnɪəni/ or nɨɨm Xnɪən /nɨːm xnɪən) is a Semitic language spoken in the Irta timeline and the closest living relative to Hebrew in Irta. The name of the language comes from Ancient Knench kanaȝn 'Canaan'. Knench has received strong Azalic influence throughout its history since Ancient Knench times, and genetic studies have shown that the Knench are descendants of Azalic speakers who adopted a Canaanite language. The language descends from a close relative of Biblical Hebrew which was spoken in North Africa (which was spoken instead of our Punic in Irta), but its grammar is far less synthetic than its ancestor: lexical verbs were completely restructured to use constructions with auxiliaries and infinitives instead of the older prefix and suffix conjugations, and it has lost grammatical gender like Togarmite and Far East Semitic. Knench has many loanwords from various sources including Greek, Azalic, Coptic, Berber, Arabic, Aramaic, Romance, and English.

A majority of modern Knench people are Muslim; some are Christian, Jewish or neopagan. There is a Judeo-Knench, with Hebrew and Aramaic loanwords.

It's inspired grammatically by Welsh and Irish, and aesthetically by English, Danish, Naeng, and Khmer.

Names

Native Knench names

  • Parm (f.) is from baśam
  • Þor (m.) 'bull (from Aramaic)'

Hugin and Munin (de novo derived from active participles *hūgi and *mūni) are modern fantasy characters

History

TODO

  • Focus prominence (like Welsh)
  • retain vav consecutive forms of auxiliaries
  • vi = "and then" (used for consecutive events; ~ BH wayhi)
  • -x > -rh
  • A sentence consisting entirely of replacements and compounds?
    • I dal bə kpeen pnaarə. = I don't see any wolves. (Heb: Ani lo ro'e ze'evim.)
  • Hard mode: a sentence where every content word has a Semitic cranberry morpheme
  • Swadesh list
  • bel-, ble- is a common prefix (conflation of ben- and ba3al-)
  • Many adverbs from infinitive absolute
  • Philippi should be weaker: i > e, instead of the TibH i > a (*bint > peþ 'daughter'; TibH baṫ)
  • Mén fows ta xett kori? = Why did you have to die?
  • replace a lot of Canaanite vocabulary with other words

Some sound changes

  • Maghrebi Arabic craziness (happens early on, ca. 9th-10th century)
  • -ə (mainly from ACub -ō) becomes silent and lengthens the vowel before it
  • non-rhoticity (nonrhoticity has to happen after fem sg ending loss)
  • ħ > x; *gt, kt, ᴋt, ħt > ht
  • ś > usually x, sometimes f or fl
  • d-t, t-t (morpheme boundary) > st
  • xr > x
  • Ri ni b žejn i p Mednə Əśidəs 'I live in the United States'
  • š- > h-
  • univerbate like crazy

Phonology

Consonants

  • /m n ʁ̃ʷ l w j ɹ̠/ ⟨m n ł h l w j r⟩
  • /p b f v t d θ ð k g/ ⟨p b f v t d þ ð k g⟩
  • /s̪ z̪ t̪͡s̪ ʃ ʒ tʃ s̠ t̠͡s̠ x h/ ⟨s z c š ž č ś ć x h⟩

/t d/ are alveolar, and /θ ð/ are dental. /θ ð/ may be realized as [t̪ d̪].

/s̪ z̪ t̪͡s̪/ are lamino-dental, like Basque z.

/s̠ t̠͡s̠/ are retracted apico-alveolar, like Greek /s/.

Ancient Knench /l/ became /w/ in some places, especially before C or pausa.

Stops are unaspirated.

Judeo-Knench has final r in borrowed Hebrew and Aramaic vocabulary.

Vowels

IlL/A Danified analytic Neo-Arabic has the largest vowel inventory of any Semitic language in Irta. It has many diphthongs.

Prosody

Stress

Stress tends penultimate or final.

Intonation

Phonotactics

Morphophonology

Orthography

Modern Knench has an orthography using an alphabet descended from the Paleo-Hebrew script, where spelling reflects Middle Knench.

Morphology

IlL/A Danified analytic Neo-Arabic has lost the verbal inflections and triconsonantal morphology of Ancient Knench.

Nouns and adjectives

Nouns inflect for number and definiteness. Like in English, proper nouns don't take the definite article. Attributive adjectives agree with nouns in number, but predicate adjectives do not. Knench has lost grammatical gender and the construct state, although animates still have natural gender.

Number and definiteness

IlL/A Danified analytic Neo-Arabic has regularized most plurals to -ə (from a merger of Ancient Knench -īn > *-ī and -ūδ). -u nouns become -lə in the plural: þebu, þeblə 'a world, worlds'.

Nouns inflect for definiteness, as follows:

  • Singular: -əs (after C), (from haz-ze and haz-zū)
  • Plural: -il, replacing the plural suffix -ə if any (from ha-2ili), -u + -il > -ul
    • Plurals must be memorized! For example -u may become -ləs (specifically when the -u comes from a vocalized /-l/).

Words ending in a schwa add an intrusive R between the final vowel and the plural suffix.

Some irregular plurals: penš, plenš = human

Examples:

  • śadə /ˈs̠adə/ = an apartment/flat
  • śadrəs /ˈs̠adɹəs/ = the flat
  • śadrə /ˈs̠adɹə/ = flats
  • śadril /ˈs̠adɹɪl/ = the flats
  • śadə bušət /ˈs̠adə ˈbʊʃət/ = a big flat
  • śadrəs bušət /ˈs̠adɹəs ˈbʊʃət/ = the big flat
  • śadrə buštə /ˈs̠adɹə ˈbʊʃtə/ = big flats
  • śadril buštə /ˈs̠adɹɪl ˈbʊʃtə/ = the big flats

-ma nouns from Greek become -mat nouns: þemat, þematas, þematə, þematil 'topic, theme'.

Predicative adjectives

The predicative/adverbial marker bə followed by the bare form is used for predicative adjectives: Ri śadrəs bə bušət 'The room is big'.

Degree

  • Equative: de = as X as; equally X (~ BH day 'enough')
  • Comparative/Superlative: -ur = more X or most X (from *3abūr, infinitive absolute of 'to exceed'); comparandum takes prej 'than' (from Ancient Knench pirūðī 'when I see'). The -ur form is indeclinable.

Example: bušət 'big', de bušət 'as big as'; buštur 'bigger/biggest'

Pronouns

Knench has a pronoun system similar to European languages, except that there is no grammatical gender and se "that" is used as an inanimate or gender-neutral pronoun. There is a T-V distinction: the 2nd person plural tim is also used as a polite pronoun.

I (/i:/ or /ɪ/) is the default form for the 1sg subject pronoun; ni is used after a vowel or for disambiguation.

For gender-neutral usage, tu has been proposed as a 2nd person singular neopronoun (inspired by Indo-European languages). This isn't as common as using the 2nd person plural tim as singular, however.

Knench emphatic pronouns come from a suffixed -nna (precative).

Pronouns in IlL/A Danified analytic Neo-Arabic, basic forms
→ Person I thou (m) thou (f) he she we ye they
Basic forms i, ni tə ti u oj nu tim im
Emphatic forms (n)in tan ten un ojn, hin nun temnə emnə

Interrogative pronouns

  • da, ida = what? (nominal) (*hajj dabar 'what thing')
  • ew = who? (*2ajj hū)
    • poetic mi
  • ajšə = which?
  • énə = where?
  • məðé = when?
  • əziəp = why? (the reason something happened) (or from another phrase of the form "ayy [NOUN]")
  • maləx = why? (the reason someone does something) (*ma lak 'what's the matter')
  • xam = how many?
  • xiəlt = how?

Verbs

Almost all verbs use only one form. For native verbs, this form may be derived from:

  • the infinitive construct or the imperative (mostly basic verbs)
  • a deverbal noun pattern (most common)
  • a univerbation of a verb + noun collocation

The infinitive form may or may not have a prefixed l-, depending on the verb; however, even verbs without l- often display a voicing mutation attesting to the historical lV- (e.g. žbuð 'to be idle, to lie fallow'). Some verbs instead are derived from other nouns derived from the relevant triconsonantal root rather than the infinitive of a particular verb (e.g. benin 'to build', cognate to the Hebrew noun binyan; from the root b-n-y)

The infinitive is also used as an imperative: ðeht ló oj! = 'Give it to her!' Imperatives are negated by placing bal or bawði before the verb.

Inflected verbs

Knench has only six inflected verbs (i.e. verbs with inflected past and future forms):

  • luð 'to be'
  • śuð 'to do' (from *ʕaśō, with contamination from *paȝal): used to form past and future perfective tenses
  • buð 'to come' (from *bô): sometimes means 'must, have to'. bu is still used as a directional.
  • leht 'to go' (from *halak), also used as a passive auxilliary for dechticaetiative objects
  • kaht 'to take' (from *laqaħ): also used for animate patients of ditransitive verbs
  • ðeht 'to give' (from *natan, with contamination from *hinīħ 'to leave' and naħħil 'to bequeath'): also used for causatives

Their forms have become more similar to each other due to analogy.

Knench maintains a distinction between independent and dependent forms for finite verbs, like Old Irish. The independent forms come from the Ancient Knench waw-consecutive. Using a preverb such as lu 'not', veə '(interrogative form of present marker ri)', xaž 'relativizer', or śu 'I'm sure that...' (from the infinitive absolute *3aśū of *3aśō 'to do'; generalized from *3aśū ja3śiju 'he will indeed do') requires the dependent form. Dependent past forms and future forms are formally identical to independent future forms and past forms, respectively, except for luð 'to be'.

Even verbs with finite forms are defective verbs, since finite forms are always perfective (except forms of luð). To express the imperfective with these verbs, you still have to use the copula + bə + VN construction. The negator lu only negates finite verbs.

The present particle ri comes from ruʔi, the imperative of raʔō 'to see'. Ri is not used in subordinate clauses:

  • Ri Đavíð þaś žin. = David is about to sleep.
  • Pið Đavíð þaś žin, r'u dal bə xapuð uras. = When David goes to sleep, he doesn't turn off the lights.
  • Veə Đavíð þaś žin? = Is David going to bed? (neutral)
  • Ri Đavíð dar þaś žin. = David is not going to bed.
Inflected verbs in IlL/A Danified analytic Neo-Arabic
→ Person I thou (m) thou (f) he she we you (plural) they
Present ri/r' i, ni tə ti r'u r'oj nu tim r'im
luð future indep. wej(ð) i wejs tə wejs ti wii u wieþ oj wejn nu wejs tim wilu'm
future dep. jie i þies tə þies ti jie u þieþ oj nien nu þies tim juu'm
past indep. waj i was tə was ti waj u waþ oj wan nu was tim waju'm
past dep. hej(ð) i hejs tə hejs ti hie u hieþ oj hejn nu hejs tim hilu'm
śuð future indep. fow(ð) i fows tə fows ti fow u foəþ oj fown nu fows tim folu'm
past indep. woś i þoś tə þoś ti joś u þoś oj noś nu þoś tim jośu'm
buð future indep. pow(ð) i pows tə pows ti pow u poəþ oj pown nu pows tim polu'm
past indep. pax i tpax tə tpaj ti pax u tpax oj pax nu tpaw tim paw'm
leht future indep. law(ð) i laws tə laws ti law u laəþ oj lawn nu laws tim lalu'm
past indep. lax i tlax tə tlej ti lax u tlax oj lax nu tlaw tim law'm
kaht future indep. kaw(ð) i kaws tə kaws ti kaw u kaəþ oj kawn nu kaws tim kalu'm
past indep. kax i tkax tə tkaj ti kax u tkax oj kax nu tkaw tim kaw'm
ðeht future indep. naw(ð) i naws tə naws ti naw u naəþ oj nawn nu naws tim nalu'm
past indep. nax i tnax tə tnaj ti nax u tnax oj nax nu tnaw tim naw'm

Regular pa3al verbs

The regular pattern is *(li)CCuC.

When the historical C1 is a pharyngeal, the l- usually resurfaces:

  • C1 = ayin: lubuə 'to go past' /lʊˈbuə/
  • C1 = heth: litul 'to cease/stop' /lɪˈtʊl/

This doesn't happen when C1 = aleph/he: vuð /vʊð/ 'to bake, to fire', zuð /z̪ʊð/ 'to be crazy, to be cool'.

*-t verbs

  • leht /lɛht/ = to go by foot
  • kaht /kaht/ = to take
  • žeht /ʒɛht/ = to go back
  • žef /ʒɛf/ = to sit
  • les /lɛs̪/ = to be born
  • res /ɹɛs̪/ = to go down
  • reš /ɹɛʃ/ = to acquire; to get
  • ðeht /ðɛht/ = to give
  • śeht /s̠ɛht/ = to carry, to owe, should
  • ceht /t̪͡s̪ɛht/ = to go out, to start X-ing
  • žoot /ʒoːt/ = (of time) to go by
  • goot /goːt/ = to do X correctly
  • doot /doːt/ = to know
  • toot /toːt/ = to farm, to grow (plants)

Prepositions

Prepositions inflect like in Welsh: for pronominal prepositional objects, usually the preposition is inflected and is followed by the independent pronoun. The inflected preposition is stressed unless the emphatic pronoun is used: lah tə /'lax tə/ 'to you' vs. lah tan /lax 'tan/ 'to you, specifically'.

example of a IlL/A Danified analytic Neo-Arabic inflected preposition: el "for"; pə/p' 'in, at' is inflected similarly

  • 1sg: l'i, li ni
  • 2sg.m: lah tə
  • 2sg.f: lah ti
  • 3sg.m: lom u
  • 3sg.f: l'oj, ló oj
  • 3sg.n: ləze
  • 1pl. lon nu
  • 2pl. lam tim
  • 3pl. low'm

Other prepositions:

  • men = from
  • tubel = for
  • jaən = because of (also "reason")
  • łaj = on, above
  • jaś, jaśəm = with (both inst. and com.)
  • pəłee = inside, within
    • sim. ləłee, məłee 'into, out of'
  • pəlip = amidst
  • wen = without
  • mənie = before, in front of
  • kodm = before (temporally)
  • śni = after (Hitsi šeni 'second half')
  • məłææl = above
  • məþææl = below
  • þaht = instead of
  • til = like, as
  • śakə = until

Numbers

0-10: sifə, śaa, hniəm/hniə (attributive), hluž, arvu, śami, šeš, šebu, hmɨɨn, þež, łaaś

11-20: štoo, hnajoo, hlužoo, arvoo, śamižoo, šešoo, šeboo, hmɨɨnoo, þežoo, hniə łəəśi

21-30: łəəśi śaa, łəəśi hniəm, ... łəəśi łaaś

31-40: łəəśi štąh, ..., hniə łəəśi

41, 42, ...: hniə łəəśi śaa, hniə łəəśi šném, ...

60: hluž łəəśi

...

100: miə

1000: awv

Syntax

Constituent order

The order is tense-subject-verb-object.

R'ižəs ław bloo u abləs.
The man is eating the apple.
Ri piəð u bə de kruu til stadi.
His house is as big as a stadium.
Fól oj ðə fluð xawgpéð oj bə ro-múxr.
She did her homework too late.

The negative particle dal (from tabar lū 'not anything') comes after the subject pronoun and before the verb.

Faulty accusative

IlL/A Danified analytic Neo-Arabic has the faulty accusative (glossed as FA) particle ðə or ð' , from Ancient Knench jūδ ha-. It is actually not used for direct objects, but only for constituents that are separated from their heads. It also replaces a (TAM-marking) "preposition" in front of a lexical verb, when no preposition is used.

Noun phrase

Y's X = X Y-DEF: šem vaziləs = the king's name

To say "this X" or "that X", X-DEF fu and X-DEF feni (lit. "the X here" and "the X there") are used. To say "this" and "that", you say se fu and se feni (where the se becomes ilə in the plural).

havu, haveni = like this, like that

The abstract demonstrative (referring to sentences or facts) is suð.

Verb phrase

Knench allows arbitrarily long chains of pseudo-auxiliaries:

R'oj bə kofstəl* oj gąt latsææg.
3SG.F.PRES IPFV never_fail to_do_correctly to_joke
Her jokes never fail to land.

(*) a loan from an unknown source

VN constructions

Knench has a rich tense-aspect system which expresses imperfective/perfective as well as progressive and perfect.

  • ri Parm bə leht oj = Parm goes
  • ri Parm ław leht oj = Parm is going
  • ri Parm þax leht oj = Parm is about to go
  • ri Parm xni leht oj = Parm has gone
  • ri Parm xni juð oj bə leht = Parm has been going
  • ri Parm dəž leht oj = Parm just went
  • ri Parm wen leht oj = Parm hasn't went
  • fól Parm ðə leht = Parm went (perfective; cf. AAVE She done went)
  • þąf Parm ðə leht = Parm will go (perfective)
  • han Parm bə leht oj = Parm went (imperfective)
  • þé Parm bə leht oj = Parm will go (imperfective)
  • leht! = Go! (number neutral)
  • gwenu leht! (3uqbinu lekt "follow us to go") = Let's go!

In clauses with a copula and a verbal noun, Knench requires the pronoun corresponding to the subject to come right after the verbal noun: R'ižəs bø hél u ð'abwəs. This is etymologically "See the man when he's eating the apple", cf. Biblical and literary Modern Hebrew באכלו את התפוח "when he eats the apple (but tense- and aspect-neutral)".

The clause-initial subject pronoun + bə colloquially tends to be omitted in the present tense when the subject is 1st or 2nd person: Ðób tə ð'i nr? 'Do you love me?'

Passive and causative

Ðett 'to give' is used as an auxiliary for the causative:

Nawð i ðə pinxadəs el kapwəs el ąnuj.
I made the horse bore the farmer to death.
(lit. I gave the horse the farmer to inflict boredom)

In a ðett-causative construction, the more animate object takes the dative preposition el. This connects ditransitives which are causatives of transitives to the basic ditransitive verb 'give'.

To form passives two different auxiliaries are used:

  • Kaht 'to take' is used as an auxiliary to raise the animate object of a ditransitive verb.
  • leht 'to go' is used to raise the inanimate object of both monotransitive and ditransitive verbs (as well as the object of the original verb which is causativized).
Kawð u đə ląbur mitəs rup məšólə.
'He was made to suffer so many things.'
Lawð łeśwəs đə hél men kapwəs.
'The grass was fed to the horse.'

Balancing vs deranking conjunctions

Balancing conjunctions take full finite clauses (clauses with a finite verb or an auxiliary):

  • ej "and"
  • ow "or"
  • mur (complementizer)
  • łeþr "when"
  • wí "if" (< *wa-kī)
  • jern "because"

Deranking conjunctions replace finite forms of the copula juð and thus are also called copula-replacing conjunctions (e.g. by Hrafn). Some CRCs are:

  • prí "than"
  • jið (complementizer)
  • pið "when"

Time clauses

pið-clauses

A pið-clause is in the same tense as the clause it's embedded in. Pið-clauses denote states, things that can be marked with re + tense markers in the present tense), rather than completed actions.

łeþr-clauses

łeþr are used for clauses with auxiliaries other than the present tense copula.

Complementizer

There is a complementizer mur (from lēmūr) or jið (from conflation of hajūδ 'to be' and jūδ accusative marker) depending on dialect.

Relativizer

In most cases, relative clauses use the relativizer xaž (from *χa-ʔašir 'like that which'). n may appear after the resumptive pronoun if one is used.

Subject of a copula auxiliary:

paras xaž hie __ bə gri u "pnar"
the boy who cried (would cry) wolf

Subject with a non-copula auxiliary:

paras xaž fow __ gri "pnar"
the boy who cried wolf (once)

Direct object:

vivlias xaž fown nu ðə gru (se (n))
the book that we read

Oblique object:

péðas xaž hieþ oj bə xun oj pəze (n)
the house she used to live in

To relativise the subject of a present copula, łom (from hā-3ūmid 'that is standing') is used:

R' abwas pə śadə i. -> abwas łom pə śadə i
the apple in my flat
Ri plenžil śni leht im. -> plenžil łom xni leht im
the people who have gone

Serial verb construction

Serial verbs are also very common in Knench:

Pow Móšé ðə kaht vdųś prið u. / Fow Móšé ðə buð kaht vdųś prið u.
come.PST.3SG.M Moshe FA take.INF open.INF gift 3sg.m / PST.3SG.M Moshe FA come.INF take.INF open.INF gift 3SG.M
Moshe came, took, and opened his gift.

Directionals derived from verbs, such as leht '(t)hence', bu '(t)hither' and kub 'movement together with another person' are also common and may replace pronouns.

Wh-questions

No special treatment is observed unless the wh-word is the subject, in which case łom is used after the wh-word. However, łom is not used in a question in the form of a nominal sentence. (As always, ri is dropped in questions.)

Dar Petə bə fluð?
What's Peter doing?
Dar łom bə gruð?
What's happening?
Dar se fu? (*Dar łom se fu?)
What's this?
Énr ti?
Where are you?
Énr fows tə ðə leht? / Énr laws tr?
Where have you been?

Vocabulary

Knench has the following vocabulary layers:

  1. Most of the common words are inherited from the Semitic common ancestor of Ancient Knench and Biblical Hebrew, however they often show drastic semantic drift or univerbation. Example: šłúd 'a lot' comes from saȝudō 'feast'. Cranberry morphemes are not uncommon in Semito-Knench.
  2. Azalic substrate
  3. Ancient Greek, Aramaic
  4. Latin, Romance, Arabic, Turkic and Modern Greek

Although it is attested in Ancient Knench, the *CaCīCō verbal noun pattern is not as productive as the corresponding pattern in Mishnaic and Modern Hebrew.

Many words are formed from earlier construct state or verb + object combinations, and are sometimes unrecognizable as such:

  • əmbein 'brick' from *habanē binjan 'building stones'
  • həvgom 'massacre; (slang) debacle, fiasco; a mess' from *šafx dam 'spilling of blood'
  • łienəm 'source' from ʕēn mayim 'spring of water'
  • xifin 'to like' from *śe'θ fin lit. 'lift the face of' meaning 'to favor'
  • xihniem (el) 'to look at' from *śe'θ 3ēnajim 'lift eyes'
  • krəlieb 'conscience' from *qūl hal-lēbb lit. 'voice of the heart'

Some productive affixes are:

  • pen-/ple- = agentive, -ling
    • pnar 'wolf' comes from older *ben harr 'mountainling'; a euphemism replacing Ancient Knench zēb, which had become taboo by Old Knench
  • peδ- = place noun
  • pəd-/pd- = associated inanimate, esp. singulative of a collective noun (from peθθ 'daughter')
    • pdoo = tree (*pett ja3r)
    • pdam = wave (*pett jamm)
    • pdəəm = word (irreg. metathesis from *pett himrō)
    • pdeš = flame
    • pled = echo
    • pədnə = stream
    • pəmtaa = dew (from mtaa 'rain')
    • pədkažəm = (poetic) petrichor
  • -l = transitivizer or causative of verbs (from a -w ~ -ul alternation in some intransitive-transitive verb pairs)
    • hamžəl 'to dry' < hamž '(archaic) sun'
  • -is: -ess (from Greek)
    • vazilis 'queen' < vazil 'king'
    • mææšivis 'witch' < mææšiv 'mage, wizard'
  • lið- = mediopassive
  • məð- is more productive and is used to form verbal adjectives, serving the role of passive participles
    • luri 'to amaze'; muri 'amazing'; məðuri 'amazed'

Example texts

UDHR, Article 1

Law xol plææžil ðə les im bə śraa ej bə haw łaj hogləs ej rejtil. Kalu'm ðə lugud jaś režən ej krəliəb, ej r'im bə śeht im liðali śad jaśəm hɨɨv p nažəm axə.
PASS.PST.3SG.NF all human/PL-DEF.PL be_born 3PL PRED free and PRED equal on dignity-DEF.SG and right-DEF.PL. PASS.PRES-3PL endow with reason and conscience, and PRES.3PL PRES carry 3PL behave with one_another LOC spirit brotherhood.
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act toward one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Schleicher's Fable

Phrasebook

When three forms are given, the forms are respectively for addressing one man (informally), one woman (informally), and politely/gender-neutrally respectively.

  • Hlum! = Hello! / Goodbye!
  • Matin tub! = Good morning!
  • Śnitsoə tub! = Good afternoon!
  • Łaab tub! = Good evening!
  • Liəl tub! = Good night!
  • Śakə! = See you!
  • Bu də/di/dim! = Welcome!
  • Praw lah tə/ti [lam tim]! = Thank you!
  • Im tsəśiəm tə/ti/tim = Please (etym. himm jimtsā Hinn ba3ēnēxa 'if it finds favor in your eyes')
    • also pləiz (from English)
  • łeþ tub = have fun
  • Ajžə heməs kaws tə/ti [kawðu tim]? = What's your name?
  • Kawð i ðə [NAME]. = My name is [NAME].
  • Powð i men... = I'm from...
  • Lawð i les pə... = I was born in...
  • I bə fu. = I'm here.
  • (I bə) ðuəb i ðah tə/ti [ðam tim]. = I love you.
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