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|familycolor = panlaffic | |familycolor = panlaffic | ||
|fam1 = Nahenic | |fam1 = Nahenic | ||
|fam2 = Minhaic | |fam2 = Shakhtabaric | ||
|fam3 = Neino-Minhaic | |||
|nation = Minhastim Karak | |nation = Minhastim Karak | ||
|scripts = * [[wikipedia:Abugida|Native Abugida (Širkattarnaft)]] | |scripts = * [[wikipedia:Abugida|Native Abugida (Širkattarnaft)]] | ||
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The language is divided into two major branches, Upper Minhast and Lower Minhast, each of which is divided into several smaller dialects, such as the Salmon Speaker variant of the Upper Minhast dialect, and the Osprey Speaker variant of the Lower Minhast dialect. The subject of Minhast dialectology has sparked much research and controversy; more details on the research of dialectology may be found in [[Minhast/Dialectology|Minhast Dialectology]] | The language is divided into two major branches, Upper Minhast and Lower Minhast, each of which is divided into several smaller dialects, such as the Salmon Speaker variant of the Upper Minhast dialect, and the Osprey Speaker variant of the Lower Minhast dialect. The subject of Minhast dialectology has sparked much research and controversy; more details on the research of dialectology may be found in [[Minhast/Dialectology|Minhast Dialectology]] | ||
Located just 1,232 km from northeast Japan, this Northeast Asian language bears few if any similarities with its nearest neighbors, the former Yamato Empire (Japan), the Kingdom of Koguryeo (Korea) and Moshir | Located just 1,232 km from northeast Japan, this Northeast Asian language bears few if any similarities with its nearest neighbors, the former Yamato Empire (Japan), the Kingdom of Koguryeo (Korea) and Ainu Moshir(the Ainu Democratic Federation). Two other languages in the island nation, [[Peshpeg]] and [[Ín Duári]] (Golahát), both of which are moribund, are also unrelated; any similarities existing between the two languages and Minhast are due to areal features, with Minhast as the dominant influence. Linguists investigated possible relationships with the Altaic and Native North American languages, but failed to find any conclusive evidence. Words from Paleosiberian languages, principally Ainu, Nivkh and Chutchki, appear in the lexicon, however these have been identified as loanwords, albeit some of the loans appear to be very old, e.g. Minhast ''siħ'' ("trace") vs Nivkh ''zif'' ("tracks"). | ||
For these reasons, Minhast had long been classified as a language isolate. However, in a breakthrough study by Ming Wei and Jaeng Tae-Moon at the Department of Linguistics in Beijing Imperial University discovered shared features between Minhast, the Northwest Pacific language [[Nankôre]], and the Native American language [[Nahónda]], the latter two languages also having been classified as language isolates. These languages have thus been grouped together into a language family called Nahenic, from the reconstructed form ''*nāhen'', meaning "people". Fossilized verbalizer morphemes affixed to body parts, the relatively intact preservation of the form of the Causative affix and its relative position in each language's verbal template, and cognate sets and sound change correspondences demonstrated these far-flung languages as having a common ancestry. A major impediment to discovering Minhast's relationship to other languages was hampered by the paucity of literature on Nankôre; it was through the extensive documentation of this language by Brian Mills, from the Department of Indian Anthropology and Linguistics at the University of North Carolina that provided the material needed to link Minhast with Nankôre and Nahónda. Dialectal analysis conducted by Napayshni Tashunka of the University of the Lakota Nation has further contributed to the reconstruction of the Nahenic language family, particularly with data gathered from the Stone Speaker dialect, a divergent dialect which he argues should be classified as a separate language under a larger grouping, the Minhastic branch. | For these reasons, Minhast had long been classified as a language isolate. However, in a breakthrough study by Ming Wei and Jaeng Tae-Moon at the Department of Linguistics in Beijing Imperial University discovered shared features between Minhast, the Northwest Pacific language [[Nankôre]], and the Native American language [[Nahónda]], the latter two languages also having been classified as language isolates. These languages have thus been grouped together into a language family called Nahenic, from the reconstructed form ''*nāhen'', meaning "people". Fossilized verbalizer morphemes affixed to body parts, the relatively intact preservation of the form of the Causative affix and its relative position in each language's verbal template, and cognate sets and sound change correspondences demonstrated these far-flung languages as having a common ancestry. A major impediment to discovering Minhast's relationship to other languages was hampered by the paucity of literature on Nankôre; it was through the extensive documentation of this language by Brian Mills, from the Department of Indian Anthropology and Linguistics at the University of North Carolina that provided the material needed to link Minhast with Nankôre and Nahónda. Dialectal analysis conducted by Napayshni Tashunka of the University of the Lakota Nation has further contributed to the reconstruction of the Nahenic language family, particularly with data gathered from the Stone Speaker dialect, a divergent dialect which he argues should be classified as a separate language under a larger grouping, the Minhastic branch. | ||
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=== Phonemic Inventory === | === Phonemic Inventory === | ||
The following chart contains the consonants in the Minhast phonology. | The following chart contains the consonants in the Minhast phonology. Dialectal variants are marked with an asterisk (*): | ||
<div style="text-align: center;"> | <div style="text-align: center;"> | ||
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The phonemes /q/ and /χ/ are found only in the Seal and Wolf Speaker dialects. These phonemes occur in only a handful of words; their origin is unknown, although an Eskimoan-Aleutian language, most likely from Central Siberian Yup'ik source, has been proposed. The Wolf Speakers acquired these phonemes from contact with the Seal Speakers, and they are found almost exclusively in words of Seal Speaker origin, although some of these phonemes have seeped into words originally of Salmonic origin, e.g. /qaraq/ instead of expected Salmonic /karak/, particularly in the Wolf Speaker northwestern and western regions adjoining Seal Speaker Country. | The phonemes /q/ and /χ/ are found only in the Seal and Wolf Speaker dialects. These phonemes occur in only a handful of words; their origin is unknown, although an Eskimoan-Aleutian language, most likely from Central Siberian Yup'ik source, has been proposed. The Wolf Speakers acquired these phonemes from contact with the Seal Speakers, and they are found almost exclusively in words of Seal Speaker origin, although some of these phonemes have seeped into words originally of Salmonic origin, e.g. /qaraq/ instead of expected Salmonic /karak/, particularly in the Wolf Speaker northwestern and western regions adjoining Seal Speaker Country. | ||
The Seal Speaker, Wolf Speaker, Horse Speaker and Gull Speaker dialects have either acquired or developed /ɣ/ or [ɣ]. The origin of this phone in the Seal Speaker dialect is unknown, and occurs in only a handful of words, nevertheless it is phonetically distinct. Again, a possible | The Seal Speaker, Wolf Speaker, Horse Speaker and Gull Speaker dialects have either acquired or developed /ɣ/ or [ɣ]. The origin of this phone in the Seal Speaker dialect is unknown, and occurs in only a handful of words, nevertheless it is phonetically distinct. Again, a possible Central Siberian Yup'ik source has been hypothesized. In the Horse Speaker dialect,the phone [ɣ] occurs as a result of assimilation of /rx/ clusters; however the phone has not acquired phonemic status. In the Gull Speaker dialect, /ɣ/ evolved as a merger of /rg/ and /gy/ and has become a distinct phoneme. A notable example is ''Anyāğ'' for the Stone Speaker city Āhan Yarg, but it is also noticeable in words originally beginning with V-rg- sequences, e.g. ''irgum'' → ''ğum'' "nail" (c.f. Salmon Speaker ''argunni'' "nail"). | ||
The phoneme /f/ is a minor phoneme in non-Stone Speaker dialects and never occurs word-initially. Its occurrence is most noticeable in the nominalizer ''=naft'', although in some dialects, particularly the Lower Minhast dialects, | The phoneme /f/ is a minor phoneme in non-Stone Speaker dialects and never occurs word-initially. Its occurrence is most noticeable in the nominalizer ''=naft'', although in some dialects, particularly the Lower Minhast dialects, [ħ] has started replacing /f/. In the Gull Speaker dialect, it is /x/ that has replaced /f/ in its entire lexicon, including in the nominalizer ''=naft'', now realized as ''=naxt''. The Stone Speaker dialect, however, has preserved /f/, allowing it even in word-inital position; moreover, it occurs in high frequency, perhaps as a result of influence from a substratum language. | ||
The phone /ħ/ is a minor phoneme in the Upper Minhast dialects, occurring most often in the Horse Speaker dialect, although it too occurs in the Salmonic dialects, albeit in smaller frequencies. In the Horse Speaker dialect, /ħ/ preceded by a vowel causes the vowel to lengthen, whereas no such lengthening occurs in the few Salmonic words the phoneme exists. The Salmonic dialects allow /ħ/ in initial position, as in the noun /'ħan:u/, a hawk endemic to northeastern Minhay. Between the Salmonic and Stone Speaker dialects, initial /ħ/ consistently occurs in Salmonic words with Stone Speaker cognates starting with an initial /f/. | The phone /ħ/ is a minor phoneme in the Upper Minhast dialects, occurring most often in the Horse Speaker dialect, although it too occurs in the Salmonic dialects, albeit in smaller frequencies. In the Horse Speaker dialect, /ħ/ preceded by a vowel causes the vowel to lengthen, whereas no such lengthening occurs in the few Salmonic words the phoneme exists. The Salmonic dialects allow /ħ/ in initial position, as in the noun /'ħan:u/, a hawk endemic to northeastern Minhay. Between the Salmonic and Stone Speaker dialects, initial /ħ/ consistently occurs in Salmonic words with Stone Speaker cognates starting with an initial /f/. | ||
Otherwise, the phone is treated by the other dialects as an allophone of /h/, and occurs frequently under predictable phonotactic rules, such as when /h/ geminates, e.g. ''saħħat'' "sharp-edged object", or certain sequences resulting from morphological alternations, as in ''-hyi-'' where the /ħ/ surfaces and geminates, and also triggers the glide /j/ to change to /i:/, e.g. '' | Otherwise, the phone is treated by the other dialects as an allophone of /h/, and occurs frequently under predictable phonotactic rules, such as when /h/ geminates, e.g. ''saħħat'' "sharp-edged object", or certain sequences resulting from morphological alternations, as in ''-hyi-'' where the /ħ/ surfaces and geminates, and also triggers the glide /j/ to change to /i:/, or /ɪ/ in CVCC syllables, e.g. ''wandiraħħ'''i'''ššabu'' ("She began to cry, and still is"), not ''*wandira'''ħy'''iššabu'. | ||
{{Minhast_Vowels_IPA}} | {{Minhast_Vowels_IPA}} | ||
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<li>Minhast has a strong tendency to form intermedial clusters, providing that Rules #1-#3 are observed. If necessary, an epenthetic vowel may be added before or after the syllable to create these syllabic patterns, e.g. ''uš<span style="text-decoration:underline;color:blue;font-weight:bold">u</span>ntahu'' "You hit it." vs. ''ušnu'' "He hit it." (from the verb root ''ušn-'' "to hit").</li> | <li>Minhast has a strong tendency to form intermedial clusters, providing that Rules #1-#3 are observed. If necessary, an epenthetic vowel may be added before or after the syllable to create these syllabic patterns, e.g. ''uš<span style="text-decoration:underline;color:blue;font-weight:bold">u</span>ntahu'' "You hit it." vs. ''ušnu'' "He hit it." (from the verb root ''ušn-'' "to hit").</li> | ||
<li>The tendency to form intermedial consonant clusters creates complex assimilation interactions that nevertheless are predictable and almost always regular. These interactions are illustrated in | <li>The tendency to form intermedial consonant clusters creates complex assimilation interactions that nevertheless are predictable and almost always regular. These interactions are illustrated in the following table: | ||
{{Minhast_Phonotactics_Template}} | {{Minhast_Phonotactics_Template}} | ||
</li> | </li> | ||
<li>Vowels are classified according to a "weak-strong" gradient, where the "strong" vowels are more resistant to syncope than neighboring "weak(er)" vowels. All long vowels are by definition "strong", so the weak-strong gradient really applies to short vowels | <li>Vowels are classified according to a "weak-strong" gradient, where the "strong" vowels are more resistant to syncope than neighboring "weak(er)" vowels. All long vowels are by definition "strong", so the weak-strong gradient really applies to short vowels (see table "Vowel Gradients"). | ||
</li> | </li> | ||
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{| class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible mw-collapsible" | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible mw-collapsible" | ||
|+'''Vowel Gradients''' | |||
! Initial Pattern | ! Initial Pattern | ||
! Final Contraction | ! Final Contraction | ||
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==== Hanzi and Hangul Scripts ==== | ==== Hanzi and Hangul Scripts ==== | ||
The Hangul and Hanzi scripts predominate in | The Hangul and Hanzi scripts predominate in official correspondence with Minhay's historic allies and trade partners, the Kingdom of Goguryeo and the Ming Empire. Both are also used with other East Asian countries that use them. | ||
The Gull Speakers are the principal group that use these East Asian scripts, as they achieved dominance in international commerce amongst all the other Minhast groups. Mandarin and Korean, and to a lesser extent, Japanese, are both widely taught in Gull Speaker schools as a second language, especially in the Gull Speaker prefectural capital Kissamut. The Salmon Speakers are the second group that use the Hanzi and Hangul systems most often; the scripts are used almost exclusively with their Ainu neighbours, who use the Japanese ''kana'' script, which is virtually unknown to the Minhast; the disastrous Tokugawa Wars, which led to the defeat, occupation, and annexation of over 90% of Honshu and significant swaths of Kyushu by the Goguryeo-Ainu alliance, cut off Minhay from Japan. The isolation of Japan by Goguryeo's effective blockade prevented the importation of the Japanese scripts into Minhay | The Gull Speakers are the principal group that use these East Asian scripts, as they achieved dominance in international commerce amongst all the other Minhast groups. Mandarin and Korean, and to a lesser extent, Japanese, are both widely taught in Gull Speaker schools as a second language, especially in the Gull Speaker prefectural capital Kissamut. The Salmon Speakers are the second group that use the Hanzi and Hangul systems most often; the scripts are used almost exclusively with their Ainu neighbours, who use the Japanese ''kana'' script, which is virtually unknown to the Minhast; the disastrous Tokugawa Wars, which led to the defeat, occupation, and annexation of over 90% of Honshu and significant swaths of Kyushu by the Goguryeo-Ainu alliance, cut off Minhay from Japan. The isolation of Japan by Goguryeo's effective blockade prevented the importation of the Japanese scripts into Minhay. | ||
==== Ammerkast Script ==== | ==== Ammerkast Script ==== | ||
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! Type I | ! Type I | ||
|gāl | |gāl | ||
|gal | |gal- | ||
| | | | ||
-gal- | -gal- | ||
|galde, | |galde, galyār | ||
|horse | |horse | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan="3"| Type II | ! rowspan="3"| Type II | ||
|marua | |marua | ||
|marū | |marū- | ||
| | | | ||
-mar- | -mar- | ||
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|- | |- | ||
|yarea | |yarea | ||
||yarē | ||yarē- | ||
| | | | ||
-yar- | -yar- | ||
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|- | |- | ||
|simmia | |simmia | ||
|simmī | |simmī- | ||
| | | | ||
-simm- | -simm- | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! 3rd Feminine Sg. | ! 3rd Feminine Sg. | ||
| | | iššide <br/> išše | ||
| | | išši | ||
| | | iššē- <br/> iššey- | ||
| - | | -šši <br/> -išši | ||
|- | |- | ||
! 3rd Neuter Animate Sg. | ! 3rd Neuter Animate Sg. | ||
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! colspan="2" | Independent | ! colspan="2" | Independent | ||
! rowspan="2"| Attributive | ! rowspan="2"| Attributive | ||
! colspan="2" | Clitic | ! colspan="2" | Clitic <ref>In the Upper Minhast dialects, the Attributive forms are used more often than the clitic forms.</ref><ref>Although demonstrative clitics usually displace postpositional clitics from their noun head, postpositional clitics may remain attached to their noun heads, followed by the postpositional clitic, e.g. ''takkisap'', vs. ''taksapki'' "in this way; like that".</ref> | ||
! rowspan="2"| Comments | ! rowspan="2"| Comments | ||
|- | |- | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! Distal | ! Distal | ||
| waššī | | waššī <br/>suxta | ||
| wašt(e) | | wašt(e) <br/>suxt(e) | ||
| waššim | | waššim <br/>suxtam | ||
| =waš | | =waš <br/>=suxta | ||
| =wašt(e) | | =wašt(e) <br/>=suxt(e) | ||
| far from both speaker and listener | | far from both speaker and listener | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Invisible | ! Invisible | ||
| kiryit | | suxta <br/>kiryit | ||
| kirte | | suxt(e) <br/>kirte | ||
| kiryit min | | suxtam <br/> kiryit min | ||
| =kirit | | =suxta <br/> =kirit | ||
| =kiryit | | =suxt(e) <br/> =kiryit | ||
| n/a | | n/a | ||
|} | |} | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! style="text-align:left"| 3rd Feminine Sg. | ! style="text-align:left"| 3rd Feminine Sg. | ||
| | | eyhašši | ||
| | | tārašši | ||
| kāmul/ | | kāmul/assakkišši | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="text-align:left"| 3rd Neuter Animate Sg. | ! style="text-align:left"| 3rd Neuter Animate Sg. | ||
| eyhaš | | eyhaš | ||
| tāraš | | tāraš | ||
| kāmuš/ | | kāmuš/assakš | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="text-align:left"| 3rd Neuter Inanimate Sg. | ! style="text-align:left"| 3rd Neuter Inanimate Sg. | ||
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''Menhakkem nasxēreħ inkunnuħkēmaran'' "The fourth one among them went into the forest." | ''Menhakkem nasxēreħ inkunnuħkēmaran'' "The fourth one among them went into the forest." | ||
Numbers even have intransitive verbal forms, meaning "There were X number of us/you/them." The cardinal, ordinal, and verbal forms are summarized below: | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible" | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible" | ||
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| šiktāz | | šiktāz | ||
| šiktezāx | | šiktezāx | ||
| -- | | -šiktāz-an | ||
|- style="" | |- style="" | ||
! style="" | twelve | ! style="" | twelve | ||
| sen | | sen | ||
| senāx | | senāx | ||
| -- | | -sen-an | ||
|- style="" | |- style="" | ||
! style="" | thirteen | ! style="" | thirteen | ||
| halk | | halk | ||
| halkāx | | halkāx | ||
| -- | | -halk-an | ||
|- style="" | |- style="" | ||
! style="" | fourteen | ! style="" | fourteen | ||
| duggalk | | duggalk | ||
| duggalxāx | | duggalxāx | ||
| -- | | -duggalk-an | ||
|- style="" | |- style="" | ||
! style="" | fifteen | ! style="" | fifteen | ||
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| šentāz | | šentāz | ||
| šentezāx | | šentezāx | ||
| - | | šentāz-an | ||
|- style="" | |- style="" | ||
! style="" | twenty-one | ! style="" | twenty-one | ||
| šentāz-u-šum | | šentāz-u-šum | ||
| šentāz-u-manāx | | šentāz-u-manāx | ||
| -- | | šentāz-ammā šum-an | ||
|- style="" | |- style="" | ||
! style="" | twenty-two | ! style="" | twenty-two | ||
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| ---- | | ---- | ||
|} | |} | ||
====Fractions==== | ====Fractions==== | ||
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|- style="" | |- style="" | ||
! style="" | half | ! style="" | half | ||
| | | kāmak | ||
| | | kāmakian | ||
|- style="" style="" | |- style="" style="" | ||
! style="" | third | ! style="" | third | ||
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Note the upper bound is "tenth" ''(erritt)'', not "twentieth", the expected form given Minhast's vegisemal system; instead, this set demonstrates a decimal pattern. The secondary fractions bear no resemblance to their primary counterparts, having originated from different roots. Additionally, the verbal forms display some irregularity, as in '' | Note the upper bound is "tenth" ''(erritt)'', not "twentieth", the expected form given Minhast's vegisemal system; instead, this set demonstrates a decimal pattern. The secondary fractions bear no resemblance to their primary counterparts, having originated from different roots. Additionally, the verbal forms display some irregularity, as in ''kāmak<span style="font-weight:bold;color:blue;text-decoration:underline">i</span>an'' vs the expected ''kāmakan'', ''hadde<span style="font-weight:bold;color:blue;text-decoration:underline">ħ</span>ħan'' instead of the expected ''haddehan'', and ''<span style="font-weight:bold;color:blue;text-decoration:underline">irt</span>an'' instead of the expected ''errittan''. | ||
== Verbs == | == Verbs == | ||
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Interrogative verbs are an unusual feature of the Minhast verbal system, and are rare cross-linguistically but may be found in other languages such as Takic, a North American language from the Uto-Aztecan family. In many languages, certain interrogative words co-occur with certain verbs with high frequency. Using English as an example, the verbs in the questions "What happened?", "Where are you going?", "Why did you do it?" illustrate that certain verbs, when they take a WH-word as an argument, have a statistically higher probability of picking one or two WH-words above others. In Minhast, the Interrogative Verbs serve as a shortcut, precluding the need for constructing a whole interrogative sentence with at least two constituents, the WH-word and the verb it is serving as an argument to. | Interrogative verbs are an unusual feature of the Minhast verbal system, and are rare cross-linguistically but may be found in other languages such as Takic, a North American language from the Uto-Aztecan family. In many languages, certain interrogative words co-occur with certain verbs with high frequency. Using English as an example, the verbs in the questions "What happened?", "Where are you going?", "Why did you do it?" illustrate that certain verbs, when they take a WH-word as an argument, have a statistically higher probability of picking one or two WH-words above others. In Minhast, the Interrogative Verbs serve as a shortcut, precluding the need for constructing a whole interrogative sentence with at least two constituents, the WH-word and the verb it is serving as an argument to. | ||
Interrogative verbs can either be zero-valent (i.e. an Impersonal Verb), as in ''"Innearaš?" >> *inea-ar-an=š'' [what.happened-PAST-INTRANS=IRREAL] ("What happened?"), univalent, e.g. ''"Nassuriattaharaš?" >> *nassuriat-tah-ar-an=š'' [what.did.do-2S.ABS-PAST=IRREAL] ("What did you do?"), or even divalent, i.e. transitive, e.g. ''"Išpinassuriattaharuš?" >> *šp-nassuriat-tah-u=š'' [CAUS-what.did.do-2S.ERG+3MS.ABS-TRANS=IRREAL] ("What did you make him do?). Interrogative Verbs can be inflected for tense, aspect, person-number (for univalent verbs), and in some cases, theme, as illustrated in the last example. | Interrogative verbs can either be zero-valent (i.e. an Impersonal Verb), as in ''"Innearaš?" >> *inea-ar-an=š'' [what.happened-PAST-INTRANS=IRREAL] ("What happened?"), univalent, e.g. ''"Nassuriattaharaš?" >> *nassuriat-tah-ar-an=š'' [what.did.do-2S.ABS-PAST=IRREAL] ("What did you do?"), or even divalent, i.e. transitive, e.g. ''"Išpinassuriattaharuš?" >> *šp-nassuriat-tah-u=š'' [CAUS-what.did.do-2S.ERG+3MS.ABS-TRANS=IRREAL] ("What did you make him do?). | ||
Interrogative Verbs can be inflected for tense, aspect, person-number (for univalent verbs), and in some cases, theme, as illustrated in the last example. Moreover, the Irrealis marker ''-š'' is obligatory. | |||
Where person-number marking is allowed, both second and third person singular/plural marking predominate; first person marking is infrequent. Many of these verbs appear to have a default tense, usually in the past but sometimes in the future, even though the verb has no explicit tense marking, e.g. ''maymaštahaš'' seems to have a default past tense even though the past tense affix ''-ar-'' does not appear; however if the past tense affix appears, the verb remains well-formed. Present tense meaning, if intended, is usually recoverable from context or discourse. | Where person-number marking is allowed, both second and third person singular/plural marking predominate; first person marking is infrequent. Many of these verbs appear to have a default tense, usually in the past but sometimes in the future, even though the verb has no explicit tense marking, e.g. ''maymaštahaš'' seems to have a default past tense even though the past tense affix ''-ar-'' does not appear; however if the past tense affix appears, the verb remains well-formed. Present tense meaning, if intended, is usually recoverable from context or discourse. | ||
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| ta- <br/> ta'- <br/> t- <br/>tara-, tarra-, tabbina- | | ta- <br/> ta'- <br/> t- <br/>tara-, tarra-, tabbina- | ||
| no, not <br/><br/><br/>never, never again; not at all | | no, not <br/><br/><br/>never, never again; not at all | ||
|- | |||
! Immediacy | |||
| ussa- | |||
| now, immediately | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Contradictory | ! Contradictory | ||
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==== Preverb 3 Mood-Aspect-Manner Affixes ==== | ==== Preverb 3 Mood-Aspect-Manner Affixes ==== | ||
This slot contain numerous affixes that serve myriad functions, not just conveying mood and aspect, but also encoding manner and other adverbial semantic information. The table below lists the most common affixes, but there are close to four hundred other affixes not listed here that may occur in this slot, such as the affix ''-xp-'' (to enjoy), -''ruxt-'' (to like), -''kašk-'' (do well, c.f. ''kaškakan'' to do something skillfully, perform skillfully), -''yunn-'' (to fall short, fail, c.f. ''yurunan'') etc. | This slot contain numerous affixes that serve myriad functions, not just conveying mood and aspect, but also encoding manner and other adverbial semantic information. The table below lists the most common affixes, but there are close to four hundred other affixes not listed here that may occur in this slot, such as the affix ''-xp-'' (to enjoy), -''ruxt-'' (to like), -''kašk-'' (do well, c.f. ''kaškakan'' to do something skillfully, perform skillfully), -''yunn-'' (to fall short, fail, c.f. ''yurunan'' to reach out to something out of reach) etc. | ||
Unlike other verb slots, where the affixes are strictly ordered in relation to each other, the affixes in the Preverb 3 slot exhibit free order, or to be more precise, they are scope-ordered. Within this slot, a given affix exhibits scope over the element immediately to its right. With few exceptions, several affixes may occur simultaneously, limited only by whether the combination "makes sense", i.e. the resulting semantic meaning is felicitous. | Unlike other verb slots, where the affixes are strictly ordered in relation to each other, the affixes in the Preverb 3 slot exhibit free order, or to be more precise, they are scope-ordered. Within this slot, a given affix exhibits scope over the element immediately to its right. With few exceptions, several affixes may occur simultaneously, limited only by whether the combination "makes sense", i.e. the resulting semantic meaning is felicitous. | ||
The positional variability within this slot traces back to an earlier stage in the language when these affixes were originally independent words in either a preposed-''wa'' construction, or verb-verb apposition structure. These older analytic structures were eventually reanalyzed and gramatticalized, ultimately fusing both phonetically and morphologically into the verb complex. | |||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg sortable mw-collapsible" | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg sortable mw-collapsible" | ||
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! Expective | ! Expective | ||
| -naš- | | -naš- | ||
| supposed to | | supposed to <br/> expect to <br/> to wait for | ||
| | | | ||
|- | |- | ||
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# As this verb form creates a transitive clause, the Controller becomes the ergative argument and the Controllee becomes the absolutive argument. | # As this verb form creates a transitive clause, the Controller becomes the ergative argument and the Controllee becomes the absolutive argument. | ||
# The ''-sassi-'' allomorph surfaces when immediately followed by an affix starting with /s, ʃ/, as in the Causative ''-šp-'' affix, e.g. ''Sassišpikallutekarūš'' "I wanted to make him eat" (i.e. I wanted to feed him), or with affixes that start with a consonant cluster such as the Cessative ''-kš-'', e.g. ''Sassikšikallutekarūš'' "I wanted him to stop eating". | # The ''-sassi-'' allomorph surfaces when immediately followed by an affix starting with /s, ʃ/, as in the Causative ''-šp-'' affix, e.g. ''Sassišpikallutekarūš'' "I wanted to make him eat" (i.e. I wanted to feed him), or with affixes that start with a consonant cluster such as the Cessative ''-kš-'', e.g. ''Sassikšikallutekarūš'' "I wanted him to stop eating". | ||
The Desiderative II affix evolved from the fusion of the Desiderative I affix with the Causative during the Late Classical Minhast period or shortly after, when the Desiderative and the Causative were regularly combined to express different-subject "to want" structures; c.f. Classical Minhast ''Šakišpikallutekarunuš'' "I wanted to cause him to eat" for "I want him to eat". | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Aversive | ! Aversive | ||
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!Inchoative | !Inchoative | ||
| -saxt- <br/> -sax- | | -saxt- <br/> -sax- | ||
| to become | | to become | ||
| | | The Inchoative is primarily used to denote changes of state with stative verbs, e.g. ''saxpayyarkurran'' "He became black from the ashes", from the root ''-kūr-'' "to be black". | ||
The form ''-sax-'' is used when followed by a stop, e.g. ''saxtaharran'' "He became green" (from ''tahāl-'' "be green"), or /h,ħ/, e.g. ''Saxušuran'' "He became blue" (from ''hušur-'' "be blue") . Voiced stops become devoiced. In some dialects this form is used whenever followed by any consonant. | |||
The Inchoative is also used to derive the middle voice from transitive verbs, e.g. ''Yahamb saxaradaran'' "The fish pot broke", c.f. ''Yahamb harattarru'' <!-- from harad (to break st) --> "He broke the fish pot." | |||
|- | |- | ||
!Simulative | !Simulative | ||
| -šupn- | | -šupn- <br/>-šu- (+CC) | ||
| to resemble | | to resemble | ||
| Often found in combination with the verb root ''kifrak'' (to be the color of) + NI, meaning "to be x-colored", e.g. ''šupnikifrakteslakmahan'' (to be algae-colored); also appears in complex verbs signifying "to play", "to pretend", etc | | When used with semantically active verbs, it conveys performing an action in the manner indicated, e.g. ''Šukkirmektahuš'' ("Speak as I do"), ''Šupnikirimtahaš'' ("Speak like this) ''Šupnikirimtahampiš'' , ("Say it like this"). With stative verbs, it conveys being in like or similar to the state indicated, e.g. ''Ruppumakide uryataran šupnikūran/Ruppumakte uryataran šukkūran'' ("His face is as black as obsidian/He is incomprehensible/inscrutable"). | ||
Often found in combination with the verb root ''kifrak'' (to be the color of) + NI, meaning "to be x-colored", e.g. ''šupnikifrakteslakmahan/šukkifrakteslakmahan'' (to be algae-colored); also appears in complex verbs signifying "to play", "to pretend", etc. | |||
When used with common food items, it derives the idiom, "To taste like", e.g. ''Šuttirappian'' "It tastes like tilapia" (also meaning, "This is boring"). | |||
<!-- | |||
DOC:: Derived from verb root "-šupn-" (to resemble; to mirror), c.f. Nankõre "hompe" (to stand next to something) | |||
--> | |||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan="3"| Qualitatives | ! rowspan="3"| Qualitatives | ||
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|- | |- | ||
!Completive | !Completive | ||
| -šmuxt- | | -šmuxt-, -šmux- <br/>-šnux- | ||
| to finish | | to finish | ||
| Indicates completion | | Indicates completion | ||
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The Inverse Volitional affix interacts with the semantics of the verb root. If a verb root semantically implies the Agent has no control over an event, or the event is by happenstance and not by deliberate intent, the Inverse Volitional derives a verb that implies the Agent has control of an event or is actively seeking to determine its outcome. As an illustration, the verb root ''-sar-'' (to see) implies happenstance, where as the addition of the Inverse Volitional affix, yielding the form ''kaħsaran'' < ''-kah-sar-'' changes the meaning to "to look at" or even "to stare at". In contrast, the verb root ''-misk-'' (to be ill) semantically implies lack of control. Adding the Inverse Volitional Affix plus the Reflexive-Benefactive ''-sakšar-'' to yield the form ''kaħmisiksakšaran'' < ''-kah-misk-sakšar'' changes the meaning to "to deliberately infect oneself in order to play hooky". | The Inverse Volitional affix interacts with the semantics of the verb root. If a verb root semantically implies the Agent has no control over an event, or the event is by happenstance and not by deliberate intent, the Inverse Volitional derives a verb that implies the Agent has control of an event or is actively seeking to determine its outcome. As an illustration, the verb root ''-sar-'' (to see) implies happenstance, where as the addition of the Inverse Volitional affix, yielding the form ''kaħsaran'' < ''-kah-sar-'' changes the meaning to "to look at" or even "to stare at". In contrast, the verb root ''-misk-'' (to be ill) semantically implies lack of control. Adding the Inverse Volitional Affix plus the Reflexive-Benefactive ''-sakšar-'' to yield the form ''kaħmisiksakšaran'' < ''-kah-misk-sakšar'' changes the meaning to "to deliberately infect oneself in order to play hooky". | ||
The Preverb | The Preverb 4 affixes are restricted to this position in the verb template. Other than the Verb Core, the only affixes that can follow this slot are the Applicative affixes, located in the Preverb 5 slot. Additionally, the Preverb 4 affixes usually do not occur together; when they do, the resulting verb implies a sense of sloppiness on the part of the Agent. | ||
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==== Preverb 5 Applicative Affixes ==== | ==== Preverb 5 Applicative Affixes ==== | ||
The Preverb | The Preverb 5 slot contains exclusively the Applicative Affixes. These affixes are used to change the argument structure of a clause by increasing its valency, or by changing an oblique NP to core status as an Absolutive argument. The process of using an Applicative affix is often called "Applicative Formation", although other linguists prefer to use the term "Applicative Voice". This article will use the term "Applicative Formation" to emphasize that the argument structure of the clause is being changed by use of the Applicative affix. The Applicatives are used to promote an oblique argument to the Absolutive. | ||
All of the Preverb | All of the Preverb 5 affixes are mutually exclusive. Moreover, they are tightly bound to the next segment of the verb complex, namely the Verb Core; no affixes may intervene between the Applicative affixes and the Verb Core. Because of this strong connection to the Verb Core, it has been argued that the Applicatives be reclassified under the Verb Core segment. | ||
Although the Applicative Affixes encode spatial or directional information like the Oblique case clitics, they do not resemble them in form. The location and tight binding of these affixes belie their origins as the remnants of incorporated nouns from Proto-Nahenic; supporting evidence of this comes from the existence of independent cognate nouns in Nankôre, such as ''rahko'' "gift", ''macihi'' "hand", and ''nahko'' "room, enclosure", which is also cognate with the Minhast locative interrogative ''nakkī'' "where". | Although the Applicative Affixes encode spatial or directional information like the Oblique case clitics, they do not resemble them in form. The location and tight binding of these affixes belie their origins as the remnants of incorporated nouns from Proto-Nahenic; supporting evidence of this comes from the existence of independent cognate nouns in Nankôre, such as ''rahko'' "gift", ''macihi'' "hand", and ''nahko'' "room, enclosure", which is also cognate with the Minhast locative interrogative ''nakkī'' "where". | ||
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! Case Role | ! Case Role | ||
! Affix | ! Affix | ||
! Example | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Dative | ! Dative | ||
| -dut- | | -dut- <br/> | ||
-utt- | -utt- <br/> | ||
-tuCC-, -tuCt-<ref>This variant, originally from the Salmonic and Osprey dialects in the Nammawet region, has rapidly spread in the expatriate communities and now has gained popularity amongst Millennials in the Urban Colloquial dialect. The ''-tuCC-'' allophone surfaces a geminate voiceless stop, whereas the ''-tuCt-'' form surfaces with a preceding fricative or sonorant, per Minhast's overall tendency to devoice consonants. C.f Nammawet Salmonic ''Tukkirmekarun'' vs. Iskamharat Salmonic ''Duktirmekarun'', both meaning "I spoke to him"; Nammawet Osprey Speaker ''Tuštinnanku'' vs. Dayyat Prefecture Osprey Speaker ''Duštinnanku'', both meaning "I spread it before him." </ref> | |||
| | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Anxekt duktirmekaru. | |||
| IPA = | |||
| morphemes = anxea=ek=de dut-kirim-ek-ar-u | |||
| gloss = brother=1S.AGT+3S.PT=GEN DAT.APPL-speak-1S.AGT+3S.PT-PST-TRNS | |||
| translation = I spoke to my brother. | |||
}} | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Benefactive | ! Benefactive | ||
| -rak- | | -rak- | ||
| | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Anxekt rakkirmekaru. | |||
| IPA = | |||
| morphemes = anxea=ek=de rak-kirim-ek-ar-u | |||
| gloss = brother=1S.AGT+3S.PT=GEN BEN.APPL-speak-1S.AGT+3S.PT-PST-TRNS | |||
| translation = I spoke on behalf of my brother. | |||
}} | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Instrumental | ! Instrumental | ||
| -mat- | | -mat- | ||
| | |||
|- | |- | ||
! Locative | ! Locative | ||
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|- | |- | ||
! style="text-align:left"| 3rd Feminine Sg. | ! style="text-align:left"| 3rd Feminine Sg. | ||
| - | | -šš- | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="text-align:left"| 3rd Neuter Animate Sg. | ! style="text-align:left"| 3rd Neuter Animate Sg. | ||
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{{Gloss | {{Gloss | ||
|phrase = Tenkūr | |phrase = Tenkūr wandiraħħiššabu <!-- **Yes, notice that /ħ/ here is a phoneme, not an allophone, despite compensatory lengthening; this is true for both Upper Minhast and MSM --> | ||
|IPA = | |IPA = | ||
| morphemes = tenkūr wa=ind-raħy- | | morphemes = tenkūr wa=ind-raħy-šš-ab-u | ||
| gloss = morning CONN=INCEP-cry-DISTR-3SF-IMPF-TRANS | | gloss = morning CONN=INCEP-cry-DISTR-3SF-IMPF-TRANS | ||
| translation = She started crying earlier this morning and hasn't stopped since (lit. This morning she begins crying still) | | translation = She started crying earlier this morning and hasn't stopped since (lit. This morning she begins crying still) | ||
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{{Gloss | {{Gloss | ||
|phrase = Tenkūr | |phrase = Tenkūr waxtixriraħħitaššabu. <!-- ** Yes, notice that /ħ/ here is a phoneme, not an allophone, despite compensatory lengthening; this is true for both Upper Minhast and MSM --> | ||
|IPA = | |IPA = | ||
| morphemes = tenkūr wa=xt-xr-raħy-tar- | | morphemes = tenkūr wa=xt-xr-raħy-tar-šš-ab-u | ||
| gloss = morning CONN=INCEP-ITER-cry-DISTR-3SF-IMPF-TRANS | | gloss = morning CONN=INCEP-ITER-cry-DISTR-3SF-IMPF-TRANS | ||
| translation = She has been crying on and off since this morning and hasn't stopped (lit. This morning she begins to continue to cry on and off and is still crying) | | translation = She has been crying on and off since this morning and hasn't stopped (lit. This morning she begins to continue to cry on and off and is still crying) | ||
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===== Participial ===== | ===== Participial ===== | ||
The Participial slot is a small segment of the verb template, consisting of only one affix, ''-x-''. Past literature on the language variously placed them in the Tense-Aspect slot, whilst others placed in the Transitivity. Current practice is to place it in its own slot, as the affix can co-occur with the affixes of either slot yet does not semantically correspond to either. Its uses vary, sometimes forming an embedded clause of a causal sentence, e.g. '' | The Participial slot is a small segment of the verb template, consisting of only one affix, ''-x-''. Past literature on the language variously placed them in the Tense-Aspect slot, whilst others placed in the Transitivity. Current practice is to place it in its own slot, as the affix can co-occur with the affixes of either slot yet does not semantically correspond to either. Its uses vary, sometimes forming an embedded clause of a causal sentence, e.g. ''Iknakara<u>x</u>an išpisaxtikaraššaru'' "My departure saddened her/By departing, I saddened her", a temporal subordinator, e.g. ''Redaktān iknatahara<u>x</u>an išpiharsummektarundurkilmakš!'' "When you went with that man you shamed us all/In going out with that man you shamed us all!", and occasionally in Modern Standard Minhast but more often in Lower Minhast, it may convey concurrent actions, i.e. circumstantial clauses, e.g. ''Luktarabampi, išpisaxtikurgadešlekarba<u>x</u>an'' "He was cooking while I concentrated on my studies" (lit. "He was cooking in the time I was causing myself to become strong in mind")<ref>Notice that the Participial affix allows breaking the S/O pivot, as demonstrated in the two preceding examples.</ref>. It is often used in conjunction with the Habitual affix ''-asum-'' and nominalizer ''=naft'' to derive professions, as in ''asumišpinakkallutixnaft'' "chef, cook" (lit. "one who habitually causes others to eat for their benefit"). | ||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ||
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The Participial also creates deverbals, which nominalizes a verb stem. This nominalization in turn may be incorporated into a matrix verb. Five requirements must be satisfied before the nominalization can be incorporated: | The Participial also creates deverbals, which nominalizes a verb stem. This nominalization in turn may be incorporated into a matrix verb. Five requirements must be satisfied before the nominalization can be incorporated: | ||
#All ''wa=''-binding is stripped from the nominalization; | #All ''wa=''-binding is stripped from the nominalization; | ||
#Tense-Aspect markers are stripped from the verb complex; | |||
#The affixes from the Transitivity and Terminals slots are stripped from the nominalization; | #The affixes from the Transitivity and Terminals slots are stripped from the nominalization; | ||
#The pronominal affixes are stripped and the nominalization inherits its polypersonal referencing from its matrix verb; | #The pronominal affixes are stripped and the nominalization inherits its polypersonal referencing from its matrix verb; | ||
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! Detransitivizer | ! Detransitivizer | ||
| -an- <br/> -ēn-<br/> -en + C <br/> -ean <br/> -ā <br/> -ē | | -an- <br/> -ēn-<br/> -en + C <br/> -ean <br/> -ā <br/> -ē | ||
| The ''-ēn-'' and ''-en'' + C forms are non-pausal forms for when the preceding vowel is ''-e-'' or ''-ē-''. <br/>Otherwise, the combination ''-ean'' occurs if the verb is sentence-final and no other affix follows. The forms ''-ā'' and ''-ē'' are seen only in the poetry of Classical Minhast and | | The ''-ēn-'' and ''-en'' + C forms are non-pausal forms for when the preceding vowel is ''-e-'' or ''-ē-''. <br/>Otherwise, the combination ''-ean'' occurs if the verb is sentence-final and no other affix follows. The pausal forms ''-ā'' and ''-ē'' are seen only in the poetry of Classical Minhast and the Upper Minhast Fox Speaker dialect. | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Transitivizer | ! Transitivizer | ||
| -u- <br/> <br>-ū- <br/> -un- | | -u- <br/> <br>-ū- <br/> -un- | ||
| The archaic form ''-un-'' is often seen in Salmon Speaker and Wolf Speaker speech, and frequently in Horse Speaker poetry. <br/><br/>The allomorph ''-ū-'' occurs when the verb root ends with an ''-i-'', e.g. ''išpikaggi-'' (to hang on a wall or pole). The allomorph originally occurred only when there were no intervening affixes, i.e. the final vowel of the verb root immediately preceded ''-ū-'', but now it occurs even if other affixes intervene between the root's final vowel and the transitivizer, e.g. ''išpinikaggi-sikyalar-''<u>'''ū'''</u>, "He hangs up a painting/photo for him". | | The archaic form ''-un-'' is often seen in Salmon Speaker and Wolf Speaker speech, and frequently in Horse Speaker poetry. Moreover, the nominalizer clitic ''=naft'' triggers the ''-un-'' allomorph in all Upper Minhast dialects. When the ''-un-'' variant surfaces among MSM speakers, it occurs chiefly during nominalization among people originally hailing from the northern prefectures. <br/><br/>The allomorph ''-ū-'' occurs when the verb root ends with an ''-i-'', e.g. ''išpikaggi-'' (to hang on a wall or pole). The allomorph originally occurred only when there were no intervening affixes, i.e. the final vowel of the verb root immediately preceded ''-ū-'', but now it occurs even if other affixes intervene between the root's final vowel and the transitivizer, e.g. ''išpinikaggi-sikyalar-''<u>'''ū'''</u>, "He hangs up a painting/photo for him". | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Antipassive | ! Antipassive | ||
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! rowspan="9" |Evidentials | ! rowspan="9" |Evidentials | ||
! Factive | ! Factive | ||
| -∅- <br/>-št(a)- | | -∅- <br/>-ne <br/>-št(a)-<br/>-štanne | ||
| Referred to as the Gnomic, Aorist, and Neutral in other comparative linguistics material, the term Factive is used due to the influence of Iroquoian linguistic literature, since early treatises of Minhast were conducted by experts in the Iroquoian languages, who noticed structural and typological similarities between the two otherwise different language groups. | | Referred to as the Gnomic, Aorist, and Neutral in other comparative linguistics material, the term Factive is used due to the influence of Iroquoian linguistic literature, since early treatises of Minhast were conducted by experts in the Iroquoian languages, who noticed structural and typological similarities between the two otherwise different language groups. | ||
|- | |- | ||
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| Indicates the speaker is determined that the state or event shall be fulfilled; if accompanied by a negator, it conveys the meaning "never". The "-warāš-/-waraš-" forms occur when preceded by the Transitivizer ''-u''; in the Upper Minhast dialects, excluding the Seal and Elk Speaker dialects, the underlying ''n''-form of the Transitivizer surfaces, e.g. ''Ušneknesunwaraš'' ("I will definitely hit him!") | | Indicates the speaker is determined that the state or event shall be fulfilled; if accompanied by a negator, it conveys the meaning "never". The "-warāš-/-waraš-" forms occur when preceded by the Transitivizer ''-u''; in the Upper Minhast dialects, excluding the Seal and Elk Speaker dialects, the underlying ''n''-form of the Transitivizer surfaces, e.g. ''Ušneknesunwaraš'' ("I will definitely hit him!") | ||
|- | |- | ||
! rowspan=" | ! rowspan="7" | Deictics and Locationals | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Proximal | ! Proximal | ||
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! Invisible | ! Invisible | ||
| -hurtāhā | | -hurtāhā | ||
|- | |||
! Cislocative | |||
| -sušma- | |||
| May also convey a ventive sense, e.g. "inward, inside" | |||
|- | |||
! Translocative | |||
| -tarħa- | |||
| May also convey an andative sense, e.g. "outward, outside" | |||
|- | |- | ||
! colspan="2" | Emphatic Imperative | ! colspan="2" | Emphatic Imperative | ||
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! Purposive | ! Purposive | ||
| -nimmā <br/>-pannamā-<br/>-pannamāš- | | -nimmā <br/>-pannamā-<br/>-pannamāš- | ||
| English translation: "in order to". The Irrealis ''-š'' may cliticize to this affix under certain conditions, such as for non-past tenses, hypothetical statements, counterfactuals, and any other situation where the verb marked by ''=nimmā'' was not realized. <br/><br/>The allomorph ''-pannamā'' is a portmanteau of the Antipassive with the Purposive, ''-pi'' + ''-nimmā''. Similarly, the form ''-pannamāš-'' is a fusion of the Antipassive, Purposive, and Irrealis markers, ''-pi'' + ''-mā'' + ''-nimmā-'' + ''-š''. However, if any of the Evidentials, Miratives, Deictics, or Imperatives appear, the portmanteau cannot be used, | | English translation: "in order to". The Irrealis ''-š'' may cliticize to this affix under certain conditions, such as for non-past tenses, hypothetical statements, counterfactuals, and any other situation where the verb marked by ''=nimmā'' was not realized. <br/><br/>The allomorph ''-pannamā'' is a portmanteau of the Antipassive with the Purposive, ''-pi'' + ''-nimmā''. Similarly, the form ''-pannamāš-'' is a fusion of the Antipassive, Purposive, and Irrealis markers, ''-pi'' + ''-mā'' + ''-nimmā-'' + ''-š''. However, if any of the Evidentials, Miratives, Deictics, or Imperatives appear, the portmanteau cannot be used. Instead, the Antipassive marker must appear immediately before the Intransitive suffix, whilst the Irrealis marker appears in verb-final position, unless the nominalizer ''-naft'' appears, in which case the Irrealis is placed before the nominalizer. | ||
|- | |- | ||
! Quotative | ! Quotative | ||
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*Instrument: Verb root + ''-sesp'' (from ''sepsir'' "hand"), e.g. ''kirismesp'' (lit. "speak-hand", i.e. "phone, cellular") | *Instrument: Verb root + ''-sesp'' (from ''sepsir'' "hand"), e.g. ''kirismesp'' (lit. "speak-hand", i.e. "phone, cellular") | ||
*Location: Verb root + ''-kia(n)/-tappe'' (from ''kian''/''tappe'' "place"), e.g. ''kirinkian'' (lit. "speak-place", i.e. "auditorium"). < | *Location: Verb root + ''-kia(n)/-tappe'' (from ''kian''/''tappe'' "place"), e.g. ''kirinkian'' (lit. "speak-place", i.e. "auditorium"). <ref>The Salmonic dialects have an alternative suffix, ''-anki'', for deriving locative nouns, e.g. , ''saranki'' (lit. "see-place", i.e. "observation deck"). This suffix also appears in eastern varieties of the Horse Speaker dialect, an apparent development from dialectal mixing.</ref>,<ref>In the Gull Speaker dialect, Locative nouns are derived by adding the suffix ''-ru'' which elides with any preceding consonant and triggers gemination, e.g. ''kirir<u>ru</u>''. The Gull Speaker ''-ru'' is not derived from Type I incorporation but is instead a bonafide affix that may have come from a substratum language.</ref> | ||
*Manner: Verb root + ''-tak'' (from "style; way of doing something), e.g. ''kirimtak/kirintak'' (lit. "speak-way", i.e. "presentation", as in a business presentation/proposal; "delivery, oratory style") | *Manner: Verb root + ''-tak'' (from "style; way of doing something), e.g. ''kirimtak/kirintak'' (lit. "speak-way", i.e. "presentation", as in a business presentation/proposal; "delivery, oratory style") | ||
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===Reduplication=== | ===Reduplication=== | ||
Partial or full reduplication of verb roots may derive intensive | Partial or full reduplication of verb roots may also derive intensive or atelic verbs. They may also create onomatopoeic verbs, or in place of the Mitigative affix, attenuate the intensity of a verb: | ||
*''yakyakan'' (to be stranded) < ''yakan'' (to be still, static, unmoving) | *''yakyakan'' (to be stranded) < ''yakan'' (to be still, static, unmoving) | ||
*''nurruran'' (to pour) < ''nurran'' (to spill) | *''nurruran'' (to pour) < ''nurran'' (to spill) | ||
=== | === Affixal Derivation === | ||
A process for deriving new verbs occurs via application of the Telicity affixes, the Durative ''-ħtaš'' and the | |||
==== Telicity ==== | |||
A process for deriving new verbs occurs via application of the Telicity affixes, the Durative ''-ħtaš'' and the Semelfactive ''-minn-''. Technically telicity is a type of aspect, but unlike other aspect markers, which can be spontaneously employed in a single utterance, these affixes serve a more derivational purpose; their function is chiefly semantic as opposed to syntactic. For example, the verb root ''-dāwap-'' "to drip", when prefixed with the Durative, creates the derived verb ''-ħtaštāwap-'', which means "to trickle", and the verb root ''-sar-'' (to see) becomes ''-ħtassar-'' (to watch). Examples of derivation with the Semalfactive include ''-minnisasšši-'' "to sit down" from the verb root ''-sašši-'' "to sit" and ''-minnittaħš-'' "to seize (violently)" from the verb ''-ittaħš-'' "to take, to have"<ref>Semantically, "to take" is a semelfactive verb, but semantic bleaching of ''-ittaħš-'' has occurred with this root, originally meaning "to take" in Classical Minhast. Classical Minhast used the verb root ''-kta-'' (properly, "to own") to secondarily express "to have". In the modern dialects where ''-kta-'' survives, it either retains its original meaning, or "to steal" (Osprey Speaker dialect), "to pick up from the ground" (Salmonic and Horse Speaker dialects), and "to gain, to come into possession (usually by purchase, barter, or other form of trade)" (Gull Speaker dialect).</ref>. | |||
=== Other | ==== Other Affixes ==== | ||
*The Gull Speaker dialect, ''-ru'', derives locative nouns from verbs. This suffix is the hallmark of the dialect, although the suffix has appeared in the City Speaker dialect, and its use appears to be increasing. (See earlier discussion on Type I verb-noun derivational compounding). | *The Salmonic dialects retain the Classical Minhast suffix ''-anki'' for deriving locative deverbals, e.g. ''saranki'' (lit. "see-place", i.e. "observation deck"), although there is a growing preference for using Type I noun incorporation in the Salmon Speaker dialect due to Horse Speaker influence. (See earlier discussion on Type I verb-noun derivational compounding). The Wolf Speaker dialect, in contrast, overwhelmingly prefers ''-anki''. This suffix appears rarely in Modern Standard Minhast, and only in words of Salmonic origin. | ||
*In the Gull Speaker dialect, ''-ru'', derives locative nouns from verbs. This suffix is the hallmark of the dialect, although the suffix has appeared in the City Speaker dialect, and its use appears to be increasing. (See earlier discussion on Type I verb-noun derivational compounding). | |||
*The Gerundial ''-x-'' is becoming more frequently used, particularly for forming technological terminology. | *The Gerundial ''-x-'' is becoming more frequently used, particularly for forming technological terminology. | ||
*One major derivational affix that is associated with nouns is the suffix ''-ast'', which forms demonyms. Ironically, the word ''Minhast'' was not derived from this affix; it was derived from Proto-Minhast ''Nēn u θyatsə'' or ''Nēn u θyats'', which means "The True People Who Use the Spear" (c.f. Nankôre ''nan'' "human", Nahónda ''non, nahón'' "the People"). | *One major derivational affix that is associated with nouns is the suffix ''-ast'', which forms demonyms. Ironically, the word ''Minhast'' was not derived from this affix; it was derived from Proto-Minhast ''Nēn u θyatsə'' or ''Nēn u θyats'', which means "The True People Who Use the Spear" (c.f. Nankôre ''nan'' "human", Nahónda ''non, nahón'' "the People", ''yatsa'' "spike"). | ||
=== Fossilized Suffixes === | ==== Fossilized Suffixes ==== | ||
A few non-productive derivational suffixes occur occasionally in the standard language, with increasing frequency in the Upper Minhast dialects. These affixes are considered fossilized, but Classical Minhast texts indicate they could be generated spontaneously. The most common ones found in the standard language are: | A few non-productive derivational suffixes occur occasionally in the standard language, with increasing frequency in the Upper Minhast dialects. These affixes are considered fossilized, but Classical Minhast texts indicate they could be generated spontaneously. The most common ones found in the standard language are: | ||
* ''-(u)mbāt'': found mostly in collective nouns, and some abstract nouns. These nouns come from Salmonic dialects and Classical Minhast sources; | * ''-(u)mbāt'': found mostly in collective nouns, and some abstract nouns. These nouns come from Salmonic dialects and Classical Minhast sources; | ||
* ''-ummāt, -mmāt'': also found mostly in collective nouns, and some abstract nouns. These nouns come from Horse Speaker sources and are cognate with Salmonic ''-(u)mbāt''; | * ''-ummāt, -mmāt'': also found mostly in collective nouns, and some abstract nouns. These nouns come from Horse Speaker sources and are cognate with Salmonic ''-(u)mbāt''; | ||
* ''-m/n'': derives locative nouns, e.g. ''aldu-<u>m</u>'' "school" (from ''aldu'' "learn" + ''-m'') and sometimes verbal nouns. Survives with some frequency in some Salmon Speaker toponyms and a few rare instances in the Horse Speaker dialect; | * ''-(u)m/(u)n'': derives locative nouns, e.g. ''aldu-<u>m</u>'' "school" (from ''aldu'' "learn" + ''-m'') and sometimes verbal nouns. Survives with some frequency in some Salmon Speaker toponyms and a few rare instances in the Horse Speaker dialect; the Gull Speaker cities Bundarun and Bayburim are believed to be a combination of the Gullic ''-rū'' affix plus this apparently Upper Minhast-derived suffix. | ||
* ''-pnis'': habitual activities; words containing this suffix indicate Upper Minhast origins; | * ''-pnis'': habitual activities; words containing this suffix indicate Upper Minhast origins; | ||
* ''-niwak'': habitual activities that occur daily; sometimes indicates a profession. Most noticeable in the term ''hupniwak'', tools associated with carrying out daily functions, e.g. a flint stone for lighting fire (this term has also become a derogatory term for the City Speakers, since they serve as "tools" for administering domestic policy); | * ''-niwak'': habitual activities that occur daily; sometimes indicates a profession. Most noticeable in the term ''hupniwak'', tools associated with carrying out daily functions, e.g. a flint stone for lighting fire (this term has also become a derogatory term for the City Speakers, since they serve as "tools" for administering domestic policy); | ||
* ''-pa'': a deverbal that tends to denote abstract activities requiring several actors, e.g. ''nuyye-'' (to form an alliance), ''nuyye-pa'' (politics) | * ''-pa'': a deverbal that tends to denote abstract activities requiring several actors, e.g. ''nuyye-'' (to form an alliance), ''nuyye-pa'' (politics). C.f. Nankôre ''Hôkun Pe''' "tribal council, meeting place". | ||
* ''-uyyi''/''-ūy'': found mostly in abstract and some place nouns. Derived respectively from Horse Speaker and Salmon Speaker sources, words containing these fossilized suffixes have not been adopted in great numbers into Modern Standard Minhast due to speakers from other dialects having pronunciation difficulties with the ''uy(yi)'' sequence. | * ''-uyyi''/''-ūy'': found mostly in abstract and some place nouns. Derived respectively from Horse Speaker and Salmon Speaker sources, words containing these fossilized suffixes have not been adopted in great numbers into Modern Standard Minhast due to speakers from other dialects having pronunciation difficulties with the ''uy(yi)'' sequence. | ||
* ''-a'': affix for deriving concrete, usually domestic and other common items, from a stative verb root, e.g. ''hamašni-a'' "mattress/cushion", from ''hamašni-an'', "to be comfortable to sit/lie/stand/lean/rest on" | |||
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===Demonstrative Particles=== | ===Demonstrative Particles=== | ||
The demonstrative particles can be divided into two classes, a spatial class and a temporal class. Both classes, with a few exceptions, have at least three forms, an independent form, and two forms for preposed ''wa='' and postposed ''wa='' constructions. | The demonstrative particles can be divided into two classes, a spatial class and a temporal class. Both classes, with a few exceptions, have at least three forms, an independent form, and two forms for preposed ''wa='' and postposed ''wa='' constructions. | ||
The spatial class also has an Interjective form, usually best translated as "Here ''x'' is/are!", "There ''x'' is/are!" The forms that are bound by the ''wa='' Connective always require a clause to bind to. In contrast, the Interjective forms must immediately precede standalone NPs, thus they are not bound by the ''wa='' Connective and cannot be followed by or embedded within a clause. | The spatial class also has an Interjective form, usually best translated as "Here ''x'' is/are!", "There ''x'' is/are!" The forms that are bound by the ''wa='' Connective always require a clause to bind to. In contrast, the Interjective forms must immediately precede standalone NPs, thus they are not bound by the ''wa='' Connective and cannot be followed by or embedded within a clause. | ||
Note that the Interjective forms are derived from different roots. The particle ''ne'' often follows them to provide additional reinforcement, e.g. ''Eyha ne''. In some dialects, ''ne'' cliticizes to the Interjective form, accompanied with gemination, e.g. ''Eyhanne''. | Note that the Interjective forms are derived from different roots. The particle ''ne'' often follows them to provide additional reinforcement, e.g. ''Eyha ne''. In some dialects, ''ne'' cliticizes to the Interjective form, accompanied with gemination, e.g. ''Eyhanne'' /eɪhan:'e/. Note irregular pronunciation, with stress falling on the ultimate syllable. | ||
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | {| class="bluetable lightbluebg" | ||
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| | | | ||
# attim | # attim | ||
# | # damikmān | ||
| attim wa= | | attim wa= | ||
| wattim | | wattim | ||
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| | | | ||
# runa | # runa | ||
# | # damikmān<ref>C.f. Classical Minhast ''dam-km-ar-an'' (lit. they fell to the ground, spilled, scattered on the floor)</ref> | ||
| runa wa= | | runa wa= | ||
| warruna | | warruna | ||
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| | | | ||
# sukku | # sukku | ||
# | # damikmān | ||
| sukku wa= | | sukku wa= | ||
| wassukku | | wassukku | ||
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As tense in Minhast is relative, all temporal particles operate under a relative time reference, a reference based not on the speech act, but on the connected discourse of the speaker's narrative. | As tense in Minhast is relative, all temporal particles operate under a relative time reference, a reference based not on the speech act, but on the connected discourse of the speaker's narrative. | ||
The particle '' | The particle ''damikmān'' can refer to the recent past, present or future time as well, dependent on its exact semantic meaning from the tense marker in the verb, whereas the other temporal markers mark explicit time spaces independent of the verb's tense marker. | ||
Native speakers report that '' | Native speakers report that ''damikmān'' conveys a hightened sense of uncertainty because of its sole reliance on the verb's tense marker, but based on both data from both recorded speech and texts, the particle oftentimes appears to mark definite endpoints in relation to a reference point that is recoverable by all speech participants. | ||
One final note on '' | One final note on ''damikmān'': the particle always appears at the head of a clause and cannot be preceded by a ''wa''-Construction, nor can it be followed by a ''wa''-Construction. | ||
Textual examples of the use of '' | Textual examples of the use of ''damikmān'' illustrate how the particle derives its semantic meaning in marking a time reference: | ||
1) Example of Remote Past: | 1) Example of Remote Past: | ||
{{Gloss | {{Gloss | ||
|phrase = | |phrase = Damikmān Anyar iknatūmašnerrannimmāš raħkibayherradikminessuš. | ||
|IPA = | |IPA = | ||
| morphemes = | | morphemes = damikmān anyar kna-∅-šerr-an-nimm-mā-š raħk-bayhe-redad-km-ness-u-š | ||
| gloss = PTCL PN.ABS go-NOM-RMT.PST-INTR-PURP-SUB-IRR APPL.ABL-seek.help-men-3S.ACC+3P.NOM-FUT-TRN-IRR | | gloss = PTCL PN.ABS go-NOM-RMT.PST-INTR-PURP-SUB-IRR APPL.ABL-seek.help-men-3S.ACC+3P.NOM-FUT-TRN-IRR | ||
| translation = On that day, Anyar went [to Attum Attar] to seek help from their men. | | translation = On that day, Anyar went [to Attum Attar] to seek help from their men. | ||
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2) Example of Recent Past: | 2) Example of Recent Past: | ||
{{Gloss | {{Gloss | ||
|phrase = | |phrase = Damikmān Izzye išpisaxlaxmakkarusašša. | ||
|IPA = | |IPA = | ||
| morphemes = | | morphemes = damikmān izzye šp-saxt-laxmakk-ar-u-sašša | ||
| gloss = PTCL father CAUS-INCH-anger-PST-INTR-SEMB | | gloss = PTCL father CAUS-INCH-anger-PST-INTR-SEMB | ||
| translation = It seems that he angered Dad a few days ago. | | translation = It seems that he angered Dad a few days ago. | ||
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3) Example of Future: | 3) Example of Future: | ||
{{Gloss | {{Gloss | ||
|phrase = | |phrase = Damikmān Yešker hanessanwašša. | ||
|IPA = | |IPA = | ||
| morphemes = | | morphemes = damikmān yešker ha-ness-an-wašša | ||
| gloss = PTCL PN come-FUT-INTR-INFER | | gloss = PTCL PN come-FUT-INTR-INFER | ||
| translation = Yešker should be arriving soon. | | translation = Yešker should be arriving soon. | ||
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! wahēk, wahēki | ! wahēk, wahēki | ||
| Sequential/Topic Shifter | | Sequential/Topic Shifter | ||
| Often translated as "behold", or " | | Often translated as "behold", "thus", "and then", or "after that", this particle also functions similar to the verbal affix ''-mā'' general subordinator to connect sequential clauses. However, unlike ''-mā'', the Absolutive argument in the ''wahēk'' clause need not be correferential to that of its matrix clause; in fact, correference between the Absolutive in the ''wahēk'' clause is dispreferred. More often then not, it allows the S/O pivot to be broken and the core arguments change syntactic roles, i.e. the Absolutive argument becomes the Ergative or an oblique argument, and any Ergative argument assumes Absolutive status. The ''wahēk'' argument is also often used to introduce new topics. <br/> | ||
The ''wahēki'' form is found only in Classical Minhast, and in Salmon Speaker, Wolf Speaker, and Horse Speaker poetry. | The ''wahēki'' form is found only in Classical Minhast, and in Salmon Speaker, Wolf Speaker, and Horse Speaker poetry. | ||
|- | |||
! e, ye | |||
| Hesitation | |||
| Usually translated as "um" | |||
|- | |- | ||
! a, aħ | ! a, aħ | ||
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! ne, neħ | ! ne, neħ | ||
| Presentational | | Presentational | ||
| Somewhat similar to the Proximal Demonstrative particles, this particle is used | | Somewhat similar to the Proximal Demonstrative particles, this particle is often used when the speaker physically presents an object for view to the listener. <br/><br/> It may be used as an Interruptive, with the approximate meaning "hey". It is also used, especially with the verb marked with one of the Mirative affixes, to express slight exasperation, usually translated as "look", as in: ''Neħ, hatā' wattaksapki iknataharanaft tanusillekunkildūr'' "Look, I don't know why you left (the party) like that." | ||
|- | |||
! anne | |||
| Focus | |||
| Roughly equivalent to English "so". | |||
|- | |- | ||
! še, šenek | ! še, šenek | ||
| Interruptive | | Interruptive | ||
| Used to politely prompt the listener to let the speaker resume talking, best translated as, "Pardon me/Excuse | | Used to politely prompt the listener to let the speaker resume talking, best translated as, "Pardon me/Excuse me/Wait”. The longer form ''šenek'' is encountered in formal speech. | ||
|- | |- | ||
! anda | ! anda | ||
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| Connective | | Connective | ||
| This is actually a verbal clitic, not a particle. It is always used in conjunction with ''kāra'' (see previous entry on ''kāra'') | | This is actually a verbal clitic, not a particle. It is always used in conjunction with ''kāra'' (see previous entry on ''kāra'') | ||
|- | |||
! nixā' | |||
| Connective | |||
| Usually translated as "now, therefore", c.f. Italian ''allora'', ''quindi''. | |||
|- | |- | ||
! šukna | ! šukna | ||
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| Assertive | | Assertive | ||
| This is properly an interjection and appears at the end of the sentence ''without'' a ''wa='' Connective. When used in conjunction with a verb marked with the Irrealis, ''ka'' transforms the sentence into the Emphatic Imperative (see below). Outside the Emphatic Imperative, this particle is otherwise rare, appearing only in Classical Minhast and some extremely conservative varieties of the Salmon Speaker dialect. The ''ka'' particle also has variants that appear as verbal affixes, e.g. ''-ka-'',''-kka'' and ''-nka''. These affixes are also rare, again appearing mostly in Classical Minhast and conservative Salmon Speaker subdialects. | | This is properly an interjection and appears at the end of the sentence ''without'' a ''wa='' Connective. When used in conjunction with a verb marked with the Irrealis, ''ka'' transforms the sentence into the Emphatic Imperative (see below). Outside the Emphatic Imperative, this particle is otherwise rare, appearing only in Classical Minhast and some extremely conservative varieties of the Salmon Speaker dialect. The ''ka'' particle also has variants that appear as verbal affixes, e.g. ''-ka-'',''-kka'' and ''-nka''. These affixes are also rare, again appearing mostly in Classical Minhast and conservative Salmon Speaker subdialects. | ||
|- | |||
! ussa | |||
| Assertive-Immediacy | |||
| Usually translated as "now", this particle differs from ''attim'' "now, just recently" in that it is restricted to hortatives or imperatives. Example: ''Attim wakkirišmattimmaran'' "We just spoke to each other", vs. ''Ussa kirimtahaš'' "Say something, now!" | |||
|- | |- | ||
! nikā' | ! nikā' | ||
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==== ''Wēš'' ==== | ==== ''Wēš'' ==== | ||
''Wēš'' cannot be bound by the ''wa''- Construction. In terms of syntax, its position is quite free as ''sukkādi'' and has the same scopal qualities. ''Wēš'' is often translated as "well then", "come on", "therefore", or sometimes "we'll see". In some cases it appears to be mild hortative particle, but more often it seems to be an acknowledge that the topic of discussion remains unresolved, inevitable, or to indicate even resignation. This might explain why it is often translated as | ''Wēš'' cannot be bound by the ''wa''- Construction. In terms of syntax, its position is quite free as ''sukkādi'' and has the same scopal qualities. ''Wēš'' is often translated as "well then", "come on", "therefore", or sometimes "we'll see". In some cases it appears to be mild hortative particle, but more often it seems to be an acknowledge that the topic of discussion remains unresolved, inevitable, or to indicate even resignation. This might explain why it is often translated as the conjunction "but" by native speakers: | ||
{{Gloss | {{Gloss | ||
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=== Word Order === | === Word Order === | ||
Minhast is an SOV language, but within a clause, constituent order is quite free, although there are certain trends as well as restrictions. One noticeable trend is that core NPs | Minhast is an SOV language, but within a clause, constituent order is quite free, although there are certain trends as well as restrictions. One noticeable trend is that core NPs as arguments tend to be adjacent to each other. Oblique arguments tend to be placed after the core NPs but before, so that unmarked word order is SOXV (where X stands for the OBL argument). This observation can be verified statistically by reviewing of the corpus of texts and spoken speech, and this observation holds for almost 60%, close to one standard deviation of all text and recorded speech sampled. XSOV order is the second most common arrangement found, accounting for close to 20% of all observations. This order is typically used to introduce new information into the discourse. OSV and OSXV are used to emphasize the absolutive argument, accounting for 15%. OXSV orders tend to make speakers from the more conservative dialects in Upper Minhay cringe, although they will concede that those arrangements are grammatical. These arrangements account for the remaining 5% of observations. | ||
What is almost inviolable,at least in multi-clausal sentences, is the position of the verb's clause-final position. The main reason for this restriction is most likely because the verb, being extremely suffix-laden, includes clause-linking and coordinating affixes which occur in the Terminatives slot of the Minhast verb template. Thus, the verb serves to mark clause boundaries and coordinate compound and complex sentences, hence the predominance of the verb's clause-final position. Nevertheless, verbs do occur in non-final position under the following circumstances: | What is almost inviolable,at least in multi-clausal sentences, is the position of the verb's clause-final position. The main reason for this restriction is most likely because the verb, being extremely suffix-laden, includes clause-linking and coordinating affixes which occur in the Terminatives slot of the Minhast verb template. Thus, the verb serves to mark clause boundaries and coordinate compound and complex sentences, hence the predominance of the verb's clause-final position. Nevertheless, verbs do occur in non-final position under the following circumstances: | ||
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! and | ! and | ||
| suttu/sut<br/> [NP]=s + [NP]<br/> [NP]<sub>1</sub>=s + ...[NP]<sub>n</sub> + suttu | | suttu/sut<br/> [NP]=s + [NP]<br/> [NP]<sub>1</sub>=s + ...[NP]<sub>n</sub> + suttu | ||
| [Clause] <sub>1</sub>+ [Clause]<sub>2</sub> <br/>[ | | [Clause] <sub>1</sub>+ [Clause]<sub>2</sub> <br/>[Nominalized clause]<sub>1</sub> + suttu wa=[Clause]<sub>2</sub> | ||
|- | |- | ||
! but | ! but | ||
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! or | ! or | ||
| xan<br/> xandaš | | xan<br/> xandaš | ||
| [ | | [Nominalized clause]<sub>1</sub> + xan wa=[Nominalized clause]<sub>2</sub> | ||
|} | |} | ||
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|phrase =Alan wassakikmanaft, Ru'awwankan suttu wantaslapimmakikminesankilwašša | |phrase =Alan wassakikmanaft, Ru'awwankan suttu wantaslapimmakikminesankilwašša | ||
| IPA = | | IPA = | ||
| morphemes = Alan wassaki-km-an-aft, Ru'awwam | | morphemes = Alan wassaki-km-an-aft, Ru'awwam=kan suttu wa=nt-silap-mmak-km-nes-an-kilwaš=š | ||
| gloss = PN fell.dead.to.the.ground-3P.ABS-INTR-NMLZ and CONN=INTENS-ride-ASSOC-3P.ABS-FUT-INTR-MIR=IRREAL | | gloss = PN fell.dead.to.the.ground-3P.ABS-INTR-NMLZ PN=COMM and CONN=INTENS-ride-ASSOC-3P.ABS-FUT-INTR-MIR=IRREAL | ||
| translation = Alan (and Yešker) who were slain (that day), ''together'' may they ride hard with the Black Horse! ''("Rest in peace")'' | | translation = Alan (and Yešker) who were slain (that day), ''together'' may they ride hard with the Black Horse! ''("Rest in peace")'' | ||
}} | }} | ||
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| ''tazer min erakmast >> tazer min erak-mass=de '' (the birds' feathers) | | ''tazer min erakmast >> tazer min erak-mass=de '' (the birds' feathers) | ||
|- | |- | ||
! | ! Demonym NPs | ||
| NP= | | NP=DEMONYM + min + NP | ||
| ''Canadastim rakne''>> kanada=ast min rakne'' (Canadian tourists) | | ''Canadastim rakne''>> kanada=ast min rakne'' (Canadian tourists) | ||
|- | |- | ||
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{{Gloss | {{Gloss | ||
|phrase = | |phrase = sayyeššite | ||
| IPA = /saj: | | IPA = /saj:ɛʃ:'ɪtɛ/ | ||
| morphemes = sayyet- | | morphemes = sayyet-šši=de | ||
| gloss = sister-3FS.ACC+3MS.NOM=ERG | | gloss = sister-3FS.ACC+3MS.NOM=ERG | ||
| translation = His sister | | translation = His sister | ||
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| IPA = /asunkas:asakʃarɪskɛn:ɛs:a's:ɪ'ʃtɛ/ | | IPA = /asunkas:asakʃarɪskɛn:ɛs:a's:ɪ'ʃtɛ/ | ||
| morphemes = asum-kar-sakšar-skem-ness=š=de | | morphemes = asum-kar-sakšar-skem-ness=š=de | ||
| gloss = HAB- | | gloss = HAB-wheel-RFLX.BEN-3S.NEUT.INAN.NOM-FUT=IRR=ERG | ||
| translation = the car which they will be owning together | | translation = the car which they will be owning together | ||
}} | }} | ||
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| IPA = /asunkassakʃarɪskɛmartɛ/ | | IPA = /asunkassakʃarɪskɛmartɛ/ | ||
| morphemes = asum-kar-sakšar-skem-ar=de | | morphemes = asum-kar-sakšar-skem-ar=de | ||
| gloss = HAB- | | gloss = HAB-wheel-RFLX.BEN-3S.NEUT.INAN.NOM-PST=ERG | ||
| translation = their former car, the car that had once been theirs | | translation = their former car, the car that had once been theirs | ||
}} | }} | ||
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To express the Comparative, Minhast employs a very different structure than English. Minhast uses a two-clause construction. The Comparee occurs in the first clause and is in the Absolutive, with the Standard expressed as an oblique Dative argument. The verb for that clause is an intransitive attributive verb. This verb serves as the Quality and is linked to the second clause with the General Subordinative clitic ''=mā''. The second clause of the construction contains either the verb ''annuk-an-pi'' (to have the greater portion) or ''isp-an-pi'' (to have the lesser portion). These are the Marker verbs, and are detransitivized with the Antipassive marker ''-pi-'' in order to match the valency of the Quality verb. | To express the Comparative, Minhast employs a very different structure than English. Minhast uses a two-clause construction. The Comparee occurs in the first clause and is in the Absolutive, with the Standard expressed as an oblique Dative argument. The verb for that clause is an intransitive attributive verb. This verb serves as the Quality and is linked to the second clause with the General Subordinative clitic ''=mā''. The second clause of the construction contains either the verb ''annuk-an-pi'' (to have the greater portion) or ''isp-an-pi'' (to have the lesser portion). These are the Marker verbs, and are detransitivized with the Antipassive marker ''-pi-'' in order to match the valency of the Quality verb. | ||
The following example demonstrates a comparative clause construction: | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Anyar Narramitaran šimūzabammā annukabampi | |||
| IPA = | |||
| morphemes = Anyar Narramit=aran šimūz-ab-an=mā annuk-ab-an-pi | |||
| gloss = Anyar=ABS Narramit=DAT to.be.hungry-IMPF-INTRANS=SUB have.greater.share-IMPF-INTRANS-ANTI | |||
| translation = Anyar is hungrier than Narramit <span style="font-style:normal">(lit. "Anyar compared to Narramit is hungry, he has the greater share").</span> | |||
}} | |||
The formation of the Superlative is rather straightforward in Minhast. It is similar to the Comparative clause structure, with few modifications. First, the Standard is dropped. The Dative oblique argument also dropped from the clause, and the Distributive affix is appended to both the Quality and the Marker verbs to indicate that the Quality extends across an entire set that implicitly represents the Standard, as in the sentence following sentence: | |||
{{Gloss | |||
|phrase = Anyar redadaran sararampā, paħpartarabammā annuktararan | |||
| IPA = | |||
| morphemes = Anyar redad=aran sar-ar-an-pi=mā paħpār-tar-ab-an=mā annuk-tar-ar-an | |||
| gloss = Anyar.ABS men=DAT see-PAST-INTRANS-ANTI=SUB to.be.tall-DISTR-IMPF-INTRANS | |||
| translation = Anyar saw (some) men, he was strong than them <span style="font-style:normal">(lit. "Anyar saw some men, he was strong ''across'' (each one)").</span> | |||
}} | |||
Notice that the agreement of transitivity between both the Quality and Marker verbs follow the standard rules of creating an S/O pivot to indicate that both Standard and Quality verbs refer to the same Absolutive argument. As far as Minhast is concerned, formation of a Comparative or Superlative phrase structure is simply another instance of valence operations that the language regularly employs. Thus, the Minhast structure for both Comparatives and Superlatives can be compared vis-a-vis English as follows: | Notice that the agreement of transitivity between both the Quality and Marker verbs follow the standard rules of creating an S/O pivot to indicate that both Standard and Quality verbs refer to the same Absolutive argument. As far as Minhast is concerned, formation of a Comparative or Superlative phrase structure is simply another instance of valence operations that the language regularly employs. Thus, the Minhast structure for both Comparatives and Superlatives can be compared vis-a-vis English as follows: | ||
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}} | }} | ||
For non-coreferent arguments as the O-argument, the other dialects nominalize the non-focus clause (the clause containing the secondary core argument of the entire discourse unit< | For non-coreferent arguments as the O-argument, the other dialects nominalize the non-focus clause (the clause containing the secondary core argument of the entire discourse unit<ref>A discourse unit is defined as a series of contiguous sentences where a clearly identifiable Subject is coreferential across all clauses in the sentence series.</ref>) embedded in the matrix clause, which corresponds to focus clause. The verb of the non-focus clause must also be transitivized by the Comitative Applicative ''-ngar-''. Other valence operations, such as NI and AF take place as necessary to maintain the S/O pivot which corresponds to the focus clause. | ||
{{Gloss | {{Gloss | ||
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| gloss = COM.APPL-eat-PST-IMPF-TRANS-NMLZ INVERSE.VOL-see-box-PST-IMPF-INTRANS | | gloss = COM.APPL-eat-PST-IMPF-TRANS-NMLZ INVERSE.VOL-see-box-PST-IMPF-INTRANS | ||
| translation = While the other one ate, he watched tv. ''(lit. "The one (non-focus) who ate beside him (focus), he (focus) tv-watched.")' | | translation = While the other one ate, he watched tv. ''(lit. "The one (non-focus) who ate beside him (focus), he (focus) tv-watched.")' | ||
}} | }} | ||
===== Purposive ===== | ===== Purposive ===== | ||
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{{Gloss | {{Gloss | ||
|phrase = | |phrase = Duxtim nukarpiyar ikšākekarampanamā ruwassektaharuš. | ||
|IPA = | |IPA = | ||
| morphemes = | | morphemes = duxt=min nukarpi=yar ikšāk-ek-ar-an-pi-namā ruwas-ektah-ar-u=š | ||
| gloss = three CONN day=ABL | | gloss = three=CONN day=ABL request-1S.ABS-PST-INTRANS-QUOT help-1S.ABS+2S.ERG-PST-TRANS=IRRREAL | ||
| translation = Three days ago I asked you for help. | | translation = Three days ago I asked you for help. <span style="font-style:normal"> (lit: "From three days I asked, 'You help me'").</span> | ||
}} | }} | ||
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{{Gloss | {{Gloss | ||
|phrase = | |phrase =Duxtim nukarpiyar hakminesaš. | ||
|IPA = | |IPA = | ||
| morphemes = | | morphemes =duxt=min nukarpi=yar ha-km-nes-an=š | ||
| gloss = three CONN day=ABL come-3P.ABS-FUT-INTRANS=IRREAL | | gloss = three=CONN day=ABL come-3P.ABS-FUT-INTRANS=IRREAL | ||
| translation = Three days from now they will have arrived. (lit: "From three days they will come") | | translation = Three days from now they will have arrived. <span style="font-style:normal">(lit: "From three days they will come")</span> | ||
}} | }} | ||
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{{Gloss | {{Gloss | ||
|phrase = Sapim duxt min | |phrase = Sapim duxt min nukarpiki intarsattabedustimmaraš. | ||
|IPA = | |IPA = | ||
| morphemes = Sap=im duxt min nukarpi=ki ntar-sattabe-dust-mm-ar-an=š | | morphemes = Sap=im duxt min nukarpi=ki ntar-sattabe-dust-mm-ar-an=š | ||
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* ''Hambin bāk wa=...'' It's none of your business (that)... | * ''Hambin bāk wa=...'' It's none of your business (that)... | ||
* ''Hambin bak wattāħ!'' It's none of your business! | * ''Hambin bak wattāħ!'' It's none of your business! | ||
* '' | * ''Hambakkattāħ!/Hambaktaħ!'' It's none of your business! (City Speaker slang, contraction of ''Hambin bak wattāħ'') | ||
* ''Ēlā hatā' min ādan?'' You can't make up your mind, can you? (lit. "The yes and no of which?", the rational deriving from "Yes? No? Which one?" | * ''Ēlā hatā' min ādan?'' You can't make up your mind, can you? (lit. "The yes and no of which?", the rational deriving from "Yes? No? Which one?" | ||
* ''Lātimbān?'' You can't make up your mind, can you? (City Speaker slang, contraction of ''Ēlā hatā' min ādan'' | * ''Lātimbān?'' You can't make up your mind, can you? (City Speaker slang, contraction of ''Ēlā hatā' min ādan'') | ||
* ''Matti wabbakš?'' And your point is? | * ''Matti wabbakš?'' And your point is? | ||
* ''Humme wattāħ/wattaħtem!'' Hail!! | * ''Humme wattāħ/wattaħtem!'' Hail!! | ||
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# Therefore its name was called Babel, because there the Lord confused the language of all the earth. And from there the Lord dispersed them over the face of all the earth.<br/><br/> | # Therefore its name was called Babel, because there the Lord confused the language of all the earth. And from there the Lord dispersed them over the face of all the earth.<br/><br/> | ||
# Mattim šūmī min kirim šarraktī, irriyērum kastarmaharaban. | # Mattim šūmī min kirim šarraktī, irriyērum kastarmaharaban.<br/>matti=min šūmī=min kirim šarrat=kī, irriyērum kas-tar-mah-ar-ab-an | ||
# Wahēk, redad wayyaħna min ambunistikī yalkikmiraban, Šinarkī takušš naħkisaššiatikkenaru, sappu. | # Wahēk, redad wayyaħna min ambunistikī yalkikmiraban, Šinarkī takušš naħkisaššiatikkenaru, sappu.<br/>wahēk redad wayyaħna=min ambunisti=kī yalki-km-ar-ab-an šinar=kī takušš naħk-saššia-tikken-ar-u sappu | ||
# Indikirišmattararannamā: "Iggar išpisaxtakyatapirmannēruš." Mattim iggar, hambin banak. Mattim issik, hambin nayyapi. | # Indikirišmattararannamā: "Iggar išpisaxtakyatapirmannēruš." Mattim iggar, hambin banak. Mattim issik, hambin nayyapi.<br/>nd-kirim-šattar-ar-an=namā iggar šp-saxt-akyat-āpir-manne-ar-u=š, matti=min iggar hambi=min banak, matti=min issik, hambi=min nayyapi. | ||
# Indikirišmattararannamā: "Hawassabummurratħakaš, šuxtānaran tuyye amandimahampinaft hawassaptirħakuš. Hintirissakšarmakkakannimmāš šarratim suharaktikī | # Indikirišmattararannamā: "Hawassabummurratħakaš, šuxtānaran tuyye amandimahampinaft hawassaptirħakuš. Hintirissakšarmakkakannimmāš šarratim suharaktikī tandikaħsaħpitarikmaš."<br/>nd-kirim-šattar-ar-an=namā, hawassab-ummurrat-ħak-an=š, šuxtān=aran tuyye amandi-mahan-pi=naft hawassab-tirħak-u=š, <hintiris>-sakšar-makkak-an=nimmā=š šarrat=min suharak=de=kī ta=nd-kaħ-saħp-tar-km-an=š. | ||
# Wahēk, Šuxtānim Ikkūne hārannimā, ummurrat sut tuyyēran sararampi, išpiħyimannarunaft sarmannaru. | # Wahēk, Šuxtānim Ikkūne hārannimā, ummurrat sut tuyyēran sararampi, išpiħyimannarunaft sarmannaru. | ||
# Wahēk, Šuxtānim Ikkūne kirimarannamā: "Sapim redad šūmikman, šūmī min kirimaran ittaħšikman, indikanawikmabampi, rearan markanawikminesampiš." | # Wahēk, Šuxtānim Ikkūne kirimarannamā: "Sapim redad šūmikman, šūmī min kirimaran ittaħšikman, indikanawikmabampi, rearan markanawikminesampiš." | ||
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# Wahēk, Šuxtānim Ikkūnē išpiknatarkennarunimmā ummurratiyār iknikmaran. | # Wahēk, Šuxtānim Ikkūnē išpiknatarkennarunimmā ummurratiyār iknikmaran. | ||
# Attim waggabgabalaram hittinristirħaku, Šuxtānim Ikkūnē kirimseššente išpikšempiharu, šarrat min suharaktillidēran išpiknatarkennaru. | # Attim waggabgabalaram hittinristirħaku, Šuxtānim Ikkūnē kirimseššente išpikšempiharu, šarrat min suharaktillidēran išpiknatarkennaru. | ||
=== Kaymawākan === | |||
This epic Wolf Speaker song tells the story of Kaymawākan, the Ghost Deer. He died many years ago, when he was a doe who had given birth to a fawn. A hunter slew her daughter, an egregious act of ''innūy''. She died of heartbreak, but rather than returning to the ''Turħatūman'', the Spirit World, she roamed the earth in mourning. One day she vowed revenge, and she twisted the smoke<ref>A shamanic ritual whereby the shaman lights a fire and moves their hand through the smoke as if weaving.</ref> and transformed into a mighty buck. From that point on, he pursued hunters who intruded into his realm, the mighty mountains of the Kilmay Rī. To this day, Wolf Speakers come upon frozen corpses with multiple stab wounds, the snow around them stained with bloody hoof prints. | |||
Sappim birīh suttu yiptikī asumambunekan; | |||
Kimalaški asumambunekan | |||
Wakpe intasuntakkimannaft | |||
Naħkasumambunku | |||
Wayhekī | |||
Šarrat tarampilaban. | |||
Wahek, matti makkutirtaħte, | |||
Sappu waamburrunataharan | |||
Saxtidutyatawamtaħkaru, | |||
"Bakran tamaškektahabu?" | |||
Kirišmararannamā, "Nakkitaħš?" | |||
Hambin xānim kayyūn marišpinušillekmahu | |||
Išpihipsalasibbatittaharu | |||
Kiantittaħte dustindirupputahekaru | |||
Kianki šullumtahekaru, | |||
Mattitittaħte amandisiħtirkaru | |||
Tamarsartakaru, | |||
Wahek mattitittaħte amandisiħtirkaru | |||
Išpikyamšarekaran, | |||
Bastetallutsakšarekaran. | |||
Išpintahuslapallutsakšarekaran, | |||
Bašbayāk bastetallutsakšarekaran | |||
Wahek, marwastanaft | |||
Tarasmanesaššawaš | |||
Tuytahatahanaft, | |||
Išpisaššarankilwāš | |||
Kimalaš tatannuykiwataħpitahan | |||
Sap ambunkimalaštahaban | |||
Nuskikungaħtakkultasnabu | |||
Eyha, wahek kadduttahan! | |||
Rubwakankilwāš, | |||
Hittitittaharu wammīn | |||
Kahallatalluttartaharan | |||
Yiptia naħkkahallatalluttartaharu | |||
Išnittaħšimattahabu | |||
Yusnakarrawaš. | |||
Inditamaškataku, | |||
Hatā' martubbataban | |||
Wahek, yiptiki kaddutahan | |||
Eyhak, nirraktaku, | |||
Waheki umyasalluttakukilwāš | |||
Suyyeknataħte kuddumtaku | |||
Šandaħtahan, | |||
Eyha, wastane dawapabammā, | |||
Išpiskaħyiptian... | |||
Bisiraztakummā, | |||
Waheki mattuyekammā, | |||
Iħtaššarekan. | |||
Sappu wahunnetirekte, | |||
Naš waššumbattaħte. | |||
Waheki iħtaħšittallutekaban, | |||
Kuttariyekaban, | |||
Waheki hištarkeħretahaban, | |||
Huttuytirekte dāwapwastanemahabanaft, sartirtahabu. | |||
--------------------- | |||
Translation | |||
--------------------- | |||
Among these mountains I walk this path | |||
In the deep snow | |||
In the depths of the forest | |||
Where the pines grow thick; | |||
The land sleeps | |||
Under this white blanket. | |||
Then I see your tracks, | |||
You walked this path not long ago; | |||
You strike my curiosity; | |||
Why are you following me? | |||
I ask myself where you are, | |||
A question only these trees can answer. | |||
A rustle alerts me, | |||
I turn in the direction | |||
Where I first heard you; | |||
I sense your presence | |||
Although I cannot see you, | |||
I know you are here. | |||
I ready myself | |||
I ready my weapons; | |||
I have honed them meticulously, | |||
I have honed each their killing edge; | |||
That which bleeds shall not survive | |||
These sharpened edges. | |||
In your overconfidence | |||
You foolishly reveal yourself, | |||
But you walk these woods | |||
Not knowing the dangers | |||
That await you in the forest, | |||
Thus you slip on the ice. | |||
I seize this opportune advantage | |||
You foolishly granted me, | |||
Your weapons are now scattered | |||
Spread across the snow; | |||
You run to reclaim them | |||
But it is too late for you. | |||
I give chase, | |||
You cannot outrun me; | |||
You stumble and fall, | |||
Now I stand over you; | |||
I plunge down my weapons, | |||
They pierce your heart. | |||
You crawl away, | |||
Your blood spills, | |||
It colors the snow red; | |||
I charge at you again, | |||
I stab you once again, | |||
Then I step back and watch. | |||
Your bow lies here | |||
And your arrows lie there, | |||
But I still hold onto my weapons; | |||
I shake them at you | |||
As you give me the deathstare; | |||
My antlers dripping with your blood are the last thing you see. | |||
=== Urasmaran Niniwāzintaheknesuš - "I Will Shoot the Stars for You" === | |||
This Horse Speaker song, beloved by many Speakers across Minhay, has many variations, but this Wolf Speaker rendition is the most popular one. | |||
<blockquote> | |||
Yaxna išpiduħtawassapsespirekaran | |||
<br/> Išpikmizekabunimmā silapkālampiš | |||
<br/> Yakaran unnuzarampi, takki amandirumpakaran. | |||
<br/> Ittašširedadeknenaru, ittašširedadekaru. | |||
<br/> Ezyatarnesrikemmikte tahaswattehakkemaru, | |||
<br/> Gāl min Kirmastek, suttu Dūy min Kirmast wammīn. | |||
<br/> Wahēk, yattušattarammabammā, tazem aydakyukkuraraban. | |||
<br/> Gālinnaran rununkarabampi, reyriktaran beytāksabbiekarampi. | |||
<br/> Wahēk, sisiblūlaran durdakimmaran, karaktirimmideki raknetaraban, | |||
<br/> Intapayradnennaru, utumtakaraban. | |||
<br/> Išpiyašekarumā, wahēk iħmatekte kirinnamā, "Henkutaharaš?" | |||
<br/> Wahēk, rakne Hanim kirim indikirimaraban, | |||
<br/> Intasunikmiskirimimman; | |||
<br/> Irriyērummannide tarak, | |||
<br/> Bitummakimmandūr. | |||
<br/> Wahēk, indeškiabaran, innuntuannimannarabammā, | |||
<br/> Kirkarimabannamā: "Hatā' warredad tanakkurikmabaškilmakš! | |||
<br/> "Hatā' warredad tapuħtatakimmakikmabaškilmakš!" | |||
<br/> "Sapim kayhata tartararak suttu kuldukuradak! Wahēk, marrattanessaš, warrā'e! | |||
<br/> "Iknapirtannessaš!" | |||
<br/> Wahēk, iħmatekte neššimaran tamarkirimrērum wakkeyl; | |||
<br/> Ittaħšikunnarayarammā ušinnassadarampikilwāš! | |||
<br/> Indihayrahabammā, indiniššukaraban, haznam gubburād wayyattax! | |||
<br/> Wahēk, iħmatekte biarammā kirimnamā, "Ayayakiššultahaš, ayayahunnetahaš wammek | |||
<br/> "Sisiblūl muškiniššukhakuš." | |||
<br/> Baxtutekaran, duštullumekaru. | |||
<br/> Muntehimmaran, wahēk kirimnamā, "Gālekte, karurasmeknesuš?" | |||
<br/> Wahēk, išpikaħmadruppumakeknenumā nakkureknaru. | |||
<br/> Kirmekarunamā: "Urasmaran niniwāzintaheknesuš!" | |||
<br/> Wahēk, Minhayki tasungesmeku haznam gubburād taktirt. | |||
</blockquote> | |||
=== Sapim Tayatta ("This Poison") === | === Sapim Tayatta ("This Poison") === | ||
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| translation = I see you have a problem of lawlessness in some of your less travelled roads. A man, apparently suffering from a rabid dog bite, ambushed my party. Some of us nearly shot him full of arrows, and others nearly ran him through with their šuhapna. But we held fast and listened to this yapping fool tell us to do something about a dangerous bandit named Eró lurking just beyond the crossing at the brook. I imagine he wanted me to have him put to death. We ignored him, as we were very hungry and were already impatient with this delay. <br/><br/>Strange then it is when after we arrived here safely at Biktāt, I find a pile of letters waiting for me. Letters from a man named Sorvin pleading me to "put in a kind word to Prefect Annu" to have Éro "disposed of", and that the lands that Éro had stolen be returned back to him. Apparently this citizen of Dog Speaker Country thinks that the authority of his own Prefect can be overriden by the word of a foreign Ikkūne! | | translation = I see you have a problem of lawlessness in some of your less travelled roads. A man, apparently suffering from a rabid dog bite, ambushed my party. Some of us nearly shot him full of arrows, and others nearly ran him through with their šuhapna. But we held fast and listened to this yapping fool tell us to do something about a dangerous bandit named Eró lurking just beyond the crossing at the brook. I imagine he wanted me to have him put to death. We ignored him, as we were very hungry and were already impatient with this delay. <br/><br/>Strange then it is when after we arrived here safely at Biktāt, I find a pile of letters waiting for me. Letters from a man named Sorvin pleading me to "put in a kind word to Prefect Annu" to have Éro "disposed of", and that the lands that Éro had stolen be returned back to him. Apparently this citizen of Dog Speaker Country thinks that the authority of his own Prefect can be overriden by the word of a foreign Ikkūne! | ||
}} | }} | ||
=== Dūy Yakmani "Salmon for Yakma Soup" === | |||
Early in the morning, I was fishing and caught a salmon in the Kashmak River. It was a big, fat one, and I knew it would make good yakma soup for dinner. So I killed it and put it in my basket, and I began my journey home, heading up the mountain carrying the salmon over my shoulder, but then I saw storm-clouds and soon the rains began to pelt me. I found a small cave and took shelter in it, and then I took out the salmon and lay it aside so I could make a fire. I took the salmon out and began to clean it, it was a female and filled with roe. | |||
Ayakna ubarrāsekabampamā, dūyaran ehahekampi, kašmakki ehaheku, arruššan sakwaštan, yakmaran saxtihayyuštinesaš, saxtimurrešnesašnaft irraktuyeku, wahēk intušindūyekan, ayayadūyekan, indiknatūmanekammā, hūraran indiħyekan, reyriaktipār sipsambuyekammā, iyuššitaran sarekampamā, intadutyusapakmahummā, dumyaharan sarekampi, yapkekan, uzzattuyekan, bastettuyekanimmā, isangarekan. Wahēk, uzzatekunimmā, inditayyisakšareku, alluakan. | |||
== Addenda == | == Addenda == | ||
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! style="text-align:left" | OBL | ! style="text-align:left" | OBL | ||
| Oblique argument | | Oblique argument | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="text-align:left" | NOM | ! style="text-align:left" | NOM | ||
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| Partitive | | Partitive | ||
|- | |- | ||
! style="text-align:left" | | ! style="text-align:left" | REFL | ||
| Reflexive | | Reflexive | ||
|- | |- | ||
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*[https://soundcloud.com/nickcamporillo/the-black-horse-carries-my-beloved-with-drum The Black Horse Carries My Beloved] | *[https://soundcloud.com/nickcamporillo/the-black-horse-carries-my-beloved-with-drum The Black Horse Carries My Beloved] | ||
*[https://soundcloud.com/nickcamporillo/gaggadi-min-sumbatide-a-thousand-arrows Gaggādi min Sumbātide "A Thousand Arrows"] | *[https://soundcloud.com/nickcamporillo/gaggadi-min-sumbatide-a-thousand-arrows Gaggādi min Sumbātide "A Thousand Arrows"] | ||
*[https://soundcloud.com/nickcamporillo/a-mothers-tale?in=nickcamporillo/sets/minhast-songs Menā' min Darattillide "A Mother's Tale"] | *[https://soundcloud.com/nickcamporillo/a-mothers-tale?in=nickcamporillo/sets/minhast-songs Menā' min Darattillide<ref>On 1/2023, the 3NEUT.INAMIM + 3FS affix was changed to '-tišš-' to create a diachronic link with Nankôre, via the Nankôre-Minhast sound correspondence -r-/-šš- . So the realised form is "Darrattiššide"</ref> "A Mother's Tale"] | ||
==== Blogs ==== | |||
Tumblr: | |||
[https://suyampamit.tumblr.com/ Suyampamit] | |||
==== Mirrors ==== | ==== Mirrors ==== | ||
The Minhast language is mirrored at these other sites | The Minhast language is mirrored at these other sites |
edits