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===Verbs=== | ===Verbs - Daradhūvī=== | ||
The Chlouvānem verb (''daradhūs'', pl. ''daradhūvī'') is the most inflected part of speech; its most basic forms are fusional, but many more specific formations are more agglutinative due to their origin from old Proto-Lahob particles or participles. | |||
The first and most important division we can find in Chlouvānem verbs is the distinction between '''exterior '''(''kauyāva'') and '''interior '''(''nañyāva'') verbs. This may at first seem a voice system, but it must be distinguished from the true voices in Chlouvānem conjugation. The difference between them is mostly lexical: native grammarians distinguish exterior verbs as describing "activities or states that involve interactions with outside the self", and interior verbs as affecting principally the self. Exterior verbs are those we could most easily compare to active verbs in English, while interior verbs are a somewhat "catch-all" category including many distinct meanings, most notably middle-voice, reflexive and reciprocal ones but also all adjectival verbs as well as peculiar and somewhat independent meanings for some verbs. As many verbs can be conjugated both as exterior and as interior; they often have differences in meaning - e.g. ''gṇyauke ''means “to give birth” as exterior and “to be born” as interior. | |||
Potentially every Chlouvānem verb, no matter if exterior or interior, has a '''causative''' conjugation which is considered an inflection and not a derivation, even if the meanings may vary: ''mišake'' is an extreme example as each form has a different meaning (with particularly interior forms having many meanings) - non-causative exterior ''mešu'' "I see", interior ''mešaleah'' "I know; I see myself"; and causative exterior ''maišaxhā'' "I show", interior ''maišalxheah'' "I learn; I show myself <small>(trans.)</small>". | |||
Chlouvānem verbs also conjugate for five '''voices''', each one putting one of five different core elements as the ''direct-case argument'', usually for means of topicalization or definiteness; they reflect the Austronesian-type morphosyntactical alignment of the language. The five voices are, for exterior verbs: | |||
* '''patient-trigger '''or ''patientive ''(unmarked); | |||
* '''agent-trigger '''or ''agentive''; | |||
* '''benefactive-trigger '''or simply ''benefactive''; | |||
* '''antibenefactive-trigger '''or simply ''antibenefactive''; | |||
* '''locative-trigger '''or simply ''locative''. | |||
Interior verbs only have four voices, as they do not have an agentive voice; the patientive, unmarked voice, is here called '''common voice'''. | |||
There is also an ''instrumental'' form, but it is independent of voice despite having much in common with them. | |||
Chlouvānem verbs also conjugate for five different '''tense-aspect combinations''': three imperfective ones - '''present, imperfect''', and '''future''' - and two perfective ones - '''perfect''' and '''aorist'''; two other tenses are built periphrastically (''pluperfect'' and ''future perfect''). Tenses are the “basic unit” verbs conjugate in: all tenses conjugate for nine persons (1st-2nd-3rd in singular, dual and plural; note though that 3rd singular and 3rd plural are identical in the perfect).</ br> | |||
Clitic pronouns may be added to specify other arguments - e.g. ''mešėça'' "he sees" + ''-æl'' (clitic 1sg acc.) > ''mešėçæl'' "he sees me" - equivalent to ''læl mešėça''. | |||
However, the most complex part of Laceyiami verbs is the '''mood'''. Chlouvānem is particularly mood-heavy and its concept of mood is quite broad, conjugating verbs in what are called '''primary moods '''and '''secondary moods'''; a single verb form may have a single primary mood but up to two secondary moods. | |||
The ten primary moods are: | |||
* '''indicative''' - the realis mood; | |||
* '''imperative''' - used for giving orders or commands; | |||
* '''desiderative''' - used to express a desire or will (e.g. I want to X); | |||
* '''necessitative''' - used to express need or obligation (e.g. I have to X); | |||
* '''potential''' - used to express the ability to do something (e.g. I can [= am able to] X) | |||
* '''permissive''' - used to express the permission to do something (e.g. I can [= I’m allowed to] X) | |||
* '''optative '''- used to express wishes or hopes; | |||
* '''propositive '''- used to express proposals (e.g. let’s X; why don’t you X); | |||
* '''hypothetical '''- used to express things that may happen or might have happened; | |||
* '''subjunctive '''- used to express general advices (jussive use), purpose (supine use), and also syntactically conditioned by some particles. | |||
The eight secondary moods are: | |||
* five of them express '''evidentiality''', namely: certainty (also '''energetic mood'''), deduction, dream, specifically invented situation, and hearsay (also '''inferential mood'''); | |||
* '''interrogative''', used for questions; | |||
* two '''consequential moods''': one expressing ''cause'' (e.g. “because X”), the other ''opposition'' (e.g. “although X”). | |||
Chlouvānem verbs also has a '''non-finite form '''(the '''-ke''' form, called '''infinitive''' hereafter) and a small number of '''preverbal modifiers''' that add a particular meaning to the verb. | |||
Finally, Chlouvānem has a large number of '''attributive''' and '''adverbial participles''', with forms for most voices and tenses and a distinction into '''modal adverbs''', '''homofocal gerundives''' and '''heterofocal gerundives'''. | |||
===Pronouns=== | ===Pronouns=== | ||
===Numerals - Mālūye === | ===Numerals - Mālūye === | ||