Proto-Rugic: Difference between revisions

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The Balto-Slavic base of Proto-Rugic (known as Pre-Proto-Rugic, or PPR for short) had the following features:
The Balto-Slavic base of Proto-Rugic (known as Pre-Proto-Rugic, or PPR for short) had the following features:
*PPR lack the ''*eu'' to *''jau'' sound change that affected all known Balto-Slavic languages. Alternatively, if this sound change did happen, it was reversed.
*PPR lacked the ''*eu'' to *''jau'' sound change that affected all known Balto-Slavic languages. Alternatively, if this sound change did happen, it was reversed.
<!--
<!--
*PPR lacked the merger of Proto-Italic /θ, xʷ, f/ that occurred in all attested Italic languages. Instead, each of these merged with its voiced counterpart, as did /x/.  
*PPR lacked the merger of Proto-Italic /θ, xʷ, f/ that occurred in all attested Italic languages. Instead, each of these merged with its voiced counterpart, as did /x/.  
Line 136: Line 136:
| *jūk'''ōu'''
| *jūk'''ōu'''
| *jūk'''aizu'''
| *jūk'''aizu'''
|}
There was a rare class of ''a''-stems with contractions (from earlier stems ending in ''aj'') known as ''ā''-stems.<!--, ''ê''-stems, and ''ô'' stems (e.g. ''hrôz'')-->. They decline as below:
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="3"| *pāz ''m.'' "battle" || colspan="3"| *twą̄ ''n.'' "pair"
|-
! Nominative
| *p'''āz'''
| rowspan="3"| *p'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *p'''āi'''
| rowspan="3"| *tw'''ą̄'''
| rowspan="3"| *tw'''āi'''
| rowspan="3"| *tw'''ô'''
|-
! Vocative
| *p'''ai'''
|-
! Accusative
| *p'''ą̄'''
| *p'''ônz'''
|-
! Genitive
| *p'''ô'''
| *p'''ôu'''
| *p'''ǫ̂'''
| *tw'''ô'''
| *tw'''ôu'''
| *tw'''ǫ̂'''
|-
! Dative
| *p'''ôi'''
| *p'''āmō'''
| *p'''āmaz'''
| *tw'''ôi'''
| *tw'''āmō'''
| *tw'''āmaz'''
|-
! Instrumental
| *p'''āi'''
| *p'''āmō'''
| *p'''ôiz'''
| *tw'''āi'''
| *tw'''āmō'''
| *tw'''ôiz'''
|-
! Locative
| *p'''āi'''
| *p'''ôu'''
| *p'''āizu'''
| *tw'''āi'''
| *tw'''ôu'''
| *tw'''āizu'''
|}
|}


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Additionally, there was a rare subclass of ''ō''-stem nouns known as ''ī/jō''-stems. These nouns took the ending *''-ī'' in the nominative singular. All other case and number combinations took the regular ''ō''-stem endings preceded by *''-(i)j-'' (according to Siever's Law).
Additionally, there was a rare subclass of ''ō''-stem nouns known as ''ī/jō''-stems. These nouns took the ending *''-ī'' in the nominative singular. All other case and number combinations took the regular ''ō''-stem endings preceded by *''-(i)j-'' (according to Siever's Law).
There were also contracted ''ō''-stems known as ''ô''-stems. They were declined by replacing the ''-ō-'' in endings with ''-ô-'' (and ''-ǭ'' with ''-ǫ̂''). For example, ''*skwô'' "needle (botany)".


====''ē''-stems====
====''ē''-stems====
Line 327: Line 382:
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.<!-- Feminine ''n''-stems were rare, since most original cases were reformed to ''ōn''-stems.-->
Could be any gender. Masculine and feminine were declined the same.<!-- Feminine ''n''-stems were rare, since most original cases were reformed to ''ōn''-stems.-->
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="3"| *ahmô ''m.'' "stone" !! colspan="3"| *immô ''n.'' "name"
! !! colspan="3"| *hamô ''m.'' "stone" !! colspan="3"| *immô ''n.'' "name"
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *ahm'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *ham'''ô'''
| rowspan="3"| *ahm'''inī'''
| rowspan="3"| *ham'''inī'''
| rowspan="2"| *ahm'''iniz'''
| rowspan="2"| *ham'''iniz'''
| rowspan="3"| *imm'''ô'''
| rowspan="3"| *imm'''ô'''
| rowspan="3"| *imm'''inī'''
| rowspan="3"| *imm'''inī'''
Line 340: Line 395:
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *ahm'''inį'''
| *ham'''inį'''
| *ahm'''ininz'''
| *ham'''ininz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *ahm'''iniz'''
| *ham'''iniz'''
| *ahm'''inau'''
| *ham'''inau'''
| *ahm'''inǭ'''
| *ham'''inǭ'''
| *imm'''iniz'''
| *imm'''iniz'''
| *imm'''inau'''
| *imm'''inau'''
Line 352: Line 407:
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *ahm'''inī'''
| *ham'''inī'''
| *ahm'''immō'''
| *ham'''immō'''
| *ahm'''immaz'''
| *ham'''immaz'''
| *imm'''inī'''
| *imm'''inī'''
| *imm'''immō'''
| *imm'''immō'''
Line 360: Line 415:
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *ahm'''immi'''
| *ham'''immi'''
| *ahm'''immō'''
| *ham'''immō'''
| *ahm'''immīz'''
| *ham'''immīz'''
| *imm'''immi'''
| *imm'''immi'''
| *imm'''immō'''
| *imm'''immō'''
Line 368: Line 423:
|-
|-
! Locative
! Locative
| *ahm'''inī'''
| *ham'''inī'''
| *ahm'''inau'''
| *ham'''inau'''
| *ahm'''inzu'''
| *ham'''inzu'''
| *imm'''inī'''
| *imm'''inī'''
| *imm'''inau'''
| *imm'''inau'''
Line 443: Line 498:


====''r''-stems====
====''r''-stems====
Masculine and feminine were declined the same.<!-- Feminine ''n''-stems were rare, since most original cases were reformed to ''ōn''-stems.-->
Masculine and feminine were declined the same. <!--Declension patterns are shown below:-->
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="3"| *prōþê ''m.'' "brother"
! !! colspan="3"| *prōþê ''m.'' "brother"
Line 686: Line 741:
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
|+ Declension of ''mōlaz'' "small"
|+ Declension of ''mōlaz'' "small"
! colspan="9"| Strong
! colspan="10"| Strong
|-
|-
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
Line 760: Line 815:
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *mōl'''azjaz'''
| *mōl'''aziz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
| *mōl'''āi'''
| *mōl'''aiz'''
| *mōl'''ô'''
| *mōl'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ôi'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ôi'''
| *mōl'''ōzjōz'''
| *mōl'''ōzōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''āi'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''āi'''
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|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *mōl'''anją'''
| *mōl'''anį'''
| *mōl'''ōnjōnz'''
| *mōl'''aninz'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnjōnz'''
| *mōl'''ōnōnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *mōl'''awjau'''
| *mōl'''ōnjaizǭ'''
| *mōl'''anizǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōzjazjōz'''
| *mōl'''ōzizōz'''
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *mōl'''awjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnjōzǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnōzǭ'''
| *mōl'''azjas'''
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *mōl'''āwjāu'''
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *mōl'''ōnjaizǭ'''
| *mōl'''anizǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *mōl'''ōjjammai'''
| *mōl'''ajjammai'''
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''amazjaimaz'''
| *mōl'''azimaz'''
| *mōl'''ōjjazjōi'''
| *mōl'''ōzōi'''
| *mōl'''ōmômō'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''ōmazjōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ōzōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ōjjammai'''
| *mōl'''ajjammai'''
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''amazjaimaz'''
| *mōl'''azimaz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''ōizjaimīz'''
| *mōl'''azimīz'''
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōmôimō'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''ōmīzjōmīz'''
| *mōl'''ōzōmīz'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *mōl'''ōizjaimīz'''
| *mōl'''azimīz'''
|-
|-
! Locative
! Locative
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *mōl'''awjau'''
| *mōl'''aizwaizu'''
| *mōl'''anizu'''
| *mōl'''ōjjōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''ōzwōzu'''
| *mōl'''ōnōzu'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *mōl'''awjau'''
| *mōl'''aizwaizu'''
| *mōl'''anizu'''
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
! colspan="9"| Weak
! colspan="10"| Weak
|-
|-
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
Line 828: Line 883:
|-
|-
!  Nominative
!  Nominative
| *mōl'''azjaz'''
| *mōl'''aniz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''anī'''
| *mōl'''āi'''
| *mōl'''aniz'''
| *mōl'''ô'''
| *mōl'''ōnjō'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ôi'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōnjōi'''
| *mōl'''ōzjōz'''
| *mōl'''ōnjōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ani'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''āi'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''anī'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōnō'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *mōl'''anją'''
| *mōl'''anį'''
| *mōl'''ōzjōnz'''
| *mōl'''aninz'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōzjōnz'''
| *mōl'''ōnjōnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *mōl'''aniz'''  
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *mōl'''anjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnjaizǭ'''
| *mōl'''anjǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōzjazjōz'''
| *mōl'''ōnjōz'''
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnjōzǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
| *mōl'''azjas'''
| *mōl'''aniz'''
| *mōl'''āwjāu'''
| *mōl'''anjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnjaizǭ'''
| *mōl'''anǭ'''
|-
! Dative
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''anamaz'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnōmō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''anamaz'''
|-
! Instrumental
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōiz'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōnōmō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōmīz'''
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōiz'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Locative
| *mōl'''ōjjammai'''
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''amazjaimaz'''
| *mōl'''anaizu'''
| *mōl'''ōjjazjōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōmômō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''ōmazjōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ōnōzu'''
| *mōl'''ōjjammai'''
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''amazjaimaz'''
| *mōl'''anaizu'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
<!--
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
! colspan="10"| Weak
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *mōl'''ōizjaimīz'''
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
| *mōl'''ōmôimō'''
| *mōl'''ōmīzjōmīz'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *mōl'''ōizjaimīz'''
|-
|-
! Locative
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *mōl'''aizwaizu'''
| *mōl'''ōjjōi'''
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōzwōzu'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *mōl'''aizwaizu'''
|-
|-
-->
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|}
 
====''ja/jō''-stem adjectives====
These were a sub-type of ''a/ō''-stem adjectives with a *''-j-'' or *''-ij-'' (according to Siever's Law) before the ending and were declined as such. However, in the weak forms, expected **''-ija-'' became *''-ī-'' and **''-ja-'' became *''-i-''.
 
====''i''-stem adjectives====
These were declined identically to ''ja/jō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-iz'' and *''-į/it'' respectively instead of the expected **''-(i)jaz'' and **''-(i)ją/(i)jat''. Additionally, the masculine accusative singular could take the ending *''-in'' as an alternative to expected *''-(i)jan''.
 
The weak forms were identical to those of ''ja/jō''-stems.
 
====Consonant-stem adjectives====
These were declined identically to ''a/ō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-s/z'' and *''—'' respectively (or other irregular ending(s)) instead of the expected **''-az'' and **''-ą/at''.
 
The weak forms were identical to those of ''a/ō''-stems.
 
===Pronouns===
<!--
'''Note:''' As with adjectives, only the ''*s'' forms of the strong feminine genitive are given where applicable. The ''*z'' forms can be derived from these simply by replacing ''*s'' in the endings.-->
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
Nouns
Adjectives
Verbs
Adverbs
Particles
Derivational morphology -->
====First person, second person, and reflexive pronouns====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! !! colspan="3"| First person !! colspan="3"| Second person !! rowspan="2"| Reflexive
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
! Nominative
|-
| *mōl'''anaz'''
! Nominative
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōnō'''
| *ēzų
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *wet; *wit
| *mōl'''ōnō'''
| *mez; *miz
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *þū; *þu
| *mōl'''ōnōz'''
| *jūt; *jut
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''aną'''
| *jūz; *juz
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''anai'''
| —
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōnō'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *mēn; *mi
| *mōl'''aną'''
| *nō
| *mōl'''anōnz'''
| *nōz
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *þēn; *þi
| *mōl'''ōnōnz'''
| *wō
| *wōz
| *sēn; *si
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *miniz; *mī
| *mōl'''ōnō'''
| *nōu
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *nōzǭ
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *þiwiz; *þī
| *mōl'''ōnōz'''
| *wōu
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *wōzǭ
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *siwiz; *sī
| *mōl'''ōnō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *minī; *mī
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *nōmō
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *nōmaz
| *mōl'''anamaz'''
| *þiwī; *þī
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *wōmō
| *mōl'''ōnōmō'''
| *wōmaz
| *mōl'''ōnōmaz'''
| *siwī; *sī
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''anamaz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *minimi
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *nōmō
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *nōmīz
| *mōl'''ōnōiz'''
| *þiwimi
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *wōmō
| *mōl'''ōnōmō'''
| *wōmīz
| *mōl'''ōnōmīz'''
| *siwimi
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōnamō'''
| *mōl'''ōnōiz'''
|-
|-
! Locative
! Locative
| *minī
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *nōu
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *nōzu
| *mōl'''anaizu'''
| *þiwī
| *mōl'''ōnōi'''
| *wōu
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *wōzu
| *mōl'''ōnōzu'''
| *siwī
| *mōl'''anai'''
| *mōl'''ōnōu'''
| *mōl'''anaizu'''
|-
<!--
! colspan="9"| Weak
|-
|-
! Possessive adj.
| *menaz
| *nōwaz
| *nōzjaz
| *þewaz
| *wōwaz
| *wōzjaz
| *sewaz
|-
|}
'''Notes:'''
#When two forms are given, the first was the stressed form and the second was the unstressed form.
#Possessive adjectives were always strong.
====Other pronouns====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *þaz
| *mōl'''az anaz'''
| rowspan="2"| *þō
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ō anō'''
| *þai
| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| *þō
| *mōl'''ō anō'''
| rowspan="2"| *þōi
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ōi anōi'''
| *þōz
| *mōl'''ōz anōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *þa
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ą aną'''
| rowspan="2"| *þai
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| rowspan="2"| *þō
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ō anō'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *þan
| *mōl'''ą aną'''
| *þōnz
| *mōl'''ōnz anōnz'''
| *þǭ
| *mōl'''ǭ anǭ'''
| *þōnz
| *mōl'''ōnz anōnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *þas
| *mōl'''ō anō'''
| *þāu
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *þaizǭ
| *mōl'''ǭ anǭ'''
| *þazjōz
| *mōl'''ōz anōz'''
| *þōu
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *þōzǭ
| *mōl'''ǭ anǭ'''
| *þas
| *mōl'''ō anō'''
| *þāu
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *þaizǭ
| *mōl'''ǭ anǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *þammai
| *mōl'''ōi anōi'''
| *þaimō
| *mōl'''amō anamō'''
| *þaimaz
| *mōl'''amaz anamaz'''
| *þazjōi
| *mōl'''ōi anōi'''
| *þōmō
| *mōl'''ōmō anōmō'''
| *þōmaz
| *mōl'''ōmaz anōmaz'''
| *þammai
| *mōl'''ōi anōi'''
| *þaimō
| *mōl'''amō anamō'''
| *þaimaz
| *mōl'''amaz anamaz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *þammi
| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| *þaimō
| *mōl'''amō anamō'''
| *þaimīz
| *mōl'''ōiz anōiz'''
| *þǭ
| *mōl'''ǭ anǭ'''
| *þōmō
| *mōl'''ōmō anōmō'''
| *þōmīz
| *mōl'''ōmīz anōmīz'''
| *þammi
| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| *þaimō
| *mōl'''amō anamō'''
| *þaimīz
| *mōl'''ōiz anōiz'''
|-
|-
! Locative
! Locative
| *þammi
| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| *þāu
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *þaizu
| *mōl'''aizu anaizu'''
| *þōi
| *mōl'''ōi anōi'''
| *þōu
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *þōzu
| *mōl'''ōzu anōzu'''
| *þammi
| *mōl'''ai anai'''
| *þāu
| *mōl'''ōu anōu'''
| *þaizu
| *mōl'''aizu anaizu'''
|-
|-
|}
<!--
 
! colspan="10"| Weak
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
|-
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
|-
Line 1,065: Line 1,087:
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *siz
| *mōl'''aziz'''
| rowspan="2"| *sī
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
| *sīz
| *mōl'''aiz'''
| *sī
| *mōl'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *sijōi
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ôi'''
| *sijōz
| *mōl'''ōzjōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *si
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai'''
| rowspan="2"| *sī
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''āi'''
| rowspan="2"| *sī
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *sin
| *mōl'''anį'''
| *sinz
| *mōl'''ōninz'''
| *sijǭ
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *sijōnz
| *mōl'''ōnjōnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *ses
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *sijau
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *sezǭ
| *mōl'''ōnizǭ'''
| *sizjōz
| *mōl'''ōzizjōz'''
| *sijōu
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *sijōzǭ
| *mōl'''ōnjōzǭ'''
| *ses
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *sijau
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *sezǭ
| *mōl'''ōnizǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *simmai
| *mōl'''ajjammai'''
| *sīmō
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *sīmaz
| *mōl'''azimaz'''
| *sizjōi
| *mōl'''ōjjizjōi'''
| *sijōmō
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *sijōmaz
| *mōl'''ōzōmaz'''
| *simmai
| *mōl'''ajjammai'''
| *sīmō
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *sīmaz
| *mōl'''azimaz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *simmi
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *sīmō
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *sīmīz
| *mōl'''azimīz'''
| *sijǭ
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
| *sijōmō
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *sijōmīz
| *mōl'''ōzōmīz'''
| *simmi
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *sīmō
| *mōl'''ômō'''
| *sīmīz
| *mōl'''azimīz'''
|-
|-
! Locative
! Locative
| *simmi
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *sijau
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *sīzu
| *mōl'''azizu'''
| *sijōi
| *mōl'''ōjjōi'''
| *sijōu
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *sijōzu
| *mōl'''ōzōzu'''
| *simmi
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *sijau
| *mōl'''awjāu'''
| *sīzu
| *mōl'''azizu'''
|-
|-
|}
<!--
 
! colspan="9"| Weak
====Reflexive/Intensive pronoun====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! colspan="7"| Strong
|-
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *safsaz
| *mōl'''azjaz'''
| *safsai
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
| *safsō
| *mōl'''āi'''
| *safsōi
| *mōl'''ô'''
| rowspan="2"| *safsą, *safsat
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ôi'''
| rowspan="2"| *safsō
| *mōl'''ōzjōz'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ai'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''āi'''
| rowspan="2"| *mōl'''ô'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *safsan
| *mōl'''anją'''
| *safsanz
| *mōl'''ōzjōnz'''
| *safsǭ
| *mōl'''ōnǭ'''
| *safsōnz
| *mōl'''ōzjōnz'''
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *safsas, *safsazjas
| *mōl'''ôs'''
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *safsōz, *safsazjōz
| *mōl'''ōnjaizǭ'''
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *mōl'''ōzjazjōz'''
| *safsas, *safsazjas
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *mōl'''ōnjōzǭ'''
| *mōl'''azjas'''
| *mōl'''āwjāu'''
| *mōl'''ōnjaizǭ'''
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *safsammai
| *mōl'''ōjjammai'''
| *safsabiz
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *safsōi
| *mōl'''amazjaimaz'''
| *safsōbiz
| *mōl'''ōjjazjōi'''
| *safsammai
| *mōl'''ōmômō'''
| *safsabiz
| *mōl'''ōmazjōmaz'''
| *mōl'''ōjjammai'''
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *mōl'''amazjaimaz'''
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *safsō
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *safsabaz
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *safsô
| *mōl'''ōizjaimīz'''
| *safsōbaz
| *mōl'''ōnjǭ'''
| *safsō
| *mōl'''ōmôimō'''
| *safsabaz
| *mōl'''ōmīzjōmīz'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''amôimō'''
| *mōl'''ōizjaimīz'''
|-
|-
! colspan="7"| Weak
! Locative
|-
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
|-
| *mōl'''aizwaizu'''
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
| *mōl'''ōjjōi'''
| *mōl'''ōwjōu'''
| *mōl'''ōzwōzu'''
| *mōl'''ajjammi'''
| *mōl'''ōwjāu'''
| *mōl'''aizwaizu'''
|-
|-
! Nominative
-->
| *safsǭ
|}
| *safsaniz
 
| *safsǭ
====''ja/jō''-stem adjectives====
| *safsōniz
These were a sub-type of ''a/ō''-stem adjectives with a *''-j-'' or *''-ij-'' (according to Siever's Law) before the ending and were declined as such. <!--However, in the weak forms, expected **''-ija-'' became *''-ī-'' and **''-ja-'' became *''-i-''.-->
| rowspan="2"| *safsǭ
 
| rowspan="2"| *safsanō
====''ā/ô''-stem adjectives====
|-
These were a subset of ''a/ō''-stem adjectives with lengthened endings. They arose by contraction from adjectives whose stems originally ended in ''-aj-'', after the loss of intervocalic ''-j-''.
! Accusative
 
| *safsanį
<!--====''i''-stem adjectives====
| *safsaninz
These were declined identically to ''ja/jō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-iz'' and *''-į/it'' respectively instead of the expected **''-(i)jaz'' and **''-(i)ją/(i)jat''. Additionally, the masculine accusative singular could take the ending *''-in'' as an alternative to expected *''-(i)jan''.
| *safsōnį
-
| *safsōniz
The weak forms were identical to those of ''ja/jō''-stems.-->
|-
 
! Genitive
<!--====Consonant-stem adjectives====
| *safsaniz
These were declined identically to ''a/ō''-stem adjectives except in the masculine nominative singular and neuter nominative-vocative-accusative singular, which took the endings *''-s/z'' and *''—'' respectively (or other irregular ending(s)) instead of the expected **''-az'' and **''-ą/at''.
| *safsanǭ
-
| *safsōniz
The weak forms were identical to those of ''a/ō''-stems.-->
| *safsōnǭ
 
| *safsaniz
===Pronouns===
| *safsanǭ
<!--
'''Note:''' As with adjectives, only the ''*s'' forms of the strong feminine genitive are given where applicable. The ''*z'' forms can be derived from these simply by replacing ''*s'' in the endings.-->
<!-- How do the words in your language look? How do you derive words from others? Do you have cases? Are verbs inflected? Do nouns differ from adjectives? Do adjectives differ from verbs? Etc. -->
<!-- Here are some example subcategories:
Nouns
Adjectives
Verbs
Adverbs
Particles
Derivational morphology -->
====First person, second person, and reflexive pronouns====
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! !! colspan="3"| First person !! colspan="3"| Second person !! rowspan="2"| Reflexive
|-
|-
! Dative
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
| *safsanī
| *safsambiz
| *safsōnī
| *safsōmbiz
| *safsanī
| *safsambiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Nominative
| *safsani
| *ēzų
| *safsambaz
| *wet; *wit
| *safsōni
| *mez; *miz
| *safsōmbaz
| *þū; *þu
| *safsani
| *jūt; *jut
| *safsambaz
| *jūz; *juz
|-
| —
|}
 
====Neutral demonstrative====
 
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! Nominative
| *saz
| *sai
| *sō
| *sōi
| rowspan="2"| *sat
| rowspan="2"| *sō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *san
| *mēn; *miz
| *sanz
| *nō
| *sǭ
| *nōz
| *sōnz
| *þēn; *þiz
| *wō
| *wōz
| *sēn; *siz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *sas, *sazjas
| *mīniz; *mī
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
| *nōu
| *sōz, *sazjōz
| *nōzǭ
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
| *þīwiz; *þī
| *sas, *sazjas
| *wōu
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
| *wōzǭ
| *sīwiz; *sī
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *sammai
| *mīnī; *mī
| *sabiz
| *nōmō
| *sōi
| *nōmaz
| *sōbiz
| *þīwī; *þī
| *sammai
| *wōmō
| *sabiz
| *wōmaz
| *sīwī; *sī
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *sō
| *mīnimi
| *sabaz
| *nōmō
| *sô
| *nōmīz
| *sōbaz
| *þīwimi
| *sō
| *wōmō
| *sabaz
| *wōmīz
| *sīwimi
|-
|-
|}
! Locative
 
| *mīnī
| *nōu
| *nōzu
| *þīwī
| *wōu
| *wōzu
| *sīwī
|-
! Possessive adj.
| *mīnaz
| *nōwaz
| *nōzijaz
| *þīwaz
| *wōwaz
| *wōzijaz
| *sīwaz
|-
|}
 
'''Notes:'''
#When two forms are given, the first was the stressed form and the second was the unstressed form.
#Possessive adjectives were always strong.
 
====Other pronouns====
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *þaz
| *þaz
| rowspan="2"| *þō
| *þai
| *þai
| *þō
| *þō
| *þōi
| rowspan="2"| *þōi
| rowspan="2"| *þat
| *þōz
| rowspan="2"| *þa
| rowspan="2"| *þai
| rowspan="2"| *þō
| rowspan="2"| *þō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *þan
| *þan
| *þanz
| *þōnz
| *þǭ
| *þǭ
| *þōnz
| *þōnz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *þas, *þazjas
| *þas
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *þāu
| *þōz, *þazjōz
| *þaizǭ
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *þazjōz
| *þas, *þazjas
| *þōu
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *þōzǭ
| *þas
| *þāu
| *þaizǭ
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *þammai
| *þammai
| *þabiz
| *þaimō
| *þōi
| *þaimaz
| *þōbiz
| *þazjōi
| *þōmō
| *þōmaz
| *þammai
| *þammai
| *þabiz
| *þaimō
| *þaimaz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *þō
| *þammi
| *þabaz
| *þaimō
| *þô
| *þaimīz
| *þōbaz
| *þǭ
| *þō
| *þōmō
| *þabaz
| *þōmīz
| *þammi
| *þaimō
| *þaimīz
|-
! Locative
| *þammi
| *þāu
| *þaizu
| *þōi
| *þōu
| *þōzu
| *þammi
| *þāu
| *þaizu
|-
|-
|}
|}


{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="3"| Masculine || colspan="3"| Feminine !! colspan="3"| Neuter
|-
|-
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
! !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *izaz
| *siz
| *izai
| rowspan="2"| *sī
| *izō
| *sīz
| *izōi
| *sī
| rowspan="2"| *izat
| rowspan="2"| *sijōi
| rowspan="2"| *izō
| *sijōz
| rowspan="2"| *si
| rowspan="2"| *sī
| rowspan="2"| *sī
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *izan
| *sin
| *izanz
| *sinz
| *izǭ
| *sijǭ
| *izōnz
| *sijōnz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *izas, *izazjas
| *ses
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
| *sijau
| *izōz, *izazjōz
| *sezǭ
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
| *sizjōz
| *izas, *izazjas
| *sijōu
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
| *sijōzǭ
| *ses
| *sijau
| *sezǭ
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *izammai
| *simmai
| *izabiz
| *sīmō
| *izōi
| *sīmaz
| *izōbiz
| *sizjōi
| *izammai
| *sijōmō
| *izabiz
| *sijōmaz
|-
| *simmai
| *sīmō
| *sīmaz
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *izō
| *simmi
| *izabaz
| *sīmō
| *izô
| *sīmīz
| *izōbaz
| *sijǭ
| *izō
| *sijōmō
| *izabaz
| *sijōmīz
| *simmi
| *sīmō
| *sīmīz
|-
! Locative
| *simmi
| *sijau
| *sīzu
| *sijōi
| *sijōu
| *sijōzu
| *simmi
| *sijau
| *sīzu
|-
|-
|}
|}


====Near demonstrative====
====Reflexive/Intensive pronoun====
 
<!--
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! colspan="7"| Strong
|-
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
|-
Line 1,365: Line 1,467:
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *istaz
| *safsaz
| *istai
| *safsai
| *istō
| *safsō
| *istōi
| *safsōi
| rowspan="2"| *istat
| rowspan="2"| *safsą, *safsat
| rowspan="2"| *istō
| rowspan="2"| *safsō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *istan
| *safsan
| *istanz
| *safsanz
| *istǭ
| *safsǭ
| *istōnz
| *safsōnz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *istas, *istazjas
| *safsas, *safsazjas
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *istōz, *istazjōz
| *safsōz, *safsazjōz
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
| *istas, *istazjas
| *safsas, *safsazjas
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
| *safsōsą, *safsazjōsą
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *istammai
| *safsammai
| *istabiz
| *safsabiz
| *istōi
| *safsōi
| *istōbiz
| *safsōbiz
| *istammai
| *safsammai
| *istabiz
| *safsabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *istō
| *safsō
| *istabaz
| *safsabaz
| *istô
| *safsô
| *istōbaz
| *safsōbaz
| *istō
| *safsō
| *istabaz
| *safsabaz
|-
! colspan="7"| Weak
|-
|-
|}
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
|-
Line 1,410: Line 1,511:
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *gehaz
| *safsǭ
| *gehai
| *safsaniz
| *gehō
| *safsǭ
| *gehōi
| *safsōniz
| rowspan="2"| *gehat
| rowspan="2"| *safsǭ
| rowspan="2"| *gehō
| rowspan="2"| *safsanō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *gehan
| *safsanį
| *gehanz
| *safsaninz
| *gehǭ
| *safsōnį
| *gehōnz
| *safsōniz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *gegas, *gegazjas
| *safsaniz
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *safsanǭ
| *gegōz, *gegazjōz
| *safsōniz
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *safsōnǭ
| *gegas, *gegazjas
| *safsaniz
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *safsanǭ
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *gegammai
| *safsanī
| *gegabiz
| *safsambiz
| *gegōi
| *safsōnī
| *gegōbiz
| *safsōmbiz
| *gegammai
| *safsanī
| *gegabiz
| *safsambiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *gegō
| *safsani
| *gegabaz
| *safsambaz
| *gegô
| *safsōni
| *gegōbaz
| *safsōmbaz
| *gegō
| *safsani
| *gegabaz
| *safsambaz
|-
|-
|}
|}-->


====Far demonstrative====
====Neutral demonstrative====
<!--
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
Line 1,456: Line 1,558:
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *allaz
| *saz
| *allai
| *sai
| *allō
| *sō
| *allōi
| *sōi
| rowspan="2"| *allat
| rowspan="2"| *sat
| rowspan="2"| *allō
| rowspan="2"| *sō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *allan
| *san
| *allanz
| *sanz
| *allǭ
| *sǭ
| *allōnz
| *sōnz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *allas, *allazjas
| *sas, *sazjas
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
| *allōz, *allazjōz
| *sōz, *sazjōz
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
| *allas, *allazjas
| *sas, *sazjas
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
| *sōsą, *sazjōsą
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *allammai
| *sammai
| *allabiz
| *sabiz
| *allōi
| *sōi
| *allōbiz
| *sōbiz
| *allammai
| *sammai
| *allabiz
| *sabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *allō
| *sō
| *allabaz
| *sabaz
| *allô
| *sô
| *allōbaz
| *sōbaz
| *allō
| *sō
| *allabaz
| *sabaz
|-
|-
|}
|}


====Interrogative pronouns====
*''*hwai'' "what, who"
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
Line 1,503: Line 1,603:
|-
|-
! Nominative
! Nominative
| *hwai
| *þaz
| *hwēz
| *þai
| *hwōi
| *þō
| *hwēz
| *þōi
| rowspan="2"| *hwat
| rowspan="2"| *þat
| rowspan="2"| *hwō
| rowspan="2"| *þō
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| *hwan
| *þan
| *hwanz
| *þanz
| *hwǭ
| *þǭ
| *hwōnz
| *þōnz
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| *hwas, *hwazjas
| *þas, *þazjas
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *hwōz, *hwazjōz
| *þōz, *þazjōz
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
| *hwas, *hwazjas
| *þas, *þazjas
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
| *þōsą, *þazjōsą
|-
|-
! Dative
! Dative
| *hwammai
| *þammai
| *hwabiz
| *þabiz
| *hwōi
| *þōi
| *hwōbiz
| *þōbiz
| *hwammai
| *þammai
| *hwabiz
| *þabiz
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! Instrumental
| *hwō, *hwī
| *þō
| *hwabaz
| *þabaz
| *hwô, *hwī
| *þô
| *hwōbaz
| *þōbaz
| *hwō, *hwī
| *þō
| *hwabaz
| *þabaz
|-
|-
|}
|}
*''*hwaþeraz'' "which, what (of two)"
<!--
*''*hwōliz'' "which, what (of many)"
*''*hwīnþaz'' "how much, how many"
*''*hwidagjaz'' "what kind of, what sort of"
*Undeclined adverbial interrogative pronouns:
**''*hwaþ'' "to what extent; how"
**''*hwan'' "when"
**''*hwadī'' "where"
**''*hwant'' "from where"-->


====Other pronouns====
 
<!--
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
*''*þōliz'' "such, like that"
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
*''*þanþaz'' "that much, that many"
|-
*''*sadagjaz'' "such kind of, such sort of"
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
*''*aljaz'' "other, else"
|-
*''*allaz'' "all"
! Nominative
*Undeclined adverbial pronouns:
| *izaz
**''*þaþ'' "to that extent"
| *izai
**''*iþ'' "such, thus"
| *izō
**''*þan'' "then"
| *izōi
**''*idī'' "there"
| rowspan="2"| *izat
**''*istadī, *gegadī'' "here"
| rowspan="2"| *izō
**''*int'' "from there"
**''*istant, *gegant'' "from here"
**''*aljadī'' "elsewhere"-->
 
===Adverbs===
====Derived manner adverbs====
The most common adverb-forming suffixes are ''*-ē'' and ''*-ō''.
 
===Numerals===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! # !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Adverbial !! Multiplier
|-
|-
! 1
! Accusative
| *ainaz
| *izan
| *firmaz
| *izanz
|  
| *izǭ
|  
| *izōnz
|-
|-
! 2
! Genitive
| *twō
| *izas, *izazjas
| *anþeraz
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
|  
| *izōz, *izazjōz
|  
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
| *izas, *izazjas
| *izōsą, *izazjōsą
|-
|-
! 3
! Dative
| *þrīz
| *izammai
| *þridjaz
| *izabiz
|  
| *izōi
|  
| *izōbiz
| *izammai
| *izabiz
|-
|-
! 4
! Instrumental
| *hedūriz
| *izō
| *hedwirþaz
| *izabaz
|  
| *izô
|  
| *izōbaz
| *izō
| *izabaz
|-
|-
! 5
|}-->
| *finhiz
 
| *finhtaz
====Near demonstrative====
|  
<!--
|  
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
|-
! 6
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
| *swes
| *swestaz
|
|
|-
|-
! 7
! Nominative
| *siftį
| *istaz
| *seftundaz
| *istai
|  
| *istō
|  
| *istōi
| rowspan="2"| *istat
| rowspan="2"| *istō
|-
|-
! 8
! Accusative
| *ahtō
| *istan
| *ahtōdaz
| *istanz
|  
| *istǭ
|  
| *istōnz
|-
|-
! 9
! Genitive
| *niwin
| *istas, *istazjas
| *niwindaz
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
|  
| *istōz, *istazjōz
|  
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
| *istas, *istazjas
| *istōsą, *istazjōsą
|-
|-
! 10
! Dative
| *tisin
| *istammai
| *tisindaz
| *istabiz
|  
| *istōi
|  
| *istōbiz
| *istammai
| *istabiz
|-
|-
! 11
! Instrumental
|  
| *istō
|  
| *istabaz
|
| *istô
|
| *istōbaz
| *istō
| *istabaz
|-
|-
! 12
|}
|  
 
|  
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
|
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|
|-
|-
! 13
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 14
! Nominative
|  
| *gehaz
|  
| *gehai
|
| *gehō
|
| *gehōi
| rowspan="2"| *gehat
| rowspan="2"| *gehō
|-
|-
! 15
! Accusative
|  
| *gehan
|  
| *gehanz
|
| *gehǭ
|
| *gehōnz
|-
|-
! 16
! Genitive
|  
| *gegas, *gegazjas
|  
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
|
| *gegōz, *gegazjōz
|
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
| *gegas, *gegazjas
| *gegōsą, *gegazjōsą
|-
|-
! 17
! Dative
|  
| *gegammai
|  
| *gegabiz
|
| *gegōi
|
| *gegōbiz
| *gegammai
| *gegabiz
|-
|-
! 18
! Instrumental
|  
| *gegō
|  
| *gegabaz
|
| *gegô
|
| *gegōbaz
| *gegō
| *gegabaz
|-
|-
! 19
|}-->
|  
 
|  
====Far demonstrative====
|
<!--
|
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
|-
! 20
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 30
! Nominative
|  
| *allaz
|  
| *allai
|
| *allō
|
| *allōi
| rowspan="2"| *allat
| rowspan="2"| *allō
|-
|-
! 40
! Accusative
|  
| *allan
|  
| *allanz
|
| *allǭ
|
| *allōnz
|-
|-
! 50
! Genitive
|  
| *allas, *allazjas
|  
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
|
| *allōz, *allazjōz
|
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
| *allas, *allazjas
| *allōsą, *allazjōsą
|-
|-
! 60
! Dative
|  
| *allammai
|  
| *allabiz
|
| *allōi
|
| *allōbiz
| *allammai
| *allabiz
|-
|-
! 70
! Instrumental
|  
| *allō
|  
| *allabaz
|
| *allô
|
| *allōbaz
| *allō
| *allabaz
|-
|-
! 80
|}-->
|  
 
|  
====Interrogative pronouns====
|
<!--
|
*''*hwai'' "what, who"
<!--
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
! !! colspan="2"| Masculine || colspan="2"| Feminine !! colspan="2"| Neuter
|-
|-
! 90
! !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 100
! Nominative
|  
| *hwai
|  
| *hwēz
|
| *hwōi
|
| *hwēz
| rowspan="2"| *hwat
| rowspan="2"| *hwō
|-
|-
! 1000
! Accusative
|  
| *hwan
|  
| *hwanz
|
| *hwǭ
|
| *hwōnz
|-
|-
|}
! Genitive
<!---
| *hwas, *hwazjas
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
! # !! Cardinal !! Ordinal
| *hwōz, *hwazjōz
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
| *hwas, *hwazjas
| *hwōsą, *hwazjōsą
|-
|-
! 1
! Dative
| *ainaz
| *hwammai
| *frīsimaz<!--or *frīsmaz-->, *framaz
| *hwabiz
| *hwōi
| *hwōbiz
| *hwammai
| *hwabiz
|-
|-
! 2
! Instrumental
| *twō
| *hwō, *hwī
| *alþeraz
| *hwabaz
| *hwô, *hwī
| *hwōbaz
| *hwō, *hwī
| *hwabaz
|-
|-
! 3
|}
| *þrēz
*''*hwaþeraz'' "which, what (of two)"
| *þriþjǭ
<!--
|-
*''*hwōliz'' "which, what (of many)"
! 4
*''*hwīnþaz'' "how much, how many"
| *hwettwōr
*''*hwidagjaz'' "what kind of, what sort of"
| *hwadurþǭ<!-- or *hwetwarþǭ-->
*Undeclined adverbial interrogative pronouns:
|-
**''*hwaþ'' "to what extent; how"
! 5
**''*hwan'' "when"
| *hwinhw
**''*hwadī'' "where"
| *hwinhtǭ
**''*hwant'' "from where"-->
|-
 
! 6
====Other pronouns====
| *sehs
<!--
| *sehstǭ
*''*þōliz'' "such, like that"
|-
*''*þanþaz'' "that much, that many"
! 7
*''*sadagjaz'' "such kind of, such sort of"
| *siftį
*''*aljaz'' "other, else"
| *siftumǭ
*''*allaz'' "all"
|-
*Undeclined adverbial pronouns:
! 8
**''*þaþ'' "to that extent"
| *ahtō
**''*iþ'' "such, thus"
| *ahtōwǭ
**''*þan'' "then"
|-
**''*idī'' "there"
! 9
**''*istadī, *gegadī'' "here"
| *nawį
**''*int'' "from there"
| *naunǭ
**''*istant, *gegant'' "from here"
**''*aljadī'' "elsewhere"-->
 
===Adverbs===
====Derived manner adverbs====
The most common adverb-forming suffixes are ''*-ē'' and ''*-ō''.
 
===Numerals===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
! # !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Adverbial !! Multiplier !! Collective !! Fractional
|-
|-
! 10
! 1
| *tihį
| *ainaz
| *tehumǭ
| *firmaz
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 11
! 2
| *ainatigį
| *twō
| *ainatehumǭ
| *anþeraz
|
| *twāz
| *twimaz
| *pahaz
|-
|-
! 12
! 3
| *twatigį
| *þrīz
| *twatehumǭ
| *þridjaz
|
| *þrāz
| *þrimaz
|-
|-
! 13
! 4
| *þritigį
| *hidwiriz
| *þritehumǭ
| *hidwirþaz
|
| *hedweraz
| *hedwerumaz
|-
|-
! 14
! 5
| *hwettwōrtigį
| *finhiz
| *hwettwōrtehumǭ
| *finhtaz
|
| *finhteraz
| *finhumaz
|-
|-
! 15
! 6
| *hwinhtigį
| *swes
| *hwinhtehumǭ
| *swestaz
|
| *swesteraz
| *swesumaz
|-
|-
! 16
! 7
| *sehstigį
| *siftį
| *sehstehumǭ
| *seftundaz
|
| *seftunderaz
| *seftumaz
|-
|-
! 17
! 8
| *siftintigį
| *ahtō
| *siftintehumǭ
| *ahtundaz
|
| *ahtunderaz
| *ahtumaz
|-
|-
! 18
! 9
| *ahtōtigį
| *niwin
| *ahtōtehumǭ
| *niwindaz
|
| *niwinderaz
| *niwinumaz
|-
|-
! 19
! 10
| *nawintigį
| *tisin
| *nawintehumǭ
| *tisindaz
|
| *tisinderaz
| *tisinumaz
|-
|-
! 20
! 11
| *twīginþī
| *ainalig
| *twīginsimǭ
|
|
|
| *analigumaz
|-
|-
! 30
! 12
| *þrīginþō
| *twalig
| *þrīginsimǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 40
! 13
| *hwetrōginþō
| *þrilig
| *hwetrōginsimǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 50
! 14
| *hwinhwōginþō
| *hidwirlig
| *hwinhwōginsimǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 60
! 15
| *sehsōginþō
| *finhlig
| *sehsōginsimǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 70
! 16
| *seftumōginþō
| *sislig
| *seftumōginsimǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 80
! 17
| *ahtōginþō
| *siftinlig
| *ahtōginsimǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 90
! 18
| *naunōginþō
| *ahtōlig
| *naunōginsimǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 100
! 19
| *hinþą
| *niwinlig
| *hinsimǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
! 1000
! 20
| *smīgillī <!-- or something from *smīgzlī-->
| *twitisin
| *smīgillisimǭ
|
|
|
|-
|-
|}
! 30
'''Notes:'''
| *þritisin
*''*ainaz'' "one" was declined as an ''a/ō''-stem adjective.
|
*''*twō'' "two" was declined as below:
|
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|
|+ Declension of *''twō'' "two" (pl.)
! !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter
|-
|-
! Nominative
! 40
| *twō, *twai
| *hidwirtisin
| *twōi
|
| *twō
|
|
|-
|-
! Accusative
! 50
| *twanz
| *finhtisin
| *twōnz
|
| *twō
|
|
|-
|-
! Genitive
! 60
| colspan="3"| *twōsą
| *sistisin
|
|
|
|-
|-
! Dative
! 70
| colspan="3"| *twōbiz
| *siftintisin
|
|
|
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! 80
| colspan="3"| *twōbaz
| *ahtōtisin
|
|
|
|-
|-
|}
! 90
*''*þrēz'' "three" was declined as below:
| *niwintisin
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|  
|+ Declension of *''þrēz'' "three" (pl.)
|
! !! Masculine !! Feminine !! Neuter
|
|-
|-
! Nominative
! 100
| colspan="2"| *þrēz
| *sinþą
| rowspan="2"| *þrijō
|  
|
|
|-
|-
! Accusative
! 1000
| colspan="2"| *þrinz
| *þūsandiz
|-
|  
! Genitive
|
| colspan="3"| *þrijǭ, *þrēsą
|
|-
! Dative
| colspan="3"| *þribiz, *þrēbiz
|-
! Instrumental
| colspan="3"| *þribaz, *þrēbaz
|-
|-
|}
|}
*Cardinal numbers from 4-19 and decades from 20-90 were undeclined.
*''*hinþą'' "hundred" was declined as a neuter noun.
*''*smīgillī'' "thousand" was declined as an ''ī/jō''-stem feminine noun.
*Most ordinal numbers were exclusively declined weak (as indicated in the above table with the ending *''-ǭ'') except for 1st and 2nd.
*The following adverbial numbers are reconstructed:
**''*ainas, *sims'' "once"
**''*twis'' "twice"
**''*þris'' "thrice"
**''*hwadurs'' "four times"
*The following multiplicative numbers are reconstructed: 
**''*simflaz, *simflegz, *singlaz'' "single"
**''*twiflaz, *twiflegz'' "double"
**''*þriflaz, *þriflegz'' "triple"
**''*hwadurflaz, *hwadurflegz'' "quadruple"
*The following numerical prefixes are reconstructed:
**''*sem/sim-'' "uni-, mono-, one, once"
**''*twi-'' "bi-, di-, two, twice"
**''*þri-'' "tri-, three, thrice"
**''*hwadur-'' "quadri-, tetra-, four"
**''*sēmi-'' "semi-, half"
*The following collective numerals are reconstructed:
**''*ambō'' (declined as ''*twō'') "both"
**''*twiznaz'' "pair"
**''*þriznaz'' "set of three"
**''*hwadurznaz'' "set of four"


===Verbs===
===Verbs===
====Strong verbs====
====Strong verbs====
<!--
Strong verbs were characterized by a past stem that was (usually) different from the present stem and that took the following personal endings in the indicative:
Strong verbs were characterized by a past stem that was (usually) different from the present stem and that took the following personal endings in the indicative:
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
Line 1,957: Line 2,110:
|-
|-
|}
|}
The past stem was also used to form the past subjunctive with a connector vowel *''-i-''<!-- (which becomes ''-ī-'' in the case of heavy ''j''-presents)-->. The past participle was formed based on the present stem (with some caveats that will be discussed below).
The past stem was also used to form the past subjunctive with a connector vowel *''-i-''. The past participle was formed based on the present stem (with some caveats that will be discussed below).


Strong verbs can be classified into classes based on how the past stem was formed:
Strong verbs can be classified into classes based on how the past stem was formed:
Line 2,380: Line 2,533:
| *st'''êndō'''
| *st'''êndō'''
|-
|-
|}
|}-->


====Weak verbs====
====Weak verbs====
<!--
Weak verbs did not change their stem, and they took the following endings in the past indicative:
Weak verbs did not change their stem, and they took the following endings in the past indicative:
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
Line 2,399: Line 2,553:
#*The present stem contained a *''-(i)j-'' and was conjugated in the same way as strong ''j''-presents.
#*The present stem contained a *''-(i)j-'' and was conjugated in the same way as strong ''j''-presents.
#*The past indicative had the connector vowel ''-(i)ja-''.
#*The past indicative had the connector vowel ''-(i)ja-''.
-
<!--Like strong verbs, weak verbs include. light and heavy ''j''-presents. However, unlike strong verbs, this ending is also included in -->
====='''Class 1'''=====
====='''Class 1'''=====
Class 1 weak verbs conjugated similarly to ''j''-present strong verbs in all non-past forms.
Class 1 weak verbs conjugated similarly to ''j''-present strong verbs in all non-past forms.
Line 2,422: Line 2,574:


The past indicative had a connector vowel *''-a-'', and the past subjunctive had a connector vowel *''-i-''. The past participle had no connector vowel.
The past indicative had a connector vowel *''-a-'', and the past subjunctive had a connector vowel *''-i-''. The past participle had no connector vowel.
-->


====Preterite-present verbs====
====Preterite-present verbs====
<!--
Preterite-present verbs were verbs whose present tenses conjugated as a strong past (of any class). Preterite-present verbs had weak pasts.
Preterite-present verbs were verbs whose present tenses conjugated as a strong past (of any class). Preterite-present verbs had weak pasts.


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| *būindō
| *būindō
|-
|-
|}-->
|}


The verb "to be" had two stems ''*(i)s-'' and ''*beu/bus-''. They were in fact two verbs, ''*immį'' "to be" and ''*biumį'' "to be, become", which overlapped in some forms (namely the past indicative, both participles, and the imperative).
The verb "to be" had two stems ''*(i)s-'' and ''*beu/bus-''. They were in fact two verbs, ''*immį'' "to be" and ''*biumį'' "to be, become", which overlapped in some forms (namely the past indicative, both participles, and the imperative).
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| *beundō
| *beundō
|-
|-
|}
|}-->


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
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<!-- etc. etc. -->
<!-- etc. etc. -->
==Vocabulary==
==Vocabulary==
===Time - ''*þimfaz''===
===Time - ''*hēsaz''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Seasons - ''*jōras þimfizō''
|+ Seasons - ''*katō hēsai''
! English !! Proto-Tungric
! English !! Proto-Rugic
|-
|-
| spring || *wesar (*wesn-; ''n.'', ''r/n''-stem)
| spring || *westrō (''f.'', ''ō''-stem)
|-
|-
| summer || *aisōþs (''f.'', cons.-stem)
| summer || *laidą (''n.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
|-
| fall || *missiz (''f.'', ''i''-stem)
| fall || *aziniz (''f.'', ''i''-stem)
|-
|-
| winter || *gē₂mz (*gē₂m-; ''f.'', cons.-stem)
| winter || *dīmō (''f.'', ''ō''-stem)
|-
|-
|}
|}
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-->
-->
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Parts of the day - ''*tē₂wiz farþēz''
|+ Parts of the day - ''*tīnō tailai''
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
|-  
|-  
| day || *teuz (''m.'', ''u''-stem<sup><small>1</small></sup>)
| day || *tīnaz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
|-
| dawn || *ausōz (''f.'', ''z''-stem)
| dawn || *garjō (''f.'', ''ō''-stem)
|-
|-
| morning || *mōdūraz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
| morning || *austrō (''f.'', ''ō''-stem)
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
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|-
|-
-->
-->
| evening || *wesperaz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
| evening || *weheraz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
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|-
|-
-->
-->
| night || *nahts (''f.'', cons.-stem)
| night || *nahtiz (''f.'', ''i''-stem)
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
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-->
-->
|}
|}
'''Notes:'''
<sup><small>1</small></sup> Expected **''-ea-'' was coalesced to *''-ē₂-'' (e.g. nominative plural was ''*tē₂wiz'' rather than ''*teawiz'').


{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Units of time - ''*þimfiziz mēþēz''
|+ Units of time - ''*hēsō mēþīz''
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
|-  
|-  
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| hour ||  
| hour ||  
|-
|-
| day || *teuz (''m.'', ''u''-stem, irregular)
| day || *tīnaz (''m.'', ''o''-stem)
|-
|-
| week || *sirį̄ (''f.'', ''īn''-stem)
| week || *seftumō (''f.'', ''ō''-stem)
|-
|-
| month || *mēns (*mēns-, ''m.'', cons.-stem)
| month || *mēnsiz (''m.'', ''i''-stem)
|-
|-
| season || *þimfaz (''n.'', ''z''-stem)
| season || *hēsaz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
|-
| year || *aþnaz (''m.'', ''a''-stem); *jōraz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
| year || *kataz (''m.'', ''a''-stem)
|-
|-
|}
|}


{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Time adverbs - ''*þimfiziz werdō''
|+ Time adverbs - ''*hēsō wardō''
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
|-
|-
| now || *nu, *nū
| now || *nu, *nū
|-
|-
| then || *þan
| then || *þat
|-
|-
| recently, a short time ago ||  
| recently, a short time ago ||  
|-
|-
| earlier || *anþ
| earlier ||  
|-
|-
| soon, shortly || *mahs
| soon, shortly ||  
|-
|-
| later ||  
| later ||  
|-
|-
| always || *simfer
| always || *wist
|-
|-
| often || *saif
| often || *hinstō
|-
|-
| sometimes ||  
| sometimes ||  
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| rarely ||  
| rarely ||  
|-
|-
| never || *ne aiwą
| never || *ne waihaz
|-
|-
| ever || *aiwą
| ever || *waihaz
|-
|-
| still, yet || *int
| still, yet || *esk
|-
|-
| already || *anþ
| already || *jau(k)
<!--
<!--
|-
|-
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-->
-->
|-
|-
| yesterday || *gizi; *gester-
| yesterday ||  
<!--
<!--
|-
|-
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-->
-->
|-
|-
| tomorrow || *hrōz
| tomorrow ||  
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
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|}
|}


===Colours - ''*helaziz''===
===Colours - ''*hwaidai''===
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
{| class=wikitable style="text-align:center"
|+ Colours - ''*helaziz''
|+ Colours - ''*hwaidai''
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
! English !! Proto-Tungric  
|-
|-
| white || *albaz
| white || *palaz; *plaitaz
|-
|-
| grey || *hasnaz
| grey || *sīwaz
|-
|-
| black || *ōþraz
| black || *hirznaz
|-
|-
| red || *raudaz, *rausaz
| red || *rautaz; *rūtijaz
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
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|-
|-
-->
-->
| brown || *patjaz, *duswaz
| brown || *pēraz
|-
|-
| yellow || *gelwaz, *blāwaz
| yellow || *kildaz; *falwaz
|-
|-
| green || *wīsidaz
| green || *krēnaz; *daljaz
|-
|-
| blue || *hilizijaz
| blue || *matraz
|-
|-
<!--
<!--
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<!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. -->
<!-- An example of a translated or unique text written in your language. Again, it is recommended that you make sure that the phonology, constraints, phonotactics and grammar are more or less finished before writing. -->
===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)===
===Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 1)===
Afnijai gamaniz lauderai gaflōnaihw han tehnadōþi jawizihw galōþai sind. Sabiz attōnōþōi sind raþjǭ gaskīndijǭhw, eþ alþerabiz anamǭ brōþrōlijǭ frōdamį þeþalēri<!--tēgabēnþ-->.
<!--
Afnijai gamaniz lauderai gaflōnaihw han tehnadōþi jawizihw galōþai sind. Sabiz attōnōþōi sind raþjǭ gaskīndijǭhw, eþ alþerabiz anamǭ brōþrōlijǭ frōdamį þeþalēri<!--tēgabēnþ.


'''Translation:''' All humans are born free and equal with dignity and rights. Reason and conscience are given to them, and they must show others a brotherly spirit.
'''Translation:''' All humans are born free and equal with dignity and rights. Reason and conscience are given to them, and they must show others a brotherly spirit.
Shariifka
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