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Carnian (view source)

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|region            =
|region            =
|speakers          = 2.5 million
|speakers          = 2.5 million
|date              =  
|date              = 2021
|created          = 2025
|created          = 2025
|familycolor      = Indo-European
|familycolor      = Indo-European
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==== Ł-L Merger ====
==== Ł-L Merger ====


The original ''l'' / ''ł'' contrast was eliminated through merger to a single phoneme [l]. Velarized realization was preserved in syllable codas and extended to previously plain *l through merger (*''solь'' > ''sol'' [sɔl] > [soɫ]).
The original ''l'' / ''ł'' contrast was eliminated through merger to a single phoneme [l]. Velarized realization was preserved in syllable codas and extended to previously plain *l through merger (*''solь'' > ''sol'' [sɔl] > [sɔɫ]).


Some dialects exhibit ''ṡuapanie'', where velarized ''ł'' is realized as ''u̯''. These dialects vary in whether the original contrast is preserved (''sol'' vs. ''stou̯'') or lost (''sou̯'', ''stou̯'').
Some dialects exhibit ''ṡuapanie'', where velarized ''ł'' is realized as ''u̯''. These dialects vary in whether the original contrast is preserved (''sol'' vs. ''stou̯'') or lost (''sou̯'', ''stou̯'').
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! colspan=2|
! colspan=2|
! [[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]
! [[w:Labial consonant|Labial]]
! [[w:Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br />[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[w:Dental consonant|Dental]] / <br />[[w:Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[w:Postalveolar consonant|Postalveolar]]
! [[w:Postalveolar consonant|Postalveolar]]
! [[w:Dorsal consonant|Dorsal]]
! [[w:Dorsal consonant|Dorsal]]
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== Orthography ==
== Orthography ==
=== History of orthography ===
The earliest known records to be written in Carnian are Freising Manuscripts from the 10th century. They have been invaluable for the research of Carnian and Slavic language history. Later centuries brought more texts; all were, however, written in primitive orthography based primarily on German and Latin. The spelling conventions varied between writers and were ambiguous, especially for sounds absent in German or Latin systems. Following settlement along the Adriatic coast, the situation became more chaotic with new Italian-influenced spellings emerging.
In Early Modern times, two competing spelling systems existed: '''Carinthian''' or '''traditional''', used in Carinthia and Upper Carniola, and '''coastal''', used in the Littoral, Inner Carniola, Istria, and Libursca. The first one continued German-based spelling, such as the use of ⟨sch⟩ for /ʃ/, ⟨tsch⟩ for /ʧ/, ⟨ch⟩ for /x/, or ⟨k⟩ for /k/. The second applied Italian orthographic principles, including ⟨sci⟩ for /ʃ/, ⟨ci⟩ for /ʧ/, or ⟨c⟩/⟨ch⟩ for /k/. However, none of them reflected Carnian phonology in an accurate and clear manner. Following the 16th century, there were several attempts to unify Carnian spelling or present a new approach (such as ⟨sh⟩ for /ʃ/, similarly to neighboring South Slavic languages at that time), although they never became popular and were blocked primarily by the coastal writers.
Eventually a new convention was developed in the 17th century which sought to compromise the two existing systems. It was met with approval and became the ground for modern orthography. It included the following rules:
* ⟨c⟩ used for /k/ unless preceded by a front vowel, when the German ⟨ck⟩ was used (instead of Italian ⟨ch⟩). Word-initially and in German loanwords only ⟨k⟩ was used. The choice of ⟨c⟩ was motivated by morphological alternations caused by Proto-Slavic palatalization and stubborn positions of coastal writers
* /s/ was generally expressed by ⟨s⟩, although etymological ⟨c⟩ before front vowels was kept and reinforced
* ⟨ch⟩ used for /x/, except in some word-initial positions and loanwords
* ⟨ci⟩, ⟨gi⟩, and ⟨si⟩ were introduced for /ʧ/, /ʒ/, and /ʃ/, respectively. Since it was ambiguous in certain positions (e.g., word-finally, before a consonant, or before ⟨i⟩), new letters ⟨ċ⟩, ⟨ġ⟩, and ⟨ṡ⟩ emerged by removing ⟨i⟩ and moving the dot over the preceding consonant
* ⟨œ⟩ for /ɜ/ was maintained
* ⟨y⟩ was reinforced for the special /ɛɪ̯/ phoneme, given its various pronunciations between regions (formerly ⟨ij⟩ was also used)
* ⟨tz⟩ used for /ts/ (given the origins of this phoneme)
The rise of the Illyrian movement in the 19th century gave rise to another spelling convention based on Gaj's Latin alphabet. It included the use of ⟨č⟩, ⟨š⟩, and ⟨ž⟩ for postalveolar consonants, replacement of ⟨ea⟩ with ⟨ě⟩, ⟨ch⟩ with ⟨h⟩, ⟨tz⟩ with ⟨c⟩, and ⟨œ⟩ with ⟨ë⟩. While it received considerable popularity in the 19th century, it never became official and became officially rejected following tensions with Yugoslavia in the 20th century. As of today, it is used by a few minor pan-Slavic organizations.
=== Spelling principles ===
Modern Carnian orthography follows primarily phonemic principles, with each phoneme represented by a distinct letter or digraph. The system attempts to balance historical etymology with phonetic transparency.
'''Key principles''':
* Morphophonemic spelling: Alternations caused by historical sound changes are preserved in spelling to maintain morphological transparency (e.g., ''bœc'' 'bull' vs. ''bœci'' 'bulls', where /k/ > /s/ is preserved orthographically as ⟨c⟩)
* Diacritics for disambiguation: The grave accent ⟨à, è⟩ marks unpredictable stress patterns and distinguishes minimal pairs (although the latter is in practice limited to didactic texts)
* Gemination: Double consonants represent true geminates, not just orthographic conventions
==== Spelling to sound correspondence ====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!colspan=2| Spelling
!Pronunciation
!Examples
|-
!rowspan=2| a
! {{small|stressed}}
| [ä̈]
| ''p'''a'''nt'' 'road'
|-
! {{small|unstressed}}
| [ɐ]
| ''nell'''a''''' 'Sunday'
|-
!colspan=2| b
| [b]
| '''''b'''alto'' 'mud'
|-
!rowspan=2| c
! {{small|usually}}
| [k]
| '''''c'''arva'' 'cow'
|-
! {{small|before e, i, y}}
| [s]
| ''bœ'''c'''i'' 'bulls'
|-
!colspan=2| ch
| [x]
| ''me'''ch''''' 'moss'
|-
!colspan=2| ck
| [k]
| ''ma'''ck'''i'' 'poppies'
|-
!colspan=2| ċ, ci
| [tʃ]
| '''''ċ'''itat'' 'to read'<br />'''''ci'''arn'' 'black'
|-
!colspan=2| d
| [d]
| '''''d'''e'' 'where'
|-
!rowspan=2| e
! {{small|stressed}}
| [ɛ]
| ''bi'''e'''sla'' 'bee'
|-
! {{small|unstressed}}
| [ɛ̈ ~ ɜ]
| ''bob'''e'''r'' 'beaver'
|-
!rowspan=2| ea
! {{small|stressed open syllables}}
| [ɛɐ̯]
| ''l'''ea'''to'' 'summer'
|-
! {{small|unstressed / closed syllables}}
| [æ]
| ''r'''ea'''cà'' 'river' (Acc)
|-
!colspan=2| f
| [f]
| '''''f'''ala'' 'thank you'
|-
!colspan=2| g
| [g]
| '''''g'''uessier'' 'lizard'
|-
!colspan=2| ġ, gi
| [ʒ]
| ''je'''ġ''''' 'hedgehog'
|-
!colspan=2| h
| [x]
| '''''h'''œsia'' 'house'
|-
!rowspan=3| i
! {{small|stressed open syllables}}
| [i̞]
| ''l'''i'''pa'' 'linden'
|-
! {{small|unstressed / closed syllables / after /ɾ/}}
| [ɪ]
| ''cuep'''i'''t'' 'to buy'
|-
! {{small|in a diphthong}}
| [ɪ̯ ~ j]
| ''no'''i'''t'' 'night'
|-
!colspan=2| j
| [j]
| '''''j'''on'' 'young'
|-
!colspan=2| k
| [k]
| '''''k'''ei'' 'what'
|-
!rowspan=2| l
! {{small|usually}}
| [l]
| '''''l'''aba'' 'weekend'
|-
! {{small|in coda}}
| [ɫ]
| ''sto'''l''''' 'table'
|-
!colspan=2| m
| [m]
| '''''m'''edio'' 'between'
|-
!colspan=2| n
| [n]
| '''''n'''œ'''n''''' 'now'
|-
!rowspan=3| o
! {{small|stressed open syllables}}
| [ɔ]
| ''g'''o'''ra'' 'mountain'
|-
! {{small|stressed closed syllables}}
| [ɒ̝]
| ''c'''o'''t'' 'cat'
|-
! {{small|unstressed}}
| [ɞ]
| ''melc'''o''''' 'milk'
|-
!colspan=2| p
| [p]
| ''cam'''p'''a'' 'island'
|-
!colspan=2| r
| [ɾ]
| '''''r'''œid'' 'ginger' (color)
|-
!colspan=2| s
| [s]
| '''''s'''yn'' 'grey-blue'
|-
!colspan=2| ṡ, si
| [ʃ]
| '''''si'''ur'' 'rat'<br />'''''ṡ'''it'' 'to sew'
|-
!colspan=2| t
| [t]
| '''''t'''ich'' 'quiet'
|-
!rowspan=2| tz
! {{small|usually}}
| [ts]
| '''''tz'''em'' 'I want'
|-
! {{small|between vowels}}
| [tsː]
| ''ser'''tz'''e'' 'heart'
|-
!rowspan=2| u
! {{small|usually}}
| [ʊ̟]
| ''l'''u'''na'' 'moon'
|-
! {{small|in a diphthong}}
| [ʊ̯ ~ w]
| ''v'''u'''ela'' 'street'
|-
!colspan=2| v
| [ʋ]
| '''''v'''ermè'' 'weather'
|-
!colspan=2| y
| [ɛɪ̯]
| ''t'''y''''' 'you'
|-
!colspan=2| z
| [z]
| '''''z'''ora'' 'dawn'
|}


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