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| PIE
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| Labiovelar consonants include [kw, gw, xw, ngw] which are pronounced like [k, g, x, ng] but with rounded lips.
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| Velars are consonants articulated with the back part of the tongue (the dorsum) against the soft palate (the back part of the roof of the mouth, known also as the velum). They include [k, g, x, ng].
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| Palatovelar consonants are articulated with the back part of the tongue against the hard palate. They include [k', g', x', ng']. For example, [k'] is pronounced as the k in keen.
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| voiced and voiceless pharyngeal fricatives;
| | (th = h3) (X = h1) (ɣ = h2)... (J = Z) |
| a glottal stop that is used to distinguish word meaning;
| | B C D F G H J K L M N P Q R S T V W X Y Z |
| a three-way contrast between voiced, voiceless, and emphatic consonants which may be realized as velarized, glottalized, pharyngealized, ejective, orimplosive.
| | b d g ʕ k l m n p kʷ r s t w ʂ y ʐ |
| use of semivowels /w/ and /j/ in the role of consonants
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| | | *gʷ |
| '''Alternative notations:''' The aspirated stops are sometimes written as {{PIE|*bh, *dh, *ǵh, *gh, *gʷh}}; for the palatals, {{PIE|*k̑, *g̑}} are often used; and {{PIE|*i̯, *u̯}} can replace {{PIE|*y, *w}}.
| | *bʰ *dʰ *gʰ *gʷʰ |
| | | h₁ *h₃ h₂ |
| The following are the main characteristics of PIE consonants:
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| *PIE had a large number of [[stop consonant|stop]]s, but few [[fricative]]s. The traditional (pre-laryngeal) reconstruction included only one fricative, {{PIE|*s}}; however, the modern theory includes three additional fricatives, commonly known as [[laryngeal theory|laryngeals]] and assumed to have been pronounced far back in the mouth (i.e. [[Fricative consonant#Central non-sibilant fricatives|velar]], [[uvular fricative|uvular]]{{disambiguation needed|date=March 2013}}, [[pharyngeal consonant|pharyngeal]] and/or [[glottal fricative|glottal]]{{disambiguation needed|date=March 2013}}). Laryngeals disappeared from all PIE languages except (to some extent) the [[Anatolian language]]s, but reveal themselves in their effects on nearby sounds. For example, short {{PIE|*e}} adjacent to {{PIE|*h₂}} and {{PIE|*h₃}} is colored to {{PIE|*a}} and {{PIE|*o}}, respectively, and short vowels preceding a laryngeal are usually lengthened. The exact [[Laryngeal theory#Pronunciation|pronunciation of the laryngeals]] is disputed; some linguists have even asserted that {{PIE|*h₁}} might not have been a fricative at all, but a [[glottal stop]].
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| (th = h3) (X = h1) (ɣ = h2)... | |
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| {| class="wikitable IPA" | | {| class="wikitable IPA" |
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| ! Egyptian | | ! Egyptian |
| ! Berber | | ! Berber |
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| | *ṭ
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| | *ṭ
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| | d(~t)
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| | *ḍ [dˁ] / *ṭ (→ *ṭṭ [tˁː])
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| | s, ?? š}} | | | s, ?? š}} |
| | *s | | | *s |
| |-
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| | *θ̣
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| | ḏ-
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| | *ẓ [zˁ]
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| |-
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| | *ṣ [(t)sʼ]
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| | ḏ
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| | *ẓ [zˤ]
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| | *ɣ
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| | χ-, ʕ- ?
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| | *h
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| |-
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| | *ʕ
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| | ʕ
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| | *H-
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| ! Proto-Afroasiatic | | ! Proto-Afroasiatic |
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| !rowspan="3"|Plosive||<small> | | !rowspan="2"|Plosive||<small> |
| voiceless</small> | | voiceless</small> |
| |align=center|[[w:Voiceless_bilabial_stop|p]] | | |align=center|[[w:Voiceless_bilabial_stop|p]] |
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| |align=center|*gʷ | | |align=center|*gʷ |
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| !<small>Aspirated</small>
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| |align=center|*bʰ
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| |align=center|*dʰ
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| |align=center|*gʰ
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| |align=center|*gʷʰ
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| !colspan="2"|Fricative | | !colspan="2"|Fricative |
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| |align=center|[[w:Voiceless_alveolar_sibilant|s]] | | |align=center|[[w:Voiceless_alveolar_sibilant|s]], [[w:Voiceless_retroflex_sibilant|ʂ]], [[w:Voiced_retroflex_sibilant|ʐ]] |
| |align=center|[[w:Voiceless_palatal_fricative|h₁]] | | |align=center|[[w:Voiceless_palatal_fricative|h₁]] |
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| |align=center|*h₃ | | |align=center|*h₃ |
| |align=center|[[w:Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative|h₂]] | | |align=center|[[w:Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative|h₂]], [[w:Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative|ʕ]] |
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| !colspan="2"|Liquid | | !colspan="2"|Liquid |
Χρυσοφύλαξ 00:44, 12 March 2025 (UTC)