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Lemizh: Difference between revisions
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Anypodetos (talk | contribs) (Brackets confer reality; copyedit) |
Anypodetos (talk | contribs) (Copyedit) |
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|''[Someone] helps the speaker. ⇔ The one being helped speaks.''}} | |''[Someone] helps the speaker. ⇔ The one being helped speaks.''}} | ||
Both sentences | Both sentences assert that the sender of speaking is the recipient of helping. The equation is ''wèx.'' = ''lìzhw.'', the speaker = the one being helped. | ||
'''Rule Four. An instance of a word stem designates a specific action.''' | '''Rule Four. An instance of a word stem designates a specific action.''' | ||
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===Noun phrases=== | ===Noun phrases=== | ||
Forming noun phrases does not require any new grammatical rules. | Forming noun phrases does not require any new grammatical rules. Changing the inner case of "give" in the first example sentence above to the nominative yields "one giving something, a giver". The objects are still sender, content and recipient of the ''action'' of giving, as outer cases define relations to the predicate's ''stem'' per Rule Three: | ||
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 2A:second level, agentive | {{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level; 2A:second level, agentive | ||
|dé föpysryfè dwywỳ lusỳi. | |dé föpysryfè dwywỳ lusỳi. | ||
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|mà ydhè gwilbkyỳ wỳgwi. → gwilbkà ydhè wỳgwi. | |mà ydhè gwilbkyỳ wỳgwi. → gwilbkà ydhè wỳgwi. | ||
|make-FACT-1 eat-ACC-'''NOM'''-2 ill-ACC-'''ACC'''-2 dog-ACC-'''DAT'''-2. → ill-FACT-1 eat-ACC-NOM-2 dog-ACC-DAT-2. | |make-FACT-1 eat-ACC-'''NOM'''-2 ill-ACC-'''ACC'''-2 dog-ACC-'''DAT'''-2. → ill-FACT-1 eat-ACC-NOM-2 dog-ACC-DAT-2. | ||
|''The food made the dog ill.'' (The food gave the property of being ill to the dog.)}} | |''The food made the dog ill.'' (The food gave the property of being ill to the dog. – The food could also be seen as the cause for making the dog ill, calling for the causative case.)}} | ||
The verb "to be" translates as the corresponding perfect form, i.e. with inner consecutive of the main predicate: | The verb "to be" translates as the corresponding perfect form, i.e. with inner consecutive of the main predicate: | ||
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===Relative pronouns=== | ===Relative pronouns=== | ||
Stems of relative pronouns (not to be confused with the pronouns of the same name in | Stems of relative pronouns (not to be confused with the pronouns of the same name in other languages) refer to actions by pointing to another stem or to a parole: they are [[w:Anaphora (linguistics)|anaphoric]]. Here is the full list: | ||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
! rowspan="2" | Level !! colspan="2" | Type I !! colspan="2" | Type II | ! rowspan="2" | Level !! colspan="2" | Type I !! colspan="2" | Type II | ||
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| n−5 || ghà. || … || xà. || … | | n−5 || ghà. || … || xà. || … | ||
|} | |} | ||
Relative pronouns are highly versatile. Recall that a sentence's parole has level zero: | |||
{| class="wikitable" | {| class="wikitable" | ||
! Reflexive !! First person (singular) !! Second person | ! Reflexive !! First person (singular) !! Second person | ||
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The consequences of this rule are somewhat technical; but the last one, pertaining to degree of reality, is important for correctly interpreting compounds. | The consequences of this rule are somewhat technical; but the last one, pertaining to degree of reality, is important for correctly interpreting compounds. | ||
* Rules One to Three of sentence grammar are not applicable to compounds, as can be | * Rules One to Three of sentence grammar are not applicable to compounds, as can easily be seen. | ||
* Four: Both modifier and head are instantiations of specific actions in the original sentence (which however do not necessarily match the instantiation of the compound). | * Four: Both modifier and head are instantiations of specific actions in the original sentence (which however do not necessarily match the instantiation of the compound). | ||
* Five: The epenthetic case characterises the head completely with regard to its descriptor. | * Five: The epenthetic case characterises the head completely with regard to its descriptor. | ||
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|''[He] has to run fast.''}} | |''[He] has to run fast.''}} | ||
These examples | These examples are about the location of eating, as opposed to the location of allowing; about eating sweets, as opposed to allowing sweets; about fast running, as opposed to a fast necessity; etc. | ||
Number and gender of [[#Nouns|nouns]] are compounds from brackets which are first inverted to turn the more salient word into the compound's head: ''dè mlỳe. ⇔ mlỳ dèy.'' "several givers" ⇒ ''demlè.'' "givers". The inner nominative (''-e-'') becomes the epenthetic case, and the new inner case also has to be a nominative per Rule Three. ''demlỳ.'' (inner {{sc|acc}}), by contrast, is "something given by several people". | Number and gender of [[#Nouns|nouns]] are compounds from brackets which are first inverted to turn the more salient word into the compound's head: ''dè mlỳe. ⇔ mlỳ dèy.'' "several givers" ⇒ ''demlè.'' "givers". The inner nominative (''-e-'') becomes the epenthetic case, and the new inner case also has to be a nominative per Rule Three of compounding. ''demlỳ.'' (inner {{sc|acc}}), by contrast, is "something given by several people", and ''dymlè.'' (epenthetic {{sc|acc}}) is "a giver of several things". | ||
Compounds expressing degrees of [[#Adjectives and the like|adjectives]] are also formed from brackets. They have an epenthetic consecutive (''-il-''), which stems from the corresponding abstract noun: ''gmrìl dmỳil. ⇔ dmỳ gmrìly.'' "much warmth" ⇒ ''gmrildmìl.'' "heat" (abstract noun formed with inner {{sc|cons}}), ''gmrildmỳ.'' "hot" (adjective with inner {{sc|acc}}). Degrees of comparison are often combined with qualitative or partitive outer cases and with [[#Predicative|predicatives]]: | Compounds expressing degrees of [[#Adjectives and the like|adjectives]] are also formed from brackets. They have an epenthetic consecutive (''-il-''), which stems from the corresponding abstract noun: ''gmrìl dmỳil. ⇔ dmỳ gmrìly.'' "much warmth" ⇒ ''gmrildmìl.'' "heat" (abstract noun formed with inner {{sc|cons}}), ''gmrildmỳ.'' "hot" (adjective with inner {{sc|acc}}). Degrees of comparison are often combined with qualitative or partitive outer cases and with [[#Predicative|predicatives]]: | ||
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|zdàs dhàarh. ⇔ wà zdàrhsa. ⇒ zdarhswà. | |zdàs dhàarh. ⇔ wà zdàrhsa. ⇒ zdarhswà. | ||
|seat-FACT-1 PI<sub>n−2</sub>-FACT-TEMP-2. ⇔ PI<sub>n−1</sub>-FACT-1 seat-TEMP-FACT-2. ⇒ seat-TEMP-PI<sub>n−1</sub>-FACT-1. | |seat-FACT-1 PI<sub>n−2</sub>-FACT-TEMP-2. ⇔ PI<sub>n−1</sub>-FACT-1 seat-TEMP-FACT-2. ⇒ seat-TEMP-PI<sub>n−1</sub>-FACT-1. | ||
|'' | |''The time of sitting down is the parole. ⇒ [She] sits down now.''}} | ||
{{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level | {{Interlinear|indent=3|display-messages=no|ablist=FACT:factive case; 1:first level; 2:second level | ||
|zdàs prỳarh. ⇔ prỳ zdàrhsy. ⇒ zdarhsprà. | |zdàs prỳarh. ⇔ prỳ zdàrhsy. ⇒ zdarhsprà. | ||
|seat-FACT-1 front-ACC-TEMP-2. ⇔ front-ACC-1 seat-TEMP-ACC-2. ⇒ seat-TEMP-front-FACT-1. | |seat-FACT-1 front-ACC-TEMP-2. ⇔ front-ACC-1 seat-TEMP-ACC-2. ⇒ seat-TEMP-front-FACT-1. | ||
|'' | |''The time of sitting down is in front [of the parole]. ⇒ [She] will sit down.''}} | ||
The past is formed analogously to the future. | |||
==Example text== | ==Example text== | ||