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Northeadish (view source)

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→‎Orthography
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===Orthography===
===Orthography===
====a====
====a====
The letter <a> can double as a short open low vowel and a schwa.
The letter ‹a› can double as a short open low vowel and a schwa.
* <a> is pronounced as [ə]:
* ‹a› is pronounced as [ə]:
**At the end of a word or morpheme when unstressed.
**At the end of a word or morpheme when unstressed.
***''vata'' ‘water’ [vá.tə]
***''vata'' ‘water’ [vá.tə]
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***''balīvɴ'' ‘to stay behind’ [bə.líːv.n̩]
***''balīvɴ'' ‘to stay behind’ [bə.líːv.n̩]
**In inflexional suffixes; specifically, in the past and subjunctive tenses of verbs, in the second person conjugation of verbs (all tenses), in the third person present singular indicative, and in the superlative forms of adjectives.
**In inflexional suffixes; specifically, in the past and subjunctive tenses of verbs, in the second person conjugation of verbs (all tenses), in the third person present singular indicative, and in the superlative forms of adjectives.
***''grœ̄tast'' ‘biggest’ [grǿː.təst]
***''grœ̄taſt'' ‘biggest’ [grǿː.təst]
***''helpaðþ'' ‘helps’ [hɛ́l.pəθ]
***''helpaðþ'' ‘helps’ [hɛ́l.pəθ]
**In other common unstressed suffixes:
**In other common unstressed suffixes:
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**''-tag'' (‘-ty’ decimal ending)
**''-tag'' (‘-ty’ decimal ending)
***''tvæntag'' ‘twenty’ [tvɛn.təg]
***''tvæntag'' ‘twenty’ [tvɛn.təg]
***''secstag''  ‘sixty’ [sɛks.təg]
***''ſecstag''  ‘sixty’ [sɛks.təg]
**''-aðþ'' (‘th’ nominal ending)
**''-aðþ'' (‘th’ nominal ending)
***''daʒaðþ'' ‘death’ [daug.wəθ]
***''daᵹaðþ'' ‘death’ [daug.wəθ]
***''hœ̄gaðþ'' ‘coziness’ [høː.gəθ]
***''hœ̄gaðþ'' ‘coziness’ [høː.gəθ]
**''-at'' (nominative and accusative neuter ending for adjectives)
**''-at'' (nominative and accusative neuter ending for adjectives)
***''gōðat'' ‘good’ [goː.ðət] (also ''gōðþt''.)
***''gōðat'' ‘good’ [goː.ðət] (also ''gōðþt''.)
***''yvlat'' ‘bad’ [ʏ.vlət] (also ''yvʌt''.)
***''yvlat'' ‘bad’ [ʏ.vlət] (also ''yvʌt''.)
*<a> is pronounced as [a] in all other cases.
*‹a› is pronounced as [a] in all other cases.
**''man'' ‘man’ [man]
**''man'' ‘man’ [man]
**''scap'' ‘shape’ [skap]
**''ſcap'' ‘shape’ [skap]


====æ and e====
====æ and e====


The letters <æ> and <e> are both pronounced as [ɛ]; however, <æ> only occurs as the i-umlaut of <a>. (Historically, <æ> was pronounced [æ].)
The letters ‹æ› and ‹e› are both pronounced as [ɛ]; however, ‹æ› only occurs as the i-umlaut of ‹a›. (Historically, ‹æ› was pronounced [æ].)
*''hændɴ'' ‘to catch’ [hɛn.dn̩], from *''handjaną''
*''hændɴ'' ‘to catch’ [hɛn.dn̩], from *''handjaną''
*''henðɴ'' ‘to catch’ [hɛn.ðn̩], from *''henþaną''
*''henðɴ'' ‘to catch’ [hɛn.ðn̩], from *''henþaną''
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====ǣ and ē====  
====ǣ and ē====  


Similarly, <ǣ> and <ē> are both pronounced as [eː], but <ǣ> only occurs as the i-umlaut of <ā> while <ē> is the realization of the Proto-Germanic diphthong *ai or the result of ŋ-deletion after *e. (Historically, <ǣ> was pronounced [æː].)
Similarly, ‹ǣ› and ‹ē› are both pronounced as [eː], but ‹ǣ› only occurs as the i-umlaut of ‹ā› while ‹ē› is the realization of the Proto-Germanic diphthong *ai or the result of ŋ-deletion after *e. (Historically, ‹ǣ› was pronounced [æː].)
*''bǣgʀ'' ‘quarrels’, plural of ''bāg''.
*''bǣgʀ'' ‘quarrels’, plural of ''bāg''.
*''stēn'' ‘stone’, from *''stainaz''.
*''ſtēn'' ‘stone’, from *''stainaz''.
*''þēht'' ‘tight’, from *''þenhtaz''.
*''þēht'' ‘tight’, from *''þenhtaz''.


====q, ᵹ, and ƕ====
====q, ᵹ, and ƕ====


The “labiovelar” letters <nowiki><q></nowiki>, <ᵹ>, and <ƕ> have several possible articulations depending on their placement in a word and their proximities to other vowels and consonants.  The letter <ᵹ> in particular is the realization of Germanic [[verschärfung]], which comes from Proto-Germanic combinations such as *gg, *gw, *ww, and *gwj.  It may also arise from an intervocalic *w in certain circumstances.  The other labiovelar consonants, *hw and *kw, followed the pattern of *gw later in the development of Northeadish. The rules for these letters, while many, are all the same. <nowiki><q></nowiki>, <ᵹ>, and <ƕ> are pronounced as:
The “labiovelar” letters ‹q›, ‹ᵹ›, and ‹ƕ› have several possible articulations depending on their placement in a word and their proximities to other vowels and consonants.  The letter ‹ᵹ› in particular is the realization of Germanic [[verschärfung]], which comes from Proto-Germanic combinations such as *gg, *gw, *ww, and *gwj.  It may also arise from an intervocalic *w in certain circumstances.  The other labiovelar consonants, *hw and *kw, followed the pattern of *gw later in the development of Northeadish. The rules for these letters, while many, are all the same. ‹q›, ‹ᵹ›, and ‹ƕ› are pronounced as:


*[k, g, x], respectively, between two consonants, or after a consonant when word-final.  
*[k, g, x], respectively, between two consonants, or after a consonant when word-final.  
**''steŋqdȳr'' ‘skunk’ [stɛŋk.dyːr]  
**''ſteŋqdȳr'' ‘skunk’ [stɛŋk.dyːr]  
**''æŋᵹlesca'' ‘English’ [ɛŋg.lɛs.kə]
**''æŋᵹleſca'' ‘English’ [ɛŋg.lɛs.kə]
**''hulɧ'' ‘hollow’ [hʊlx]
**''hulɧ'' ‘hollow’ [hʊlx]
*[kʊ, gʊ, xʊ], respectively, after a consonant and before a syllabic.  
*[kʊ, gʊ, xʊ], respectively, after a consonant and before a syllabic.  
**''seŋqɴ'' ‘to sink’ [sɛŋ.kʊn]
**''ſeŋqɴ'' ‘to sink’ [sɛŋ.kʊn]
**''æŋᵹʌ'' ‘angle’ [ɛŋ.gʊl]  
**''æŋᵹʌ'' ‘angle’ [ɛŋ.gʊl]  
**''arƕʀ'' ‘arrows’ [ar.xʊr]
**''arƕʀ'' ‘arrows’ [ar.xʊr]
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**''melcƕīt'' ‘calcium’ [mɛlk.xwiːt]
**''melcƕīt'' ‘calcium’ [mɛlk.xwiːt]
*[ukʊ, ugʊ, uxʊ] after a vowel and before a syllabic.  
*[ukʊ, ugʊ, uxʊ] after a vowel and before a syllabic.  
**''sleqɴ'' ‘to extinguish’ [slɛu.kʊn]
**''ſleqɴ'' ‘to extinguish’ [slɛu.kʊn]
**''baᵹᴍ'' ‘tree’ [bau.gʊm]
**''baᵹᴍ'' ‘tree’ [bau.gʊm]
**''seƕɴ'' ‘to see’ [sɛu.xʊn]
**''ſeƕɴ'' ‘to see’ [sɛu.xʊn]
*[ukw, ugw, uxw] when intervocalic.  
*[ukw, ugw, uxw] when intervocalic.  
**''eqarn'' ‘acorn’ [ɛu.kwarn]
**''eqarn'' ‘acorn’ [ɛu.kwarn]
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**''þeq'' ‘thick’ [θɛuk]
**''þeq'' ‘thick’ [θɛuk]
**''daᵹ'' ‘dew’ [daug]
**''daᵹ'' ‘dew’ [daug]
**''seɧcunðag'' ‘visible’ [sɛ́ux.kʊn.ðəg]
**''ſeɧcunðag'' ‘visible’ [sɛ́ux.kʊn.ðəg]
*In simpler terms:
*In simpler terms:
**The “nucleus” (k, g, or x) is always fully pronounced.
**The “nucleus” (k, g, or x) is always fully pronounced.
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**The coda labiovelar is not pronounced when word-final or before a consonant.
**The coda labiovelar is not pronounced when word-final or before a consonant.
**The coda labiovelar becomes vocalic ([ʊ]) when followed by a syllabic.
**The coda labiovelar becomes vocalic ([ʊ]) when followed by a syllabic.
*When any labiovelar consonant is followed by <v>, the pronunciation of <v> changes from [v] to [w].
*When any labiovelar consonant is followed by ‹v›, the pronunciation of ‹v› changes from [v] to [w].
**''treᵹvetscap'' ‘dendrology’ [trɛug.wɛt.skap]
**''treᵹvetſcap'' ‘dendrology’ [trɛug.wɛt.skap]
**''naɧventʀ'' ‘next winter’ [naux.wɛnt.r̩]
**''naɧventʀ'' ‘next winter’ [naux.wɛnt.r̩]


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The letter h may have three different pronunciations depending on its position relative to neighboring phonemes.
The letter h may have three different pronunciations depending on its position relative to neighboring phonemes.
*<h> is pronounced as [h] when initial except before a sonorant.
*‹h› is pronounced as [h] when initial except before a sonorant.
**''hūs'' ‘house’ [huːs]
**''hūs'' ‘house’ [huːs]
**''helpɴ'' ‘to help’ [hɛl.pn̩]
**''helpɴ'' ‘to help’ [hɛl.pn̩]
*Before a sonorant, <h> is pronounced as [x].
*Before a sonorant, ‹h› is pronounced as [x].
**''hryg'' ‘back’ [xɾʏg]
**''hryg'' ‘back’ [xɾʏg]
**''hnuta'' ‘nut’ [xnʊ.tə]
**''hnuta'' ‘nut’ [xnʊ.tə]
*After a back vowel, <h> is pronounced as [x] (c.f. German “''ach-laut''”).
*After a back vowel, ‹h› is pronounced as [x] (c.f. German “''ach-laut''”).
**''þrūh'' ‘through’ [θruːx]
**''þrūh'' ‘through’ [θruːx]
**''hlah'' ‘laugh’ [xlax]
**''hlah'' ‘laugh’ [xlax]
*After a front vowel, <h> is pronounced as [ç] (c.f. German “''ich-laut''”).
*After a front vowel, ‹h› is pronounced as [ç] (c.f. German “''ich-laut''”).
**''tehɴ'' ‘ten’ [tɛç.n̩]
**''tehɴ'' ‘ten’ [tɛç.n̩]
**''līht'' ‘easy’ [liːçt]
**''līht'' ‘easy’ [liːçt]
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====ƕ, ɧ====
====ƕ, ɧ====


In addition to the pronunciation complexities mentioned above, the letter ƕ has the additional complication of an orthographic convention whereby it is written as <ɧ> when in final position in a word or word segment.
In addition to the pronunciation complexities mentioned above, the letter ƕ has the additional complication of an orthographic convention whereby it is written as ‹ɧ› when in final position in a word or word segment.


====ſ, s====
====ſ, s====


The letter s sports both phonemic and orthographic variation.
The letter ‹s› sports both phonemic and orthographic variation.
*It is written as '''s''' when word- or word-segment-final; otherwise it is written as '''ſ'''.
*It is written as '''s''' when word- or word-segment-final; otherwise it is written as '''ſ'''.
**''þas ſeʒlas ſcīn'' ‘the sun’s rays’ [θəs sɛugləs skiːn]
**''þas ſeᵹlas ſcīn'' ‘the sun’s rays’ [θəs sɛugləs skiːn]
*It is voiced [z] when intervocalic or after a vowel before a syllabic; otherwise, it is always unvoiced [s].
*It is voiced [z] when intervocalic or after a vowel before a syllabic; otherwise, it is always unvoiced [s].
**''rīsɴ'' ‘to rise’ [riː.zn̩]
**''rīſɴ'' ‘to rise’ [riː.zn̩]
**''æsʌ'' ‘donkey’ [ɛ.zl̩]
**''æſʌ'' ‘donkey’ [ɛ.zl̩]


====v====
====v====


The letter v has two pronunciations.
The letter ‹v› has two pronunciations.
*It is pronounced [w] before a back vowel (o, å, ō, u, or ū) or after a labiovelar consonant (q, ʒ, or ƕ).
*It is pronounced [w] after a labiovelar consonant (‹q›, ‹ᵹ›, or ‹ƕ›).
**''vōðþ'' ‘wrath’ [woːθ]
**''treᵹvetſcap'' ‘dendrology’ [trɛug.wɛt.skap]
**''vunðþ'' ‘happiness, joy’ [wʊnθ]
**''naɧventʀ'' ‘next winter’ [naux.wɛnt.r̩]
**''naɧventʀ'' ‘next winter’ [naux.wɛnt.r̩]
*In all other instances, it is pronounced as [v].
*In all other instances, it is pronounced as [v].
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====ðþ, vf====  
====ðþ, vf====  


The letters ð and v become unvoiced at the end of a word or before another unvoiced consonant (see Obstruent Devoicing), but when they occur word- or word-segment-finally, the voiced consonants remain in the orthography.
The letters ‹ð› and ‹v› become unvoiced at the end of a word or before another unvoiced consonant (see Obstruent Devoicing), but when they occur word- or word-segment-finally, the voiced consonants remain in the orthography.


Three letters – all of them short vowels – are no longer used in Northeadish: ı, o, and œ.
Three letters – all of them short vowels – are no longer used in Northeadish: ‹ı›, ‹o›, and ‹œ›.


===Syllabics===
===Syllabics===
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