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{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|name         = Weddish
|name=Weddish
|altname      = Ergative-Dual-Yiddish
|nativename=Weðisk
|nativename   = Vediš
|states=[[w:Wales|Wales]], [[w:United States|United States]]
|pronunciation = /ˈve(ː).dɪʃ/
|states = USA, UK, Spain, France, Israel
|region        = Europe, North America, Middle East
|ethnicity    = Ashkenazi Jews
|speakers      = 0.01
|date          = 2014
|familycolor = Indo-European
|familycolor = Indo-European
|fam1 = Indo-European
|fam2=[[w:Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|fam2 = Germanic
|fam3=[[w:West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
|fam3 = West Germanic
|fam4=[[w:Ingvaeonic languages|Ingvaeonic]]
|fam4 = High German
|fam5=[[w:Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo–Frisian]]
|fam5 = Yiddish
|ancestor=[[w:Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]]
|fam6 = Basque/Hebrew
|ancestor2=[[w:Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]]
|creator       = [[User:aquatiki|Robert Murphy]]
|ancestor3=[[w:Old Frisian|Old Frisian]]
|created      = 2013
|script1        =  Hebr
|setting      = Jewish intermarriage
|creator = [[User:Aquatiki|Robert Murphy]]
|posteriori    = Yiddish
|speakers = 40 000
|script        = [[w:Hebrew script|Hebrew]]
|date = 2015 census
|agency=Beth Diyn d'Weddisk
|notice=IPA
}}
}}
'''Weddish''' (''Weddish'': '''װעדיש''', ''X"Q'': '''וֶדִש''', ''Romanization'': '''Vediš''') is a constructed, ''a posteriori'', naturalistic [[auxlang]], made from Yiddish with heavy influences from Hebrew, English, German, and Basque.  It has ergative-absolutive [[Linguistics:Morphosyntactic alignment|morphosyntactic alignment]] and a pervasive yet symbolic use of the dual.  It is meant to promote the institution of marriage and foster better communication between persons.  It is perhaps best suited as an auxlang for Jewish intermarriage.


The language was created in 2013 by [[User:aquatiki|Robert Murphy]] as part of an assignment at [[w:Covenant Theological Seminary|Covenant Theological Seminary]] for Professor Jerram Barrs.
'''Weddish''' is a [[w:West Germanic language|West Germanic language]] spoken by several small communities within [[w:Wales|Wales]] and several large one within the United States.  Approximately 40,000 people speak Weddish as their L1.  It is of considerable interest to linguists and ethnographers, because of its complex history and unique place in the world.


== Background ==
Weddish began as a dialect of [[w:Old Frisian|Old Frisian]], which fell under the influence of its Welsh-speaking neighbors (unlike its Anglo-Saxon kin).  It was "conquered" by Jews in 1066, and "freed" by the [[w:Edict of Expulsion|Edict of Expulsion]] in 1290, and so returned to being under Welsh influence.  English has exerted some small sway over its development.
''In 1946, a group of American Ashkenazi Orthodox and Messianic Jews founded a kibbutz near Bilbao, SpainThey were reacting to their perception that the nation of Israel was being founded on Zionist, anti-Yiddish principles. Weddish was created as an auxiliary language to bridge the gap between Yiddish, Hebrew, English, and some Basque. The decision was made early on to engineer in the dual number as a fundamental yet symbolically-rich part of the language. The Hebrew/Aramaic alphabet is the exclusive script, both as an alphabet and as a "pointed" abjad.''
 
== Design Goals ==
''While I have taken elaborate pains to make Weddish appear naturalistic and give it a rich history, it is nevertheless an auxlang, designed for me to work on my philosophical ideas and methodologies of translations.  I welcome feedback and appreciate any advice you might give, but people are often surprised to find out my primary goal is not to avoid artificiality.''
 
''My goals are 1) anti-abstraction, 2) marking marriage, 3) lots of Hebrew, 4) close to English, 5) Welsh influence''
 
== History ==
{{Main|Weddish/History}}
=== Early Antiquity ===
Weddish was born under a different name: Frisian.  While there are individual words that cannot be explained under this rubric, the overwhelming majority of Weddish vocabulary is clearly of Frisian – not Anglo-Saxon – ancestry.  While the differences are small, the evidence is clear.  Unlike the Frisians of the continent, however, and unlike the conquering Anglo-Saxons, the ancestors of the Wedds were heavily influenced by the nearby Celts.  The Old Welsh language rubbed off on Old Weddish, winnowing down many consonant clusters, producing significant vowel changes, and greatly altering the phonology and phonotactics.
 
Old Welsh (Proto-Brythonic) also gave Weddish its system of consonantal mutations.  Certain words and grammatical processes trigger regular changes in the first consonant of the ''next'' word.  This is also the only period where Latin words came into the language (until the modern, international terminology).
 
=== Late Antiquity ===
Some time in the eighth or ninth century, a charismatic leader supposedly brought the Weddish community into his quasi-Jewish cult.  He also introduced two key elements of the Basque language into Weddish: ergative-absolutive morphosyntax and animate-inanimate distinctions in noun phrases.  Folk stories continue to warn young Wedds of the danger of crying wolf, i.e. being like Conrad and hiding under the auspice of false-Judaism, when he was actually just creating a cult.
 
=== 1066 ===
With the arrival of William the Conqueror, ''actual'' Jews arrived from the Continent and called the Wedd's bluffMandatory Hebrew schools were formed, and a similar situation to the rest of the U.K. developed for two centuries: strata.  The elites and leaders spoke Hebrew, Aramaic, and Judeo-Arabic.  Ethnic Jews arrived from Spain and the continent. The common folk spoke Weddish, but like England with the Norman language, Hebrew dominated the upper crust.
 
=== 1290 ===
When Edward I issued the edict of expulsion in 1290, the influence of external Jewry ceased, and all appearance of Judaism had to be removed from the public eye. The Wedds had their own ''Domus Conversorum'' set up, and were allowed to create their own monastic order, where the vows of marriage were conjoined with the vows of holy orders.  Hebrew schools continued in private, with Talmud and Maimonides studies going on for several more centuries.  Because they were not allowed to officiate over the Mass, Weddish "convents" avoided much of the accreting philosophy, and were among the hotbeds of Protestant theology, until the [[w:Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542|Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542]]. 
 
With the decline of the surrounding Welsh culture, Wedds happily retreated into the background. By the 19th century, however, a growing concern over the state of the Western world had settled in, and after several Weddish-wide councils, a missions-through-monasticism philosophy was official ensconced in the Weddish laws.  Since then, they have actively been involved in evangelism and scholarly theology.  [[w:James B. Jordan|James B. Jordan]] and his [[w:Christian Reconstructionist|Christian Reconstructionist]] theology have become the mainstay of Weddish discourse.


== Phonology ==
== Phonology ==
Weddish has 25 consonantal sounds, which is typologically average <ref>http://wals.info/chapter/1</ref>, and common in Europe as well as the Middle East.  English speakers will find it to be common, apart from the lack of <tt>/w/</tt> and the ubiquity of <tt>/x/</tt> (like the ''ch'' in ''Bach'' or ''loch'').  Weddish has 6 vowels, which is also average<ref>http://wals.info/chapter/2</ref>, as is the resulting consonant-to-vowel ration<ref>http://wals.info/chapter/3</ref>.  This is typologically equivalent to Yiddish and Hebrew, but far less than German or English.
{{Main|Weddish/Phonology}}
 
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; float:left;"
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="float:left;"
|+ '''Consonants of Weddish'''
|+ '''Consonants of Weddish'''
! colspan="9"|Consonant phonemes
! colspan="9"|Consonant phonemes
Line 38: Line 54:
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|
! style="text-align: center;"|Labial
! style="text-align: center;"|Labial
! Dental
! style="text-align: center;"|Alveolar
! style="text-align: center;"|Alveolar
! style="text-align: center;"|Post-Alveolar
! style="text-align: center;"|Post.
! style="text-align: center;"|Palatal
! style="text-align: center;"|Velar
! style="text-align: center;"|Velar
! style="text-align: center;"|Uvular
! style="text-align: center;"|Glottal
! style="text-align: center;"|Glottal
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Nasals
! rowspan="2" |Nasals
| '''מ''' <tt>/m/</tt>
! voiced
| '''נ''' <tt>/n/</tt>
| {{IPA|m}}
|
| {{IPA|n}}
|
|
| {{IPA|ŋ}}
|
|
| <tt>/ŋ/</tt>
|
|
|-
|-
! rowspan="2"|Stops
! unvoiced
!<small>voiceless</small>
| {{IPA|m̥}}
| '''פ''' <tt>/p/</tt>
|
| '''ט''' <tt>/t/</tt>
| {{IPA|n̥}}
|
| {{IPA|ŋ̊}}
|  
|  
|  
|
| '''ק''' <tt>/k/</tt>
| '''א''' <tt>/ʔ/</tt>
|-
|-
!<small>voiced</small>
! rowspan="2" | Obstruent
| '''ב''' <tt>/b/</tt>
! voiced
| '''ד''' <tt>/d/</tt>
| {{IPA|b}}
|
| {{IPA|d}}
| {{IPA|d͡ʒ}}
| {{IPA|g}}
|
|
|
|
| '''ג''' <tt>/g/</tt>
|
|-
|-
! rowspan="2"| Fricatives
! unvoiced
! <small>voiceless</small>
| {{IPA|p}}
| '''פֿ''' <tt>/f/</tt>
| {{IPA|t͡θ}}
| '''ס''' <tt>/s/</tt>
| {{IPA|t}}
| '''ש''' <tt>/ʃ/</tt>
| {{IPA|t͡ʃ}}
| {{IPA|k}}
|
|
| '''כ''' <tt>/x/</tt>
| {{IPA|ʔ}}
| '''ה''' <tt>/h/</tt>
|-
|-
! <small>voiced</small>
! rowspan="2" | Fricative
| '''װ''' <tt>/v/</tt>
! voiced
| '''ז''' <tt>/z/</tt>
| {{IPA|v}}
| '''זש''' <tt>/ʒ/</tt>
| {{IPA|ð}}
| {{IPA|z}}
| || || ||
|-
! unvoiced
| {{IPA|f}}
| {{IPA|θ}}
| {{IPA|s}}
| {{IPA|ʃ}}
|  
|  
|
| {{IPA|χ}}
|
| {{IPA|h}}
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" | Affricates
! rowspan="2" | Trills
!<small>voiceless</small>
! voiced
|
|
| '''צ''' <tt>/ts/</tt>
| '''טש''' <tt>/tʃ/</tt>
|  
|  
| {{IPA|r}}
| || || ||
|-
! unvoiced
|
|
|
|
| {{IPA|r̥}}
| || || ||
|-
|-
! <small>voiced</small>
! rowspan="2" | Approximant
|
! voiced
| '''דז''' <tt>/dz/</tt>
| {{IPA|w}}
| '''דזש''' <tt>/dʒ/</tt>
|
|
|
|
| {{IPA|l}}
| {{IPA|j}}
| || ||
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Approximants
! unvoiced
|  
| {{IPA|ʍ}}
| '''ל''' <tt>/l/</tt>
|  
|  
| '''י''' <tt>/j/</tt>
| {{IPA|ɬ}}
|
| {{IPA|ç}}
| '''ר''' <tt>/ʁ/</tt>
| || ||
|}
|}
Weddish consonants primarily center around a voiced-unvoiced contrast.  Several sounds do not occur in the lexical forms of words, but are nevertheless common as the result of consonant mutation.


 
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; float:right;"
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="margin-left:10px; float: right;"
|+ '''Vowels of Weddish'''
|+   '''Vowel phonemes in Weddish'''
! colspan="9"|Vowel phonemes
|-
!  
!  
! style="text-align: center;"|Front
! Front
! style="text-align: center;"|Central
! Mid
! style="text-align: center;"|Back
! Back
|-align=center class=small
|-
|-align=center
! High
! High
| '''י''' <tt>/i/~/ɪ/</tt>
| {{IPA|ɪi}}
|
| {{IPA|ɨː}}
| '''ו''' <tt>/u/~/ʊ/</tt>
| {{IPA|ʊu}}
|-
|-
! Mid
! Near-high
| '''ע''' <tt>/e/~/ɛ/</tt>
| {{IPA|ɪ}}
| <tt>/ə/</tt>
|  
| '''אָ''' <tt>/o/~/ɔ/</tt>
| {{IPA|ʊ}}
|-
|-
! Low
! High-mid
|
|  
| '''אַ''' <tt>/ɐ/~/ä/</tt>
| {{IPA|ǝ}}
|
| {{IPA|oʊ}}
|}
 
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="float:right;"
|+ '''Diphthongs in Weddish'''
!
! +y
! +w
|-
|-
! a
! Low-mid
| '''ײַ''' = ay
| {{IPA|ɛː}}
| '''אַו''' = aw
| {{IPA|ʌ}}
| {{IPA|ɔ}}
|-
|-
! e
! Low
| '''ײ''' = ey
| {{IPA|æ}}
| {{IPA|aː}}
|
|
|-
! o
| '''ױ''' = oy
| '''אָו''' = ow
|}
|}
Voices is contrasted in both plosives and fricatives, like Yiddish and English<ref>http://wals.info/chapter/4</ref>.  Vowel nasalization and rounding are not phonemic<ref>http://wals.info/chapter/11</ref>


<br clear="both" />
Weddish vowels are most easily characterized a six-vowel system: the typical five, plus a central vowel.  They all occur in "long" and "short" versions, though (as in English) those terms are used colloquially, and not as linguists mean them.


There are several issues in the pronunciation of individual sounds.  The rhotic of Weddish is either alveolar or uvular<ref>As in Hebrew, uvular may be seen as the most prestigious form: http://wals.info/chapter/6</ref> and may be anything from a flap, to a trill, to an actual approximant.  No R-colors vowels are permitted.  Words that begin with a vowel are separated from a prior open syllable by a glottal stop.  The velar nasal only occurs when an "n" is assimilated in place of articular before or after an "x", "k", or "g", in a syllable coda<ref>http://wals.info/chapter/9</ref>.  '''ng''' is pronounced <tt>/ŋg/</tt>, not just <tt>/ŋ/</tt>.  '''L''' is typically dark (aka "velarized") except before '''i''''''Ayen''' is always romanized '''e''', but signifies the schwa in unaccented syllables.
There are also many diphthongs, as in Welsh: '''eu''', '''ei''', '''au''', '''ai''', '''oi''', '''ui''', and the palatalized '''iu''', '''ie''', '''ia'''.


In the dialect of the Americas, central vowels retain a color of their original/short form.  Elsewhere, they are all central, except <tt>/a/</tt> before glottals and <tt>/ɪ/</tt> before labials.  Another dialect difference is that '''c''' and '''dž''' are pronounced <tt>/θ/</tt> and <tt>/ð/</tt><ref>http://wals.info/chapter/19</ref>.  However, the rhotic is still not retroflex!
<br clear="both" />


=== Orthography ===
=== Orthography ===
Weddish written in the Hebrew alphabet, after the standard of YIVO Yiddish.  There is a one-to-one correspondence between grapheme and phoneme, except for three digraphs and one trigraph.  Weddish also has its own Romanization scheme, largely Slavic in appearance.  In it, <tt>/ʃ/</tt> is written '''š''', <tt>/ʒ/</tt> is written '''ž''', <tt>/j/</tt> is written '''y''', <tt>/ts/</tt> is written '''c''', <tt>/tʃ/</tt> is written '''č''', <tt>/dʒ/</tt> is written '''dž''', and <tt>/ʁ/</tt> is written '''r'''.
Weddish is written with the letters of Hebrew abjad and the Massoretic "points" (''niqqud'').  Romanization is unheard of, apart from linguistics literature.


If the syllable after a diphthong begins with a vowel, the off-glide of the diphthong is doubled as the onset of that next syllable, '''''without being written again'''''.  Thus '''zeyer''' is pronounced <tt>/zey.yer/</tt>.
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="text-align:center; float:left"
 
|+ '''Consonants of Weddish'''
As in Hebrew, five letters have "final" forms, when they occur at the end of a word.  These forms do not affect pronunciation at all. 
! colspan="9"|Consonant graphemes
{| {{Table/bluetable}}
! Initial/Medial
| '''מ'''
| '''נ'''
| '''פֿ'''
| '''צ'''
| '''כ'''
|-
|-
! Final
! colspan="2"|
| '''ם'''
! Labial
| '''ן'''
! Dental
| '''ף'''
! Alveolar
| '''ץ'''
! Post.
| '''ך'''
! Velar
|}
! Uvular
 
! Glottal
Alphabetical order is '''alef''', '''alef pasex''', '''alef komac''', '''beys''', ('''veys''',) '''giml''', '''dalet''', '''dalet zayen''', '''dalet zayen šin''', '''hey''', '''vov''', '''gvovayin''', '''šurek''', '''zayen''', '''zayen šin''', ('''xes''',) '''tes''', '''tes šin''', '''yud''', '''yud xirik''', '''gyudayin''', '''gyudayin pasex''', '''vov yud''', '''xof''', ('''xof dageš''',) '''lamed''', '''mem''', '''nun''', '''samex''', '''ayen''', '''pey''', '''fey''', '''cadek''', '''kuf''', '''reyš''', ('''sin''',)  '''šin''' (, '''tav''', '''sav''').
 
When necessary to avoid confusion, <tt>/u/</tt> can be precisely specified with a '''וּ''', called a '''šurek'''.  <tt>/i/</tt> can be invoked as '''יִ''', that is a '''yud xirek'''. 
==== Others ====
Yiddish has many loanwords from Hebrew and Aramaic which are written using the Hebrew abjad in the Semitic way.  Weddish, however, writes these words out according to its own orthographic conventions.  However, in traditional setting it is sometimes necessary to use the ancient letters.
{| {{Table/bluetable}}
! Lošn Koydeš Letter
| '''בֿ'''
| '''ח'''
| '''כּ'''
| '''שׂ'''
| '''ת'''
| '''תֿ'''
|-
|-
! Equivalent
! rowspan="2" |Nasals
| '''װ'''
! voiced
| '''כ'''
| מ '''m'''
| '''ק'''
|
| '''ס'''
| נ '''n'''
| '''ט'''
|
| '''ס'''
| ע '''ŋ'''
|}
|
 
|
There is also a highly ornate style of writing Weddish, called '''xtiv qoydeš''' (holy writing, abbr. x"q) which featuring Hebrew roots spelling according to the ancient tradition and vowels written as diacritical marks ("points") around the consonants.  In this style, '''v''' is usually written as '''ו''' and '''y''' as '''י'''.  The other vowels are as follows, with the '''א''' written only for necessity's sake:
{| {{Table/bluetable}}
! Standard
! X"Q
! Roman.
|-
|-
| '''אַ'''
! unvoiced
| '''אַ'''
| מה '''mh'''
| '''a'''
|
| נה '''nh'''
|  
| עה '''ŋh'''
|
|
|-
|-
| '''אָ'''
! rowspan="2" | Obstruent
| '''אָ'''
! voiced
| '''o'''
| בּ '''b'''
|
| דּ '''d'''
| ג '''j'''
| גּ '''g'''
|
|
|-
|-
| '''ע'''
! unvoiced
| '''אֶ'''
| פּ '''p'''
| '''e'''
| צ '''x'''
| ט '''t'''
| כ '''k'''
| ק '''q'''
|
| א '''`'''
|-
|-
| '''י'''
! rowspan="2" | Fricative
| '''אִ'''
! voiced
| '''i'''
| ב '''v'''
| ד '''ð'''
| ז '''z'''
| || || ||
|-
|-
| '''ו'''
! unvoiced
| '''אֻ'''
| פ '''f'''
| '''u'''
| ת '''þ'''
| ס '''s'''
| סי '''š'''
|
| ח '''c'''
| ה '''h'''
|-
|-
| '''ײ'''
! rowspan="2" | Trills
| '''אֵ'''
! voiced
| '''ey'''
|
|  
| ר '''r'''
| || || ||
|-
|-
| '''ײַ'''
! unvoiced
| '''אֱ'''
|
| '''ay'''
|
| רה '''rh'''
| || || ||
|-
|-
| '''ױ'''
! rowspan="2" | Approximant
| '''אֹ'''
! voiced
| '''oy'''
| ו '''w'''
|
| ל '''l'''
| י '''y'''
| || ||
|-
|-
| '''אָו'''
! unvoiced
| '''אֳ'''
|  
| '''ow'''
|  
|-
| ש '''ł'''
| '''אַו'''
|  
| '''אֲ'''
| || ||
| '''aw'''
|-
| ø
| '''אְ'''
| <tt>/ə/</tt> or syllabic
|}
|}
== Phonotactics ==
Weddish phonotactics are inherited from Yiddish, which is among the more permissive in the world<ref>http://wals.info/chapter/12</ref>.  Which they do not rise to the level of Georgian or Salish, they are nevertheless daunting for new learners.  Gemination only becomes phonemic across word boundaries.  Consonant clusters are spontaneously broken up across syllables in order to make codas less complicated and onsets more so.


=== Syllabic Consonants ===
Vowels are written (when they are written at all) above or below the consonantal letters as little dotsThe stress-pattern of the word typically indicates whether a given syllable should be "long" or "short", except in the case of high-vowels and the center vowel.
Liquids and fricatives may all be said syllabicallyApart from the inseparable prepositions '''l''' and '''m''', and the proclitic conjunction '''v''', syllabic consonants all occur at the end of a word.  In an unstressed syllable, syllabic sonarants and syllables with a reduced vowel are indistinguishable.  In stressed syllables, no vowel is written, the onset and coda are optional or may consist of a single stop.


=== Onsets ===
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="float:right;"
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg  mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle; width:560px;"
|+ vowel gramemes
! colspan="25" | Onset Consonant Clusters
! !! Forced Long !! Normal !! Forced Short
|-
|-
|
! A || אַא '''a`'''
! b || g || d || dz || dž || h || v || z || ž || t || č || y || x || l || m || n || s || p || f || c || k || r || š
| אַ '''a'''
| אֲ '''ǎ'''
|-
|-
! b
! E || אֶה '''eh'''
| || '''bg''' || '''bd''' || || || || || || || || || '''by''' || || '''bl''' || || || || || || || || '''br''' ||
| אֵ '''e'''
| אֶ '''ě'''
|-
|-
! g
! I || אִי '''iy'''
|| || || || || || || '''gv''' || '''gz''' || || || || '''gy''' || || '''gl''' || || '''gn''' || || || || || || '''gr''' ||
| ø
| אִ '''i'''
|-
|-
! d
! O || אֹו '''ow'''
|| || || || || || || '''dv''' || '''dz''' || || || || '''dy''' || || '''dl''' || || '''dn''' || || || || || || '''dr''' ||
| אָ '''o'''
| אֳ '''ǒ'''
|-
|-
! dz
! U || וּ '''u'''
|| || || || || || || '''dzv''' || || || || || '''dzy''' || || || || || || || || || || ||
| ø
| אֻ '''ǔ'''
|-
|-
!
! Ə || אֱ '''ɨ'''
| || || || || || || || || || || || '''džy''' || || || || || || || || || || ||
| אְ '''ǝ'''
| ø
|}
 
The diphthongs are generally written as expected, except '''wy''' (ui) and '''yw''' (iu), which are never written with vowel-points, under any orthography.
 
<br clear="both" />
 
=== Phonotactics ===
==== Initials ====
; With S : ,סק, סמ, סנ and סל.  Older versions of the language forbid '''st-''', but it is now permissible.  The same could be said of ספּר, סטר, סקר, ספּל, and סקל.
; With C : חל, חר, and חו.  New words no longer force '''sl-''' to change to '''cl-'''.
; With Þ/X : In a few Semitic words, תנ and צנ begin the syllable, e.g. {{term|צנוע}} (modest), or {{term|תנוך}} (earlobe).  There is also '''xl''', as in {{term|צלבן}} (to crucify).
 
The bulk of onset consonant clusters are subject to mutation.  There are many doubles on this table, but it is important to note the lexical form of a word,
and follow the correct mutation path:
 
{| {{Table/bluetable}}
|+ mutatable onset clusters
| first || second
! Form !! Soft !! Nasal !! Aspirate
|-
|-
! h
| rowspan="2" | p || l
| || || || || || || || || || || || '''hy''' || || || || || || || || || || ||  
! pl- !! bl- !! mhl- !! fl-
|-
|-
! v
| r
| || || || || || || || || || || || '''vy''' || || '''vl''' || || || || || || || || '''vr''' ||
! pr- !! br- !! mhr- !! fr-
|-
|-
! z
| rowspan="2" | t || r
| '''zb''' || '''zg''' || || || || || '''zv''' || || || || || '''zy''' || || '''zl''' || '''zm''' || '''zn''' || || || || || || '''zr''' ||  
! tr- !! dr- !! nhr- !! þr-
|-
|-
! ž
| w
| '''žb''' || '''žg''' || || || || || '''žv''' || || || || || '''žy''' || || '''žl''' || '''žm''' || || || || || || ||  ||
! tw- !! dw- !! nhw- !! bw-
|-
|-
! t
| rowspan="3" | q || r
| || || || || || || '''tv''' || || || || || '''ty''' || '''tx''' || '''tl''' || '''tm''' || '''tn''' || '''c''' || || '''tf''' || || '''tk''' || '''tr''' || '''č'''
! qr- !! gr- !! ŋhr- !! cr-
|-
|-
! č
| l
| || || || || || || '''čv''' || || || || || '''čy''' || || || || || || || || || || ||
! ql- !! ql- !! ŋhl- !! cl-
|-
|-
! y
| w
| || || || || || || || || || || ||  || || || || || || || || || || ||
! qw- !! gw- !! ŋhw- !! cw-
|-
|-
! x
| b || l
| || || || || || || '''xv''' || || || || || '''xy''' || || '''xl''' || '''xm''' || '''xn''' || '''xs''' || || || '''xc''' || '''xk''' || '''xr''' || '''xš'''
! bl- !! vl- !! ml- !!
|-
|-
! l
| d || r
| || || || || || || || || || || ||  || || || || || || || || || || ||  
! dr- !! ðr- !! nr- !!
|-
|-
! m
| rowspan="3" | g || r
| || || || || || || || || || || || '''my''' || || '''ml''' || || || || || || || || '''mr''' ||
! gr- !! jr- !! ŋr- !!
|-
|-
! n
| l
| || || || || || || || || || || || '''ny''' || || || || || || || || || || ||
! gl- !! jl- !! ŋl- !!
|-
|-
! s
| w
| || || '''sd''' || || || || '''sv''' || || || '''st''' || '''sč''' || '''sy''' || '''sx''' || '''sl''' || '''sm''' || '''sn''' || || '''sp''' || '''sf''' || || '''sk''' || '''sr''' ||
! gw- !! jw- !! ŋw- !!
|}
 
=== Morphophonology ===
Mutation
 
{| {{Table/bluetable}}
! Initial !! Soft !! Nasal !! Aspirate
|-
|-
! p
! p
| || || || || || || '''pv''' || || || '''pt''' || || '''py''' || '''px''' || '''pl''' || || '''pn''' || '''ps''' || || '''pf''' || || '''pk''' || '''pr''' || '''pš'''
| b || mh || f
|-
|-
! f
! t
| || || || || || || || || || || || '''fy''' || || '''fl''' || || || || || || || || '''fr''' ||
| d || nh || þ
|-
|-
! c
! q
| || || '''cd''' || || || || '''cv''' || || || || || '''cy''' || || '''cl''' || || '''cn''' || || || || || || '''cr''' ||
| g || ŋh || c
|-
! k
| || || '''kd''' || || || || '''kv''' || || || '''kt''' || || '''ky''' || '''kx''' || '''kl''' || || '''kn''' || '''ks''' || || || || || '''kr''' ||
|-
! r
| || || || || || || || || || || ||  || || || || || || || || || || ||
|-
! š
| || || || || || || '''šv''' || || || '''št''' || '''šč''' || '''šy''' || '''šx''' || '''šl''' || '''šm''' || '''šn''' || || '''šp''' || '''šf''' || || '''šk''' || '''šr''' ||
|}
There are three-consonant clusters allowed that begin with '''s''' or '''š''' plus a voiceless stop plus a liquid: '''spl''', '''spr''', '''str''', '''skr''', '''skl''', '''špl''', '''špr''', '''štr''', '''škl''', and '''škr''' but not '''stl''' or '''štl'''.
 
American's should take care with '''dr''', '''tr''', '''štr''', and '''str''' not to "africatize" the cluster.
 
=== Codas ===
Final '''t''''s and '''c''''s devoice any other code consonants.  In writing, it may look like there are therefore combinations not possible on the chart below, but they are pronounced devoiced.
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg  mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle; width:560px;"
! colspan="25" | Coda Consonant Clusters
|-
!
! b || g || d || dz || dž || h || v || z || ž || t || č || y || x || l || m || n || s || p || f || c || k || r || š
|-
|-
! b
! b
| || || '''bd''' || '''bdz''' || || || || '''bz''' || '''bž''' || || || || || || || || || || || || ||  ||
| v || m ||  
|-
! g
| || || '''gd''' || '''gdz''' || || || || '''gz''' || '''gž''' || || || || || || || || || || || || ||  ||
|-
|-
! d
! d
| || || || || || || || '''dz''' || '''dž''' || || || || || || || || || || || || ||  ||
| ð || n ||  
|-
|-
! dz
! g
| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||  ||
| j || ŋ ||  
|-
|-
!
! m
| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||  ||
| w || ||  
|-
|-
! h
! ll
| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||  ||
| l || ||  
|-
|-
! v
! rh
| || || || || || || || '''vz''' || '''vž''' || || || || || || || || || || || || ||  ||
| r || ||  
|-
|-
! z
! wh
| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||  ||
| w || ||
|-
|-
! ž
! yh
| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||
| y || ||  
|}
 
 
 
== Pronouns ==
{{Main|Weddish/Pronouns}}
Weddish pronouns are split in two groups.  The 1st and 2nd person align nominative-accusative. The third person pronouns are ergative-absolutive.
 
 
=== 1st and 2nd ===
{| {{Table/bluetable}}
! Person !! Number !! Nominative !! Accusative !! Suffixing !! Dative !! Genitive
|-
|-
! t
! rowspan="3" | First
| || || || || || || || || || || || || '''tx''' || ||  ||  || '''c''' || || || || || || '''č'''
! singular
| {{C2|איח|איִח}}
| {{C2|מיח|מיִח}}
| {{C2|־מי|־מִי}}
| {{C2|מה|מֵה}}
| {{C2|מין|מִין}}
|-
|-
! č
! antinomic/dual
| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||  ||
| {{C2|ויט|ויִט}}
| {{C2|אוק|אֹוק}}
| {{C2|־אוח|־אֹוח}}
| {{C2|אוע|אֹוע}}
| {{C2|אועקנז|אֹועְקֶנְז}}
|-
|-
! y
! pl.
| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||  ||
| {{C2|וי|וִי}}
| {{C2|וּס|וס}}
| {{C2|־וס|־וּס}}
| {{C2|וה|וֵה}}
| {{C2|וסר|וּסֶר}}
|-
|-
! x
! rowspan="3" | Second
| || || || || || || || || || || || '''xt''' || || || || || '''xs''' || '''xp''' || || || '''xk''' || || '''xš'''
! singular
| {{C2|תו|תוּ}} <!--Man, does RTL wreck things! //-->
| {{C2|תיק|תִיק}}
| {{C2|־תי|־תִי}}
| {{C2|תה|תֵה}}
| {{C2|תין|תִין}}
|-
|-
! l
! antinomic/dual
| '''lb''' || '''lg''' || '''ld''' || '''ldz''' || '''ldž''' || || '''lv''' || '''lz''' || '''lž''' || '''lt''' || '''lč''' ||  || '''lx''' || || '''lm''' || '''ln''' || '''ls''' || '''lp''' || '''lf''' || '''lc''' || '''lk''' || || '''lš'''
| {{C2|יהט|יְהַט}}
| {{C2|איעק|אִיעְק}}
| {{C2|־אנך|־אִנְך}}
| {{C2|יהח|יְהִח}}
| {{C2|איעקנז|אִיעְקִנְז}}
|-
|-
! m
! plural
| '''mb''' || || '''md''' || '''mdz''' || '''mdž''' || || || ='''mdz''' || ='''mdž''' || || || || || || || || ='''mps''' || '''mp''' || ='''mpf''' || || || || ='''mpš'''
| {{C2|יהי|יְהִי}}
| {{C2|יהוק|יְהוּק}}
| {{C2|־יהו|־יְהוּ}}
| {{C2|יהו|יְהֹו}}
| {{C2|יהוור|יְהוּוֶר}}
|}
 
=== 3rd ===
{| {{Table/bluetable}}
! Gender !! Number !! Absolutive !! Ergative !! Suffixing !! Dative !! Genitive
|-
|-
! n
! masculine
| || '''ng''' || '''nd''' || '''ndz''' || '''ndž''' || || || ='''ndz''' || ='''ndž''' || '''nt''' || '''nč''' || || ='''nkx''' || || || || ='''nc''' || || || '''nc''' || '''nk''' || || ='''nč'''
! rowspan="2" | singular
| rowspan="2" | {{C2|אי|אֵי}}
| rowspan="2" | {{C2|איק|אֵיק}}
| rowspan="2" | {{C2|־אי|־אֵי}}
| rowspan="2" | {{C2|איס|אֵיס}}
| {{C2|היס|הִיס}}
|-
|-
! s
! feminine
| ||  ||  ||  || ||  ||  ||  ||  || '''st''' || '''sč''' ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || '''sp''' ||  || '''sc''' || '''sk''' || ||  
| {{C2|הר|הַר}}
|-
|-
! p
! inanimate
| || || || || || || ||  ||  || '''pt''' || '''pč''' ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || '''ps''' ||  || '''pf''' || '''pc''' || '''pk''' || || '''pš'''
! singular/antinomic
| {{C2|אט|אִט}}
| ø
| {{C2|־אט|־אִט}}
| {{C2|טו|טֹו}} {{C2|אט|אִט}}
| {{C2|דּ־|דְּ־}}{{C2|אט|אִט}}
|-
|-
! f
! masculine
| || || || || || || ||  ||  || '''ft''' || '''fč''' ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || '''fs''' || '''fp''' ||  || '''fc''' || || '''fk''' || '''fš'''
! rowspan="2" | antinomic
| {{C2|פו|פֹו}}
| {{C2|גּור|גּוּר}}
| {{C2|־אם|־אִם}}
| {{C2|הם|הִם}}
| {{C2|היס|הִיס}}
|-
|-
! c
! feminine
| {{C2|הי|הִי}}
| {{C2|גּוריגּ|גּוּרַיגּ}}
| {{C2|־איר|־אִיר}}
| {{C2|היר|הִיר}}
| {{C2|הר|הַר}}
|-
|-
! k
! all
| || || || || ||  ||  ||  ||  || '''kt''' || '''kč''' ||  || '''kx''' ||  ||  ||  || '''ks''' ||  || '''kf''' || '''kc''' ||  ||  || '''kš'''
! dual
| {{C2|בּית|בֵּית}}
| {{C2|בּיק|בֵּיק}}
| {{C2|־אית|־אֵיר}}
| טֹו בֵּית
| סִין
|-
|-
! r
! all
| '''rb''' || '''rg''' || '''rd''' || '''rdz''' || '''rdž''' || || '''rv''' || '''rz''' || '''rž''' || '''rt''' || '''rč''' ||  || '''rx''' || || '''rm''' || '''rn''' || '''rs''' || '''rp''' || '''rf''' || '''rc''' || '''rk''' || || '''rš'''
! plural
|-
| {{C2|יהא|יְהַא}}
! š
| {{C2|יהק|יְהַק}}
|  ||  ||  ||  ||  || ||  ||  ||  || '''št''' ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  '''šs''' || '''šp''' || || || '''šk''' ||  ||  
| {{C2|־יהא|־יְהַא}}
| טֹו יְהַא
| סִין
|}


|}
=== Wh-words ===
There are also ''liquids plus stop plus homorganic, alveolar fricative'': '''lps, lbz, lks, lgz, rps, rbz, rks, rgz.
; what : {{C2|והט|וְהַט}}
== Suprasegmentals ==
; who : Absolutive - {{C2|והא|וְהַא}} ; Ergative - {{C2|והק|וְהַק}} ; Genitive - {{C2|והמס|וְהַמֵס}} ; Dative - {{C2|והם|וְהַם}}
Stress is predicable, if one knows the root of a word.  The first syllable of the root receives primary stress, with secondary stresses proceeding out like ripples on a pond to every other syllable, forwards and backwards.  (The major exception is the dual, which moves the stress of a word with an odd number of syllables.)  The default rhythm of Weddish is ''trochaic'': '''stressed'''-unstressed.  Neither vowel length nor stress is phonemic. Long vowels indicate stress. If the word is long, one of the first three syllables must have primary stress.  Prefixes and suffixes all have an underlying vowel which is expressed or repressed in order to maintain the rhythm pattern.  Two syllables with reduced vowels may not follow each other.  Polar and interrogative questions are both marked by a rising tone at the end of the utterance.
; when : {{C2|והן|וְהֵן}}
; how : {{C2|והו|וְהֹו}}
; which : {{C2|והלך|וְהִלְך}}
; why : {{C2|והיד|וְהִיד}}


== Syntax ==
{{ClassMeter
|Name = Weddish
|NativeName = וועדיש
|Type = fusional
|Alignment = Ergative-Absolutive
|Head = Second
|Tonal = no
|Declined = no
|Conjugated = yes
|Genders = 2
|NCase = no
|NNumber = yes
|NDefiniteness = no
|NGender = yes
|VVoice = yes
|VMood = no
|VPerson = yes
|VNumber = yes
|VTense = no
|VAspect = yes


|Phonology= 100
== Nominals ==
|NounCases= 50
{{Main|Weddish/Nominals}}
|NounDef= 80
It is important to be aware of case, number, and gender (animacy) when dealing with Weddish nouns.
|NounNumbers= 90
|NounGender= 50
|VerbPerson= 50
|VerbNumber= 50
|VerbAspect= 50
|VerbTense= 100
|VerbMood= 10
|VerbVoice= 30
|AdjCase= 60
|AdjNumber= 30
|AdjDef= 80
|AdjGen= 90
|AdjComparative= 10
|AdjSuperlative= 10
|AdjGen= 10
|Supine= 20
|Gerund=0
|Participle= 20
|Infinitive= 20
|Modality= 20
|Words= 100


|adjective = final
=== Animacy ===
|adposition = initial
Vowel vs consonant ending ... sometimes
|adverb= final
|article= initial
|relativeclause = initial
|nounclause = mixed
|order = SVO
}}
Weddish aims to be easy for speaker of English to learn.  While the verbal-system is somewhat new, the noun-system should be easy.  Nouns are not inflected, but pronouns do have unique forms that show what part of speech they can be.  Like German, however, articles do inflect.  Like Hebrew, there are two noun genders. The masculine is almost universally animate, while the feminine is not. Adjectives do not inflect unless substantive.


Purposefully chosen to stimulate thinking, Weddish has an ergative-absolutive morphosyntactic alignment.  Most languages in the world consider the actor of transitive verb and the subject of an intransitive verb to be equivalent.  The object of a transitive verb is special in these systems.  It can be promoted to the subject via the passive voice.  Normally, it must come after the verb.  Weddish treats the ''object'' of a transitive verb and the subject of a transitive verb the same, called the "absolutive case". Actors of transitive verbs are specially in Weddish, called the "ergative case".
=== Number ===
Singular vs. Plural, but also antinomic vs. dual


It would be tempting to classify Weddish as SVO (subject-veb-object) like English and Chinese, but that's not quite right.  It is, in fact, a V2 language, which means the verb always wants to come second.  Discourse particles and few other things do not count towards calculating where "second" is.  An entire phrase is taken as a whole when counting this place.  Because of core cases are marked almost solely by word order, the actor of a transitive verb (the ergative case) must come before the verb, i.e. first in the sentence.
=== Genitive ===
Animate vs {{C2|דּ־|דְּ־}}


The V2 Principle is carried throughout Weddish, to the point where it might be labeled a "head second" language.  This is not a recognized typology, since languages are either head-initial, head-final, or mixed.
=== Dative ===
=== Number ===
Prepositions {{C2|טו|טֹו}}
English, Hebrew, Yiddish and many other languages have two numbers: singular and plural.  Weddish (like Arabic) has three: singular, dual, and plural.  Obviously, the dual is for two of something, and the plural therefore means three or more.  However, in regards to persons, the dual is used on married people, even if only one of them is being spoken about.  Exceptions can be made in every case except the ergative, which is reserved for the spouses to use on each other.  This distinction does not apply in the third person for people not present.


Weddish also distinguishes whether actions were done as individuals or all as a group.  It also possible to add "associates" of a noun to it. 
=== Ergative ===
=== Copula ===
{{term|־ק}}
The verb "to be", "to become", and "to have" are all copulas in Weddish.  That means they all use only the absolutive case, never the ergative.  However, "to be" and "to have" are more like "to equal" and "to exist".  "I have shoes" is literally "Shoes exist to me".  This can be easier for Far East Asians to learn than Westerners. 


<br clear="both" />
== Morphology ==
=== Case ===
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="float:right"
! colspan="4" | Genitive
|-
| colspan="4" style="text-align:center;" | '''פֿון'''/'''fun'''
|-
! Dative || Ablative || Partitive || Equative
|-
| style="text-align:center;" | '''ל־'''/'''l-'''
| style="text-align:center;" | '''ב־'''/'''b-'''
| style="text-align:center;" | '''מ־'''/'''m-'''
| style="text-align:center;" | '''ק־'''/'''k-'''
|}


By default, all nouns are in the ''absolutive'' case.  But, if they are placed '''''before''''' the verb, then they are said to be in the ergative case, though their morphology is unchanged. The only exception is the masculine singular/dual definite article changes in the ergative case.  Linguists call these two case the "core cases" of a language, since they are fundamental.  There are five additional cases --- called "non-core" cases --- in Weddish that are also very important.  Unlike many languages that have ''suffixing'' case marking, Weddish has ''prefixing''.  This is because they are derived from Hebrew Inseparable Prepositions (IP's).  Phrases in the non-core cases either relate to the verb (and are hence, adverbial), or are in a noun phrase.  In relation to nouns, the core cases are all seen as greater specificity ''within'' the genitive case.
== Determiners ==
{{Main|Weddish/Determiners}}
Every noun that isn't proper must be covered by a determiner.


Non-core cases all fall under the umbrella term "genitive".  The generic genitive is not a case ''per se'', but a preposition (meaning, a separable preposition).  An expression like '''dos line fun gelt'''/''the love of money'' is even more ambiguous in Weddish than in EnglishIt may mean ''the love belonging to money'', ''the love in/by money'', ''the love from/composed of money'', or ''the love as/according to money''.  After a genitive phrase has been established or is implicitly understood, the phrase may be into a compound noun using the "head-second" structure.
=== Articles ===
{| {{Table/bluetable}}
The two articles of Weddish are definite and specificWhat in English would be covered by the indefinite article is split between the specific article and anarthrous usage.
|+ '''Case, Articles, and IP's'''
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="float:left; text-align:center"
!
|+ Definite Article - {{C2|דה|דֵה}}
! colspan="3" | Definite
| ||
! Indefinite
! Singular !! Antinomic !! Dual !! Plural
! rowspan="2" | Anarthrous
|-
|-
!  
! rowspan="3" | Animate !! Genitive
! <small>m.sg/dl</small>
| colspan="2"| דֵס
! <small>f.sg/dl</small>
| colspan="2" | דִיס
! <small>pl</small>
! <small>sg/dl</small>
|-
|-
! Erg.
! Ergative
| '''{{C|der}}'''
| colspan="2" | דֵק
| rowspan="2" | '''{{C|dos}}'''
| colspan="2" | דִיק
| rowspan="2" | '''{{C|di}}'''
| rowspan="2" | '''{{C|a}}([[Contionary:an|n]])'''
| rowspan="2" | ø
|-
|-
! Abs.
! Absolutive
| '''{{C|dem}}'''
| דֵר
| דִיר
| דֵור
| דַאר
|-
|-
! Dat.
! Inanimate !! Absolutive
| '''{{C|lem}}'''
| דֵה
| '''{{C|ler}}'''
| דִי
| '''{{C|li}}'''
| דֵו
| '''{{C|lawn}}'''
| דַא
| '''l-'''
|-
! Abl.
| '''{{C|bem}}'''
| '''{{C|bos}}'''
| '''{{C|bi}}'''
| '''{{C|bawm}}'''
| '''b-'''
|-
! Part.
| '''{{C|mem}}'''
| '''{{C|mos}}'''
| '''{{C|mi}}'''
| '''{{C|mawm}}'''
| '''m-/{{C|min}}'''
|-
! Eq.
| '''{{C|kem}}'''
| '''{{C|kos}}'''
| '''{{C|ki}}'''
| '''{{C|kawm}}'''
| '''k)-'''
|}
|}
=== Number ===
Weddish verbs conjugate for three numbers (singular, dual, and plural), but nouns inflect '''''eleven''''' different ways!  However, these myriad ways can be easily understood as the optional adding of "associates" to a noun, and distinguishing between masses of individuals and collectives (one forest vs. many trees).  The following table is color-coded to show verb conjugation in the singular (light background), dual (purple), and plural (brown).


{| {{Table/bluetable}}
{| {{Table/bluetable}} style="float:right; text-align:center"
! || Singular || Dual || Plural
|+ Specific Article - {{C2|אן|אֵן}}
| ||
! Singular !! Antinomic !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Distributive
! rowspan="2" | Animate !! Genitive
| '''פֿרײַנד''' <br /> '''fraynd''' <br /> ''a friend''
| colspan="2" | אֵנְס
| style="background: MediumPurple;" | '''פֿרינדײַים''' <br /> '''frindayim''' <br /> ''two friends each''
| colspan="2" | אִנִיס
| style="background: BurlyWood;" | '''פֿרײַנדין''' <br /> '''frayndin''' <br /> ''friends each''
|-
|-
! Collective
! Absolutive
|  
| אֵן
| style="background: MediumPurple;" | '''געפֿרינדײַים''' <br /> '''gefrindayim''' <br /> ''a couple of friends''
| אֵנִיר
| '''געפֿרײַנדין''' <br /> '''gefrayndin''' <br /> ''a group of friends''
| אִנֵור
|-
| אִנַאר
! Distributive <br /> Associative
| style="background: BurlyWood;" | '''פֿרײַנדז''' <br /> '''frayndz''' <br /> ''a friend and associates each''
| style="background: BurlyWood;" | '''פֿרינדײַיםז''' <br /> '''frindayimz''' <br /> ''two friends and associates each''
| style="background: BurlyWood;" | '''פֿרײַנדינז''' <br /> '''frayndinz''' <br /> ''friends and associates each''
|-
|-
! Collective <br /> Associative
! Inanimate !! Absolutive
| '''געפֿרײַנז''' <br /> '''gefrayndz''' <br /> ''a group of a friend and associates''
| אֵנֶה
| style="background: MediumPurple;" | '''געפרינדײַימז''' <br /> '''gefrindayimz''' <br /> ''a group of two friends and associates''
| אֵנִי
| '''געפֿרײַנדינז''' <br /> '''gefrayndinz''' <br /> ''a group of friends and associates''
| אִנֵו
| אִנַא
|}
|}


The dual ending is unique, in that is shifts the accent pattern of the root to itselfIt may be written '''-áyim''' to indicate that shiftThis shift triggers vowel reduction of of the previous syllable, if it is a diphthong (cutting it down to its first vowel).
On the one hand, it is tempting to say that only '''ðeh''' is an article.  It has more forms (because it can be ergative) and the lexical form is the inanimate singular (unlike the more adjectival specific article).  However, both trigger mutation in feminine nouns.  ''''En''' is clearly closer to English ''an'' than Englih ''one'', so for conventions sake, we say it is an article too.
 
<br clear="both" />
=== Anarthrous ===
Anarthrous clauses might be un-adorned vocative phrase, or non-specific and indefinite.  That is, they typically refer to an entity not immediately discernible from discourse and not any particular entity.
 
=== Quantifiers ===
Most of the remaining determiners not mentioned heretofore, are quantifiers, determiners that describe the quantity of an itemWeddish very particular with its quantifiers, distinguishing very particularly between determiners and adjectives based on position.  Linguists note that these differences are off a very unique kind, what they call 'evidentials'.  Quantifiers used as determiners denote a kind of "God's eye point of view" or "omniscient evidentiality" which is not present when used as an adjective.


Forms lacking the collective plural endings are automatically distributive.
For example, consider the two following phrases
=== Pronouns ===
* all men
==== Independent Personal ====
* the men all (of them)
Absolutive independent personal pronouns are most commonly used with ø-copula clauses to show predication.  Such sentences are distinguished from those with the "to be" verb, which show absolute identity, as opposed to mere attribution.  '''Gu Yidiš'''/''We are Jewish'' vs. '''Big Džonzez'''/''We are (the) Jones's''.
While these phrases are synonymous in English,  in Weddish they indicate a difference in level of confidence in the information presented: ''all men'' is a phrase universal and without any exceptions, whereas ''the men, all of them'' is completely human and normal, allowing for natural exceptions.
=== Others ===
Distributives, numerals, and possessives make up the remaining determiners (Interrogatives make-up an overlapping category).
 
== Clauses ==
=== Verbs ===
{{Main|Weddish/Verbs}}
Weddish textbooks call their verb conjugations, ''present'', ''past'', and ''future'', and then list all the ways they aren't.  It seems better to call then what they are: aspects and moods.  The Continuous, the Perfective, and the Subjunctive are available in most verbs.  What makes it more confusing is that two verbs -- to be and to have -- do indeed conjugate for tense, and are used extensively at the start of discourses, and at jumps in the relative time.


{| {{Table/bluetable}}
==== Continuous ====
! colspan="2" |  
{| class="bluetable" style="text-align:right;"
! Ergative
|+ Continuous Finite
! Absolutive
! !! One !! Many
! Dative
! Ablative
! Partitive
! Equative
|-
|-
! rowspan="3" | 1
! 1st
! <small>sg</small>
| –ם
| '''{{C|ix}}'''
| rowspan="3" | –ן
| '''{{C|mix}}'''
| '''{{C|mir}}'''
| '''{{C|bix}}'''
| '''{{C|mix}}'''
| '''{{C|kix}}'''
|-
|-
! <small>dl</small>
! 2nd
| '''{{C|nanxu}}'''
| –ס
| '''{{C|gu}}'''
| '''{{C|gir}}'''
| '''{{C|bug}}'''
| '''{{C|ming}}'''
| '''{{C|kowg}}'''
|-
|-
! <small>pl</small>
! 3rd
| '''{{C|undz}}'''
| –ת
| '''{{C|mir}}'''
| '''{{C|undz}}'''
| '''{{C|bu}}'''
| '''{{C|minu}}'''
| '''{{C|ku}}'''
|-
! rowspan="3" | 2
! <small>sg</small>
| '''{{C|du}}'''
| '''{{C|dix}}'''
| '''{{C|dir}}'''
| '''{{C|bed}}'''
| '''{{C|mind}}'''
| '''{{C|ked}}'''
|-
! <small>dl</small>
| '''{{C|stu}}'''
| '''{{C|stuk}}'''
| '''{{C|stire}}'''
| '''{{C|bist}}'''
| '''{{C|minst}}'''
| '''{{C|kist}}'''
|-
! <small>pl</small>
| '''{{C|ir}}'''
| '''{{C|ayx}}'''
| '''{{C|ayx}}'''
| '''{{C|bikm}}'''
| '''{{C|mint}}'''
| '''{{C|kat}}'''
|-
! rowspan="4" | 3
! <small>m.sg</small>
| '''{{C|er}}'''
| '''{{C|'im}}'''
| '''{{C|inen}}'''
| '''{{C|bo}}'''
| '''{{C|mino}}'''
| '''{{C|ko}}'''
|-
! <small>f.sg</small>
| '''{{C|zi}}'''
| '''{{C|es}}'''
| '''{{C|aya}}'''
| '''{{C|ba}}'''
| '''{{C|mina}}'''
| '''{{C|ka}}'''
|-
! <small>dl</small>
| '''{{C|bera}}'''
| '''{{C|hura}}'''
| '''{{C|hav}}'''
| '''{{C|bav}}'''
| '''{{C|minav}}'''
| '''{{C|kav}}''
|-
! <small>pl</small>
| '''{{C|zey}}'''
| '''{{C|cey}}'''
| '''{{C|čire}}'''
| '''{{C|bouč}}'''
| '''{{C|minč}}'''
| '''{{C|kač}}
|}
|}
==== Interrogative ====
{| {{Table/bluetable}}
|
! Erg. || Abs. || Gen. || Dat. || Abl. || Part. || Eq.
|-
! Persons.
| {{C|mi}} || {{C|ver}} || {{C|vermenc}} || {{C|vermen}} || {{C|bimi}} || {{C|mimi}} || {{C|komi}}
|-
! Impers.
| {{C|ma}} || {{C|vos}} || {{C|fun vos}} || {{C|vu}} || {{C|vi}} || {{C|vat}} || {{C|ven}}
|}
The interrogative pronouns do not inflect for person, number, or gender.  Linguists would say they are animate and inanimate, though Weddish grammar calls them "personal" and "impersonal".  They are identical to the relative pronoun (just as in English) and must match their antecedent in animacy, but not in case.  Instead (just as in English) they indicate their new role in the relative clause.
==== Affixes ====
Like Hebrew, Weddish uses enclitic forms of pronouns to indicate several things.  On verbs, pronominal suffixes mark the absolutive argument of the clause.  On nouns, they mark a genitive relationship.  Pronominal prefixes are used exclusively on transitive verbs to mark the ergative argument, and are obligatory.  Weddish is not pro-drop, and an affix on both ends is required on transitive verbs.  Remember, there are no ambi-transitive verbs in Weddish.  Use of the independent personal pronouns when the person has been specified on either end of the verb is considered emphatic.


{| {{Table/bluetable}}
Imperatives are '''-ø''' for the singular and –ת for the plural.  The participle (verb-made-adjective) is –נד.  The infinitive (verb-made-noun) is –ינה.  The gerund (auxiliary-verb-complement) is –יע.
! Person || # || Suffix || Prefix
 
==== Aorist ====
{| class="bluetable" style="text-align:right;"
|+ Aorist Finite
! !! One !! Many
|-
|-
! rowspan="3" | <big>1</big>
! 1st 
! sg
| -ø
| '''-(n)i'''
| rowspan="3" | –ון
| '''ni-'''
|-
|-
! dl
! 2nd
| '''-(u)g'''
| –ס
| '''gu-'''
|-
|-
! pl
! 3rd
| '''-(n)u'''
| -ד
| '''na-'''
|-
! rowspan="3" | <big>2</big>
! sg
| '''-(e)d'''
| '''de-'''
|-
! dl
| '''-(e)st'''
| '''sti-'''
|-
! pl
| '''-ti'''
| '''ta-'''
|-
! rowspan="4" | <big>3</big>
! m.sg
| '''-o'''
| '''ro-'''
|-
! f.sg
| '''-a'''
| '''ya-'''
|-
! dl
| '''-av*'''
| ø
|-
! pl
| '''-(ay/i)č'''
| '''čay-'''
|}
|}


=== Verbs ===
Weddish verbs do not conjugate for tense, only aspect.


==== Aspect Ablaut ====
The aorist is made from a different principle part, which is sometimes predictable through umlaut or reverse umlaut, and sometimes not.  There is also the suffixing of a -ד or –ט (cp. Germanic weak verbs).  The imperative is –ת.  The participle is ג...וד.  The infinitive is ג...ן.  The gerund is ג...ד.
{| {{Table/bluetable}}
 
! Perfective || Imperfective
==== Subjunctive ====
|-
Often used as a simple future, the subjunctive is made from the same stem as the continuous.  one: –א.  Many –וח.
| -ei- || -i-
 
|-
==== Auxiliary ====
| -au- || -ai-
The three main forms of each verb only show aspect.  True tense marking requires the presence of a copula.
|-
 
| -ou- || -u-
 
|-
 
| -e- || -a-
Other aux verbs include skulen (should), wilen (will), weuþen (to become), dwyn (to do), hauven (to have)
|-
 
| -o- || -oi-
=== Adnominals ===
|}
Adjectives is an open class in Weddish.  They follow the noun and need not agree in any way, though they often do so in a way that keeps the trochaic meter going (see Prosody).  Prepositional phrases and relative clauses follow adjectives.  Verbs conjugated as participles are adjectives, taking the head noun as their absolutive argument.  Other uses of verbs require relative clauses. 
==== Voices ====
 
# Causative: š/že-
Nouns can be made adnominal, either by being put into the genitive or by certain suffixes.  For example {{term|־סק}} '''-(i)sq''' attaches to nouns or adjectives and makes them into adjectives mean "of or pertaining to x" (cp. English -ish).
# Reflexive: hit/hid-
 
# Antipassive: V-u
=== Adverbials ===
# Mixed
Like in English, nouns of time can be used as adverbs with zero-derivation.  The suffix {{term|־לך}} '''-lik'' (cp. English -ly) is the most common adverb-maker.
==== Non-finite ====
 
# participle -ing
== Numerals ==
# infinitive absolute: u-V
{{Main|Weddish/Numerals}}
# infinitive construct: ge-
Weddish numbers are a true anomaly.  The technical description is that they are "sexagesimal, with a duodecimal sub-base".  That means, they start off counting by twelves, and then group those into sixties. 
==== Incorporation ====
 
On the Mithun scale<ref>Mithun, Marianne. 1984. The Evolution of Noun Incorporation. ''Language'', Vol. 60, No. 4. pp. 847-894.</ref>, Weddish does type-I and type-II noun incorporationThis means 1) I picked berries -> I berry-picked, and 2) I washed his face -> I face-washed him.
== Lexicography ==
{{Main|Weddish/Lexicography}}
{{See|the complete Swadesh list with relative language comparisons,|Weddish/Swadesh}}
 
Weddish words are well-defined by historical epochs. From their inception to 1066, the Wedds were warriors, and then farmers. Agrarian words and grammatical words are of Germanic origin, and most illustrate that Weddish came from Old Frisian, though a few look more like Old English. Also, some Welsh words entered in this time, including some Latin words which where already in Old Welsh.
 
Next, Biblical and religious words came from Hebrew and related languages. These were the words of the ruling class, the educated, and the elite. The end of Jewish dominance may have come in 1290, but new words were still being coined from Hebrew for some time afterwardsEventually, Welsh served as the conduit for outside influence until the 16th century, at which point English began to enter the scene.


=== Derivation ===
== Texts ==
{{Main|Literature:Translations}}


==== Compounding ====
=== [[The Lord's prayer]] ===
When the relationships between nouns is genitive, and it has already been stated or can easily be implied, compound nouns.  For example, ''a field for football/soccer'' may become '''fusbolfeld'''.  (Note the loss of abstraction suffixes.)  Suppose it was an Australian rules football field.  Would could make '''fusbolfeldeoystralie'''. Lastly, If one wanted to add that it is '''mgroz'''/''composed of grass''', this could become '''פֿוסבאָלפֿעלדעאויסטראליעגראָז'''/'''fusbolfeldeoystraliegroz'''.  Words with greater than four parts are not common.  Word order is almost "head initial", but with the first specifier coming at the very front.
* 'Ow 'Av-us 'in llâmayiym,
* qǎðowll beþ þiyněh nowm
* þiyněh mamlâk qowměþ


==== Abstract Nouns ====
=== [[The Tower of Babel]] ===
All nouns in Weddish are inherently concrete.  Two levels of abstraction are possible through suffixation.  The first signifies the ''practice'', typically of one or more persons.  The second signifies the ''understanding'' of the practice, usually universally.  Both are available in both genders, with the masculine form referring to a person (of either gender), however, the "practice"-form occurs much more often in the masculine and the "understanding"-form occurs much more often in the feminine.


{| {{Table/bluetable}}
{{Also|Weddish/218}}
! Suffix
! "Tennis"
| gloss
! "Peace"
| gloss
|-
! ø
| '''a tenis'''
| ''a game of tenis''
| '''a šolem'''
| ''a season of peace''
|-
! rowspan="2" | -ay
| '''dos tenisayo'''
| ''his tennis game''
| '''šolemaya'''
| ''her (practice of) peace''
|-
| '''dem tenisayt'''
| ''the tennis player''
| '''dem šolemayt'''
| ''the peacemaker''
|-
! rowspan="2" | -šaft
| '''dos tenisšafte'''
| ''the game of tennis'' / "tennisology"
| '''šolemšafte''
| ''peace know-how''
|-
| '''a tenisšaft'''
| ''a tennisologist''
| '''a šolemšaft'''
| ''a student of peace''
|}
== Discourse ==
=== Formality ===
=== Particles ===




<references />
{{Aquatiki}}
[[Category:Languages]][[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:Germanic languages]][[Category:Semitic languages]][[Category:A posteriori]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:A posteriori]]
[[Category:Indo-European languages]]
[[Category:Germanic languages]]
[[Category:West Germanic languages]]
[[Category:Ergative-absolutive languages]]
[[Category:Fusional languages]]
[[Category:Weddish]]
[[Category:Auxlangs]]
[[Category:Jewish languages]]

Latest revision as of 19:05, 23 October 2022

Weddish
Weðisk
Created byRobert Murphy
Native toWales, United States
Native speakers40 000 (2015 census)
Early forms
Official status
Regulated byBeth Diyn d'Weddisk
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Weddish is a West Germanic language spoken by several small communities within Wales and several large one within the United States. Approximately 40,000 people speak Weddish as their L1. It is of considerable interest to linguists and ethnographers, because of its complex history and unique place in the world.

Weddish began as a dialect of Old Frisian, which fell under the influence of its Welsh-speaking neighbors (unlike its Anglo-Saxon kin). It was "conquered" by Jews in 1066, and "freed" by the Edict of Expulsion in 1290, and so returned to being under Welsh influence. English has exerted some small sway over its development.

Design Goals

While I have taken elaborate pains to make Weddish appear naturalistic and give it a rich history, it is nevertheless an auxlang, designed for me to work on my philosophical ideas and methodologies of translations. I welcome feedback and appreciate any advice you might give, but people are often surprised to find out my primary goal is not to avoid artificiality.

My goals are 1) anti-abstraction, 2) marking marriage, 3) lots of Hebrew, 4) close to English, 5) Welsh influence

History

Early Antiquity

Weddish was born under a different name: Frisian. While there are individual words that cannot be explained under this rubric, the overwhelming majority of Weddish vocabulary is clearly of Frisian – not Anglo-Saxon – ancestry. While the differences are small, the evidence is clear. Unlike the Frisians of the continent, however, and unlike the conquering Anglo-Saxons, the ancestors of the Wedds were heavily influenced by the nearby Celts. The Old Welsh language rubbed off on Old Weddish, winnowing down many consonant clusters, producing significant vowel changes, and greatly altering the phonology and phonotactics.

Old Welsh (Proto-Brythonic) also gave Weddish its system of consonantal mutations. Certain words and grammatical processes trigger regular changes in the first consonant of the next word. This is also the only period where Latin words came into the language (until the modern, international terminology).

Late Antiquity

Some time in the eighth or ninth century, a charismatic leader supposedly brought the Weddish community into his quasi-Jewish cult. He also introduced two key elements of the Basque language into Weddish: ergative-absolutive morphosyntax and animate-inanimate distinctions in noun phrases. Folk stories continue to warn young Wedds of the danger of crying wolf, i.e. being like Conrad and hiding under the auspice of false-Judaism, when he was actually just creating a cult.

1066

With the arrival of William the Conqueror, actual Jews arrived from the Continent and called the Wedd's bluff. Mandatory Hebrew schools were formed, and a similar situation to the rest of the U.K. developed for two centuries: strata. The elites and leaders spoke Hebrew, Aramaic, and Judeo-Arabic. Ethnic Jews arrived from Spain and the continent. The common folk spoke Weddish, but like England with the Norman language, Hebrew dominated the upper crust.

1290

When Edward I issued the edict of expulsion in 1290, the influence of external Jewry ceased, and all appearance of Judaism had to be removed from the public eye. The Wedds had their own Domus Conversorum set up, and were allowed to create their own monastic order, where the vows of marriage were conjoined with the vows of holy orders. Hebrew schools continued in private, with Talmud and Maimonides studies going on for several more centuries. Because they were not allowed to officiate over the Mass, Weddish "convents" avoided much of the accreting philosophy, and were among the hotbeds of Protestant theology, until the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542.

With the decline of the surrounding Welsh culture, Wedds happily retreated into the background. By the 19th century, however, a growing concern over the state of the Western world had settled in, and after several Weddish-wide councils, a missions-through-monasticism philosophy was official ensconced in the Weddish laws. Since then, they have actively been involved in evangelism and scholarly theology. James B. Jordan and his Christian Reconstructionist theology have become the mainstay of Weddish discourse.

Phonology

Consonants of Weddish
Consonant phonemes
Labial Dental Alveolar Post. Velar Uvular Glottal
Nasals voiced m n ŋ
unvoiced ŋ̊
Obstruent voiced b d d͡ʒ g
unvoiced p t͡θ t t͡ʃ k ʔ
Fricative voiced v ð z
unvoiced f θ s ʃ χ h
Trills voiced r
unvoiced
Approximant voiced w l j
unvoiced ʍ ɬ ç

Weddish consonants primarily center around a voiced-unvoiced contrast. Several sounds do not occur in the lexical forms of words, but are nevertheless common as the result of consonant mutation.

Vowels of Weddish
Vowel phonemes
Front Mid Back
High ɪi ɨː ʊu
Near-high ɪ ʊ
High-mid ǝ
Low-mid ɛː ʌ ɔ
Low æ

Weddish vowels are most easily characterized a six-vowel system: the typical five, plus a central vowel. They all occur in "long" and "short" versions, though (as in English) those terms are used colloquially, and not as linguists mean them.

There are also many diphthongs, as in Welsh: eu, ei, au, ai, oi, ui, and the palatalized iu, ie, ia.


Orthography

Weddish is written with the letters of Hebrew abjad and the Massoretic "points" (niqqud). Romanization is unheard of, apart from linguistics literature.

Consonants of Weddish
Consonant graphemes
Labial Dental Alveolar Post. Velar Uvular Glottal
Nasals voiced מ m נ n ע ŋ
unvoiced מה mh נה nh עה ŋh
Obstruent voiced בּ b דּ d ג j גּ g
unvoiced פּ p צ x ט t כ k ק q א `
Fricative voiced ב v ד ð ז z
unvoiced פ f ת þ ס s סי š ח c ה h
Trills voiced ר r
unvoiced רה rh
Approximant voiced ו w ל l י y
unvoiced ש ł

Vowels are written (when they are written at all) above or below the consonantal letters as little dots. The stress-pattern of the word typically indicates whether a given syllable should be "long" or "short", except in the case of high-vowels and the center vowel.

vowel gramemes
Forced Long Normal Forced Short
A אַא a` אַ a אֲ ǎ
E אֶה eh אֵ e אֶ ě
I אִי iy ø אִ i
O אֹו ow אָ o אֳ ǒ
U וּ u ø אֻ ǔ
Ə אֱ ɨ אְ ǝ ø

The diphthongs are generally written as expected, except wy (ui) and yw (iu), which are never written with vowel-points, under any orthography.


Phonotactics

Initials

With S
,סק, סמ, סנ and סל. Older versions of the language forbid st-, but it is now permissible. The same could be said of ספּר, סטר, סקר, ספּל, and סקל.
With C
חל, חר, and חו. New words no longer force sl- to change to cl-.
With Þ/X
In a few Semitic words, תנ and צנ begin the syllable, e.g. צנוע (modest), or תנוך (earlobe). There is also xl, as in צלבן (to crucify).

The bulk of onset consonant clusters are subject to mutation. There are many doubles on this table, but it is important to note the lexical form of a word, and follow the correct mutation path:

mutatable onset clusters
first second Form Soft Nasal Aspirate
p l pl- bl- mhl- fl-
r pr- br- mhr- fr-
t r tr- dr- nhr- þr-
w tw- dw- nhw- bw-
q r qr- gr- ŋhr- cr-
l ql- ql- ŋhl- cl-
w qw- gw- ŋhw- cw-
b l bl- vl- ml-
d r dr- ðr- nr-
g r gr- jr- ŋr-
l gl- jl- ŋl-
w gw- jw- ŋw-

Morphophonology

Mutation

Initial Soft Nasal Aspirate
p b mh f
t d nh þ
q g ŋh c
b v m
d ð n
g j ŋ
m w
ll l
rh r
wh w
yh y


Pronouns

Weddish pronouns are split in two groups. The 1st and 2nd person align nominative-accusative. The third person pronouns are ergative-absolutive.


1st and 2nd

Person Number Nominative Accusative Suffixing Dative Genitive
First singular איִח מיִח ־מִי מֵה מִין
antinomic/dual ויִט אֹוק ־אֹוח אֹוע אֹועְקֶנְז
pl. וִי וס ־וּס וֵה וּסֶר
Second singular תוּ תִיק ־תִי תֵה תִין
antinomic/dual יְהַט אִיעְק ־אִנְך יְהִח אִיעְקִנְז
plural יְהִי יְהוּק ־יְהוּ יְהֹו יְהוּוֶר

3rd

Gender Number Absolutive Ergative Suffixing Dative Genitive
masculine singular אֵי אֵיק ־אֵי אֵיס הִיס
feminine הַר
inanimate singular/antinomic אִט ø ־אִט טֹו אִט דְּ־אִט
masculine antinomic פֹו גּוּר ־אִם הִם הִיס
feminine הִי גּוּרַיגּ ־אִיר הִיר הַר
all dual בֵּית בֵּיק ־אֵיר טֹו בֵּית סִין
all plural יְהַא יְהַק ־יְהַא טֹו יְהַא סִין

Wh-words

what
וְהַט
who
Absolutive - וְהַא ; Ergative - וְהַק ; Genitive - וְהַמֵס ; Dative - וְהַם
when
וְהֵן
how
וְהֹו
which
וְהִלְך
why
וְהִיד


Nominals

It is important to be aware of case, number, and gender (animacy) when dealing with Weddish nouns.

Animacy

Vowel vs consonant ending ... sometimes

Number

Singular vs. Plural, but also antinomic vs. dual

Genitive

Animate vs דְּ־

Dative

Prepositions טֹו

Ergative

־ק


Determiners

Every noun that isn't proper must be covered by a determiner.

Articles

The two articles of Weddish are definite and specific. What in English would be covered by the indefinite article is split between the specific article and anarthrous usage.

Definite Article - דֵה
Singular Antinomic Dual Plural
Animate Genitive דֵס דִיס
Ergative דֵק דִיק
Absolutive דֵר דִיר דֵור דַאר
Inanimate Absolutive דֵה דִי דֵו דַא
Specific Article - אֵן
Singular Antinomic Dual Plural
Animate Genitive אֵנְס אִנִיס
Absolutive אֵן אֵנִיר אִנֵור אִנַאר
Inanimate Absolutive אֵנֶה אֵנִי אִנֵו אִנַא

On the one hand, it is tempting to say that only ðeh is an article. It has more forms (because it can be ergative) and the lexical form is the inanimate singular (unlike the more adjectival specific article). However, both trigger mutation in feminine nouns. 'En is clearly closer to English an than Englih one, so for conventions sake, we say it is an article too.


Anarthrous

Anarthrous clauses might be un-adorned vocative phrase, or non-specific and indefinite. That is, they typically refer to an entity not immediately discernible from discourse and not any particular entity.

Quantifiers

Most of the remaining determiners not mentioned heretofore, are quantifiers, determiners that describe the quantity of an item. Weddish very particular with its quantifiers, distinguishing very particularly between determiners and adjectives based on position. Linguists note that these differences are off a very unique kind, what they call 'evidentials'. Quantifiers used as determiners denote a kind of "God's eye point of view" or "omniscient evidentiality" which is not present when used as an adjective.

For example, consider the two following phrases

  • all men
  • the men all (of them)

While these phrases are synonymous in English, in Weddish they indicate a difference in level of confidence in the information presented: all men is a phrase universal and without any exceptions, whereas the men, all of them is completely human and normal, allowing for natural exceptions.

Others

Distributives, numerals, and possessives make up the remaining determiners (Interrogatives make-up an overlapping category).

Clauses

Verbs

Weddish textbooks call their verb conjugations, present, past, and future, and then list all the ways they aren't. It seems better to call then what they are: aspects and moods. The Continuous, the Perfective, and the Subjunctive are available in most verbs. What makes it more confusing is that two verbs -- to be and to have -- do indeed conjugate for tense, and are used extensively at the start of discourses, and at jumps in the relative time.

Continuous

Continuous Finite
One Many
1st –ם –ן
2nd –ס
3rd –ת

Imperatives are for the singular and –ת for the plural. The participle (verb-made-adjective) is –נד. The infinitive (verb-made-noun) is –ינה. The gerund (auxiliary-verb-complement) is –יע.

Aorist

Aorist Finite
One Many
1st –ון
2nd –ס
3rd


The aorist is made from a different principle part, which is sometimes predictable through umlaut or reverse umlaut, and sometimes not. There is also the suffixing of a -ד or –ט (cp. Germanic weak verbs). The imperative is –ת. The participle is ג...וד. The infinitive is ג...ן. The gerund is ג...ד.

Subjunctive

Often used as a simple future, the subjunctive is made from the same stem as the continuous. one: –א. Many –וח.

Auxiliary

The three main forms of each verb only show aspect. True tense marking requires the presence of a copula.


Other aux verbs include skulen (should), wilen (will), weuþen (to become), dwyn (to do), hauven (to have)

Adnominals

Adjectives is an open class in Weddish. They follow the noun and need not agree in any way, though they often do so in a way that keeps the trochaic meter going (see Prosody). Prepositional phrases and relative clauses follow adjectives. Verbs conjugated as participles are adjectives, taking the head noun as their absolutive argument. Other uses of verbs require relative clauses.

Nouns can be made adnominal, either by being put into the genitive or by certain suffixes. For example ־סק -(i)sq attaches to nouns or adjectives and makes them into adjectives mean "of or pertaining to x" (cp. English -ish).

Adverbials

Like in English, nouns of time can be used as adverbs with zero-derivation. The suffix ־לך '-lik (cp. English -ly) is the most common adverb-maker.

Numerals

Weddish numbers are a true anomaly. The technical description is that they are "sexagesimal, with a duodecimal sub-base". That means, they start off counting by twelves, and then group those into sixties.

Lexicography

For the complete Swadesh list with relative language comparisons, see Weddish/Swadesh


Weddish words are well-defined by historical epochs. From their inception to 1066, the Wedds were warriors, and then farmers. Agrarian words and grammatical words are of Germanic origin, and most illustrate that Weddish came from Old Frisian, though a few look more like Old English. Also, some Welsh words entered in this time, including some Latin words which where already in Old Welsh.

Next, Biblical and religious words came from Hebrew and related languages. These were the words of the ruling class, the educated, and the elite. The end of Jewish dominance may have come in 1290, but new words were still being coined from Hebrew for some time afterwards. Eventually, Welsh served as the conduit for outside influence until the 16th century, at which point English began to enter the scene.

Texts

The Lord's prayer

  • 'Ow 'Av-us 'in llâmayiym,
  • qǎðowll beþ þiyněh nowm
  • þiyněh mamlâk qowměþ

The Tower of Babel

See also article on Weddish/218


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