Bearlandic: Difference between revisions

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Kimmig: a [[/Vocabulary|ellpossgirytnē]] enn a [[/Thematic dictionary|prattdúlig]] worrtliss.
{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|creator = User:Dē Graut Bʉr
|image =  
|image =  
|imagesize =  
|imagesize =  
|name = Bearlandic
|name = Bearlandic
|nativename = ''Bʉrnlannts''
|nativename = Bʉrnlannts
|pronunciation=  /ˈbœːrnlɑnːts/
|pronunciation=  ˈbœːrnlɑnːts
|region =  
|region =  
|states =  
|states =  
|speakers = Approximately 20 million  
|speakers = ~20 million  
|date = 2653
|date = 2653
|familycolor=
|familycolor=conlang
|family=Iropo-Antilonian languages
|fam1 = Iropo-Antilonian languages
* Berilonian languages
|fam2 = Berilonian languages
** Western Berilonian languages
|fam3 = Western Berilonian languages
*** '''Bearlandic'''
|ancestor=Old Bearlandic
|ancestor=Old Bearlandic
|script=Berilonian alphabet, western style
|scripts= * Berilonian alphabet, western style
|agency=
|iso1=
|iso2=
|iso3=
|notice=IPA
|notice=IPA
}}
}}


==Background==
==Background==
Bearlandic (''Bʉrnlannts'', IPA: /ˈbœːrnlɑnːts/) is one of many languages of the planet which is called Virrolt in Bearlandic. The language belongs to the Berilonian language family, which in its turn is a branch of the Iropo-Antilonian language family.
Bearlandic (''Bʉrnlannts'', IPA: /ˈbœːrnlɑnːts/) is one of many languages of the planet which is called ''dē Virrolt'' in Bearlandic. The language belongs to the Berilonian language family, which in its turn is a branch of the Iropo-Antilonian language family.


Spoken natively by approximately 20 million people, it is one of the most spoken Berilonian languages. It is also one of the major lingua francas of the world, so it also has millions of second-language speakers.
Spoken natively by approximately 20 million people, it is one of the most spoken Berilonian languages. It is also one of the major lingua francas of the world, so it also has millions of second-language speakers. Most speakers can pretend to speak [[Antilonian]] (another Berilonian language) as well, and many also know a few words in random other languages such as [[Kunesian]].
 
"Coincidentally", it is very similar to real-world Germanic languages, in particular to Dutch, which happens to be the creator's native language. However, it is not a member of the Germanic language family, but is instead related to various languages which do not bear such similarities to real-world languages.


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
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Coda consonants may be voiced when the following syllable begins with a voiced consonant.
Coda consonants may be voiced when the following syllable begins with a voiced consonant.
Most speakers have [ɬ] as an allophone of /l/, though the exact conditioning of this allophony varies considerably. In the cluster /tl/, the [ɬ] allophone is nearly universal, and the pronunciation of /lh/ as [ɬ], though less common, is also found all over the country. In a few places scattered across the country one may hear [sɬ] or even [ɬ] for /sl/, and in the east, some people devoice /l/ in any cluster involving voiceless consonants.


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
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|-
|-
! Low
! Low
| colspan="3" | /ɑ aː/
| colspan="3" | a /ɑ aː/
|}
|}
Short vowels are followed by long vowels and vice versa. Orthographically, vowel length is indicated by the doubling of the following consonant. Word-finally, short vowels are marked with a macron.
Short vowels are followed by long consonants and vice versa. Orthographically, vowel length is indicated by the doubling of the following consonant. Word-finally, short vowels are marked with a macron.


There are two diphthongs: y, pronounced /ɛɪ̯/ and au, pronounced /aʊ̯/. Just like long vowels, they are always followed by a short consonant.
There are two diphthongs: y, pronounced /ɛɪ̯/ and au, pronounced /aʊ̯/. Just like long vowels, they are always followed by a short consonant.
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To codas the following rules apply:
To codas the following rules apply:
*There is no phonemic voicing contrast, but instead the voicing depends on the voicing of the onset of the following syllable. Before vowels and at the end of an utterance coda obstruents are by default voiceless.
*There is no phonemic voicing contrast, but instead all syllable-final obstruents are voiceless by default. However, they may be optionally voiced if the following syllable starts with a voiced consonant.
*P t k s can be preceded by r l s or a homorganic nasal consonant.
*P t k s can be preceded by r l s or a homorganic nasal consonant.
*H q do not occur at the end of a syllable.
*H q do not occur at the end of a syllable.


The second syllable of disyllabic roots usually ends in one of the following sequences: /ər ɛrː ɪrː ol ɔlː ɛ ɪ/. Two native words are an exception to this rule: ''niktū'' /niːktʏ/ "without" and ''ottjo'' /ɔtːjoː/ "eight".
In general, disyllabic roots consist of a syllable which would be a valid monosyllabic root followed by a sequence of a vowel and a consonant or just a vowel. In native roots, the only such sequences that are known to occur are /ər ɛrː ɪrː ɔlː ol ɪmː ɪsː ɛ ɪ ʏ oː/, and of these, /ɪmː ʏ oː/ are all restricted to a single root. In addition to the possible syllable-final cluster, /tj/ is also a possible medial cluster in disyllabic roots.


Some non-native or recently coined words break these rules.
There is a slight tendency to shorten disyllabic roots to monosyllabic ones. Occasionally this has created two variants of a single root, as in ''valt'' "go for a walk" and its derived noun ''vantl-ing'' "walk".
 
Some non-native or recently coined words break these rules. /tl/, which is realised as [tɬ] by most speakers, is a particularly common cluster in non-inherited vocabulary.


==Verbs==
==Verbs==
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| aus-gi-dwyn-t
| aus-gi-dwyn-t
|-
|-
! Infinitive
! Ē-form
| lop-ē
| lop-ē
| sgit-ē
| sgit-ē
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* Verbs ending in -t don't add an extra t in the past and perfect forms.
* Verbs ending in -t don't add an extra t in the past and perfect forms.
* Verbs ending in -n do add an extra n in the present participle, causing the preceding vowel to become short. If this vowel is y, it becomes i. If the verb already has a short vowel, the participle is written with three consecutive n's, but there is no change in pronunciation.
* Verbs ending in -n do add an extra n in the present participle, causing the preceding vowel to become short. If this vowel is y, it becomes i. If the verb already has a short vowel, the participle is written with three consecutive n's, but there is no change in pronunciation.
* Verbs with a disyllabic root drop the second vowel in the infinitive and the present participle. In the latter form, this would result in an unpronounceable consonant cluster which is broken up by an /ə/ directly before the ending.
* Verbs with a disyllabic root drop the second vowel in the ē-form and the present participle. In the latter form, this would result in an unpronounceable consonant cluster which is broken up by an /ə/ directly before the ending.
* If the stem ends in a short f or s, this final fricative becomes voiced in the infinitive.
* If the stem ends in a short f or s, this final fricative becomes voiced in the ē-form.
* Verbs beginning with an unstressed prefix don't add an extra prefix in the perfect forms.
* Verbs beginning with an unstressed prefix don't add an extra prefix in the perfect forms.
* Verbs beginning with a stressed prefix are separable. Depending on the context, the prefix may be separated from the stem in the present and past tenses, and in the perfect, the gi- prefix comes between the separable prefix and the stem.
* Verbs beginning with a stressed prefix are separable. Depending on the context, the prefix may be separated from the stem in the present and past tenses, and in the perfect, the gi- prefix comes between the separable prefix and the stem.
The ē-form is used for several unrelated purposes and may be thought of as a variant present form.


====Strong verbs====
====Strong verbs====
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| short i
| short i
|}
|}
The infinitive of strong verbs always has either an y or a short i, depending on the length of the stem vowel.
The ē-form of strong verbs always has either an y or a short i, depending on the length of the stem vowel. There are three verbs whose ē-form seemingly has the wrong vowel, namely ''zegg'' "say", whose ē-form is ''zygē'', ''stass'' "stand", whose ē-form may be either ''stissē'' or ''styzē'', and ''slap'' "sleep", whose ē-form ''slapē'' retains the stem vowel of the present tense.


Some examples:
Some examples:
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| gisgrifft
| gisgrifft
|-
|-
! Infinitive
! Ē-form
| birrē
| birrē
| stissē
| stissē/styzē
| vygē
| vygē
| lyzē
| lyzē
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! "give"
! "give"
! "eat"
! "eat"
! "know"
! "become"
! "become"
|-
|-
! Present
! Present
| iss, zyt
| iss
| heppt
| heppt
| ga
| ga
| gef
| gef
| et
| et
| wet
| vort
| vort
|-
|-
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| giffti
| giffti
| ati
| ati
| wati
| virti
| virti
|-
|-
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| gigifft
| gigifft
| giotē
| giotē
| giwotē
| givirtē
| givirtē
|-
|-
! Infinitive
! Ē-form
| yē
| yē, zyt
| hypē
| hypē
| gatē
| gatē
| gyvē
| gyvē
| ytē
| ytē
| wytē
| vortē
| vortē
|-
|-
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| gefnē
| gefnē
| etnē
| etnē
| wetnē
| vortnē
| vortnē
|-
|-
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| gigifftnē
| gigifftnē
| giotnē
| giotnē
| giwotnē
| givirtnē
| givirtnē
|}
|}
''Iss'' has two distinct forms corresponding to the ē-forms of all other verbs. ''Yē'' is used as an infinitive, whereas ''zyt'' is used in subordinate clauses.


===Tenses===
===Tenses===
Bearlandic has two simple tenses, two perfect tenses and two future tenses.
====Formation====
====Formation====
The formation of the present and the simple past is described above. The remaining four tenses are all formed periphrastically.
The perfect tenses are formed using the perfect form and an auxiliary, which depending on the verb can be either ''heppt'' or ''iss''. As a general rule, intransitive verbs use ''iss'', whereas transitive and impersonal verbs all use ''heppt''. The present perfect uses the present of the auxiliary, while the past perfect uses the past.
''Ig '''heppt''' a appoll '''giotē'''.''<br>
I '''have eaten''' an apple.
''Dē mann '''iss gilopt'''.''<br>
The man '''has walked'''.
''Dē '''heppt gisniwwt'''.''<br>
It '''has snowed'''.
Modal verbs take the same auxiliary as the main verb. The modal is put in the perfect form, while the main verb is put in the ē-form and preceded by ''oss''.
''Ig '''heppt gikusst''' oss ytē.''<br>
I '''have been able''' to eat.
''Dē mann '''iss gikusst''' oss lopē.''<br>
The man '''has been able''' to walk.
The prase ''dē zyt'' "there is" becomes ''dē zyt giasst'' in the present perfect.
''Dē '''zyt''' a pegging '''giasst'''.''<br>
There '''has been''' an accident.
The verb ''zʉll'' and its past form ''zʉllti'' are used to form the future and the future past respectively. These are both followed by the ē-form.
''Ig '''zʉll ytē'''.''<br>
I '''will eat'''.
''Anymann '''zʉllti''' bly '''yē'''.''<br>
''Everyone '''would be''' happy.''


====Usage====
====Usage====


===The passive===
===The passive===
The passive is formed with the verb ''vort'' and the perfect form.
''Dē appoll '''vort giotē'''.''<br>
''The apple '''is eaten'''.
In the perfect tenses, the perfect form of ''vort'' is optional and may be left out.
''Miess ferrpratter '''iss gidift (givirtē)'''.<br>
''My phone '''has been stolen'''.
===Modality===
Modality is expressed using a variety of modal auxiliary verbs. The main ones are basic auxiliaries ''kuss'' "can", ''mut'' "must", ''will'' "want", ''mogg'' "may", as well as ''tyē, yē, hyē, wylē'' and ''kynē'', which are remnants of old optative forms of ''tú'' "do", ''iss'' "be", ''heppt'' "have", ''will'' and ''kuss'' respectively.
After the basic auxiliaries one can choose between two possible constructions: SVOV using an ē-form and SVVO using the base form. These two constructions differ slightly in meaning in some contexts and are known as the "definite" and "uncertain" mood respectively. An optative may only be followed by an ē-form when used as an auxiliary. Thus one may say:
* ''Ig kuss dē túē.'' (definite)
* ''Ig kuss tú dē.'' (uncertain)
* ''Ig kynē dē túē.'' (optative)
The choice between these forms is a complicated matter and varies considerably between dialects and even between different speakers of the same dialect. Some guidelines are presented below, but the reader should bear in mind that the actual usage is considerably more complicated than can be shown here.
====''Kuss''====
''Kuss'' indicates an ability or a possibility. In affirmative sentences, it normally takes the definite mood.
''Ig '''kuss''' dē Bʉrnlannts '''prattē'''.''<br>
I '''can speak''' Bearlandic.
In negative sentences, the definite mood indicates a "stronger" impossibility that the uncertain mood.
''Hissē '''kuss nikkt flikē'''.''<br>
Houses '''cannot fly'''.
''Ig '''kuss nikkt les''' oss dē tē dorrk zyt.<br>
I '''can't read''' because it's too dark.
====''Mut''====
Just like ''kuss'', ''mut'' usually takes the definite mood in affirmative sentences.
''Ig '''mut''' oss itē '''slapē'''.''<br>
I '''should get''' some '''sleep'''.
In negative sentences, the definite mood indicates something which is disrecommendable, while the uncertain mood indicates something which is possible but not necessary.
''Man '''mut gyn''' rʉtig gʉmless '''ytē'''.<br>
You '''shouldn't eat''' rotten fruit.
====''Will''====
With ''will'', the definite mood implies determination or immediacy, whereas the uncertain mood may imply hesitation or hindrance.
''Ig '''will pratt''' oss emm, mar hi bigryf miess spraking nikkt.''<br>
I '''want to talk''' to him, but he doesn't understand my dialect.
====''Mogg''====
''Mogg'' usually indicates permission, but occasionally it may indicate a possibility instead. In affirmative sentences it usually takes the uncertain mood.
In negative sentences, it indicates something which is forbidden and typically takes the definite mood.
====The optative====
As mentioned above, there exist five synthetic optatives. All other optatives are made by using one of these as an auxiliary verb. Note that although ''wylē'' derives from the ancient optative of ''will'', it functions as a separate verb in modern Bearlandic rather than as a form of "want".
The optative can be used in several ways, two of which will be discussed in this section. Firstly, it may be used to express a wish. In this case, the optative verb comes at the beginning of the sentence, and ''tyē'' is used when the subject can control the action, whereas ''wylē'' is used when it can't.
'''''Yē''' hi oss hirr!''<br>
'''If only''' he '''were''' here!
'''''Tyē''' hi '''ytē'''!''<br>
'''May''' he '''eat'''!
'''''Wylē''' dē zoll '''sgynē'''!''<br>
'''May''' the sun '''shine'''!
The optative may also be used to express a possibility. In this case, the normal word order (SVOV) is used and the auxiliary verb is ''kynē''.
''Ig '''yē''' túpig.''<br>
I '''may be''' mad.


===Definite and uncertain===
''Ig '''kynē''' dē '''túē'''.''<br>
I '''could do''' that.
 
The optative also appears in certain conditional clauses. These uses are explained [[#Conditionals|here]].


===Verbal prefixes===
===Verbal prefixes===
Verbs can have up to two derivational prefixes. There are two types of prefixes: stressed prefixes, which are separable, and unstressed prefixes, which always remain attached to the root. A verb may have at most one prefix of either type, and when both are present, the stressed one comes first. Most are very productive and also very vague semantically.
*Stressed prefixes:
**''aus-'': this one generally marks the end of an action or a state.
***''mogg'' "be allowed to" -> ''ausmogg'' "forbid"
***''gygē'' "beard" -> ''ausgyg'' "shave" ("end the state of having a beard")
**''ferr-'': this one usually creates a causative verb.
***''dwyn'' "disappear" -> ''ferrdwyn'' "remove"
***''sgill'' "be different" -> ''ferrsgill'' "distinguish"
**''inn-'': this one generally indicates being or going inside, or the beginning of a state.
***''heppt'' "have" -> ''innhyf'' "contain" ("have inside")
***''vúr'' "bring" -> ''innvúr'' "bring in"
***''slap'' "sleep" -> ''innslap'' "fall asleep"
**''oss-'': this one usually marks either a causative verbs or the beginning of a state.
***''lag'' "laugh" -> ''osslag'' "be ridiculous, make someone laugh"
***''rʉtig'' "rotten" -> ''ossrʉt'' "rot"
**''yt-'': this one is no longer productive and its meaning is not yet well understood.
***''pratt'' "speak" -> ''ytpratt'' "pronounce"
*Unstressed prefixes:
**''bi-'': this one is very productive and can form verbs from any other word.
***''kopp'' "buy" -> ''bikopp'' "sell"
***''irrig'' "annoying" -> ''biirr'' "annoy"
***''kis'' "choose" -> ''bikis'' "vote"
***''straf'' "punishment" -> ''bistraf'' "punish"
***''siff'' "number" -> ''bisiff'' "calculate"
**''her-'': this one indicates a repetition.
***''tú'' "do" -> ''hertú'' "repeat"
***''wet'' "know" -> ''herwet'' "remember"
====Conjugation of prefixed verbs====
Verbs derived from other verbs are conjugated the same as their base verbs. The only exceptions to this rule are the verbs derived from ''iss'' and ''heppt'',  which become ''zyt'' and ''hyf'' respectively when a prefix is added. Both are then conjugated like weak verbs.
Verbs derived from other parts of speech are almost always weak, except if the base word has y as its stem vowel, in which case it is strong. Thus ''ossrʉt'' is weak while ''ausgyg'' is strong.
====Separation====
As mentioned, the stressed prefixes can be separated from the root. This happens in the main clause, whereas the prefix remains attached in subordinate clauses.
{{Gloss
| phrase = Hi pratti miess nam fautlyk yt.
| gloss = 3SG.SUBJ speak-PST 1SG.POSS name wrong-ADV YT
| translation = He pronounced my name wrongly.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = Ig bizaggti oss emm dass hi miess nam fautlyk ytpratti.
| gloss = 1SG.SUBJ tell.PST to 3SG.OBJ that 3SG.SUBJ 1SG.POSS name wrong-ADV YT-speak-PST
| translation = I told him that he pronounced my name wrongly.
}}


==Nouns==
==Nouns==
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*''vogg'' "bird" > ''voggs'' "birds"
*''vogg'' "bird" > ''voggs'' "birds"
*''mann'' "man" > ''manns'' "men"
*''mann'' "man" > ''manns'' "men"
*''kennī'' "dog" > ''kenniss'' "dogs"
*''fingrī'' "finger" > ''fingriss'' "fingers"


A few nouns feature an irregular vowel change in the plural.
A few nouns feature an irregular vowel change in the plural.
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*''ze'' "sea" > ''zyess'' "seas"
*''ze'' "sea" > ''zyess'' "seas"
*''sten'' "stone" > ''styness'' "stones"
*''sten'' "stone" > ''styness'' "stones"
*''ry'' "row" > ''ryess'' "rows"
*''kennī'' "dog" > ''kenniss'' "dogs"


The nouns which end in -s in the singular are all irregular. Three of them have a plural in -issē.
The nouns which end in -s in the singular are all irregular. Three of them have a plural in -issē.
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===Nominalising suffixes===
===Nominalising suffixes===
The main nominalising suffixes are:
*''-ē'': an all-purpose noun suffix. Among the functions it can have are:
**Forming a noun meaning "person/thing with quality X" from an adjective: ''stirg'' "strong" -> ''a stirgē'' "a strong person", ''lykig'' "similar" -> ''a lykigē'' "something similar"
**Forming various kinds of associated nouns from various other parts of speech: ''knirr'' "cut with scissors" -> ''knirrē'' "scissors"
**Forming diminutives, often with highly idiomatic meanings and frequently accompanied by a vowel change: ''vogg'' "bird" -> ''vʉggē'' "feather"
**For many nouns ending in -ē, this ending has no meaning at all: ''atjē'' "bridge", ''hillvē'' "hill"
*''-hyt'': an abstract noun suffix, usually but not always added to adjectives to form a nouns referring a state:
**''bly'' "happy" -> ''blyhyt'' "happiness"
**''brútē'' "brother" -> ''brúthyt'' "family"
*''-ing'': an abstract noun suffix which is usually added to verbs:
**''kis'' "choose" -> ''kising'' "choice"
**''kopp'' "buy" -> ''kopping'' "trade"
*''-er'': forms a noun referring to either the person doing something or the instrument used for it
**''jaggt'' "hunt" -> ''jaggter'' "hunter"
**''sgit'' "shoot" -> ''sgiter'' "gun"
*''-ness'': technically not a single suffix but a pluralised nominalised participle. It forms collective nouns.
**''won'' "live, dwell" -> ''wonness'' "population"
**''burr'' "happen" -> ''giburrtness'' "history"


==Adjectives==
==Adjectives==
Adjectives are placed before the nouns they modify.
===Formation===
===Formation===
With a few exceptions, all adjectives end in the highly productive adjectivising suffix -ig. Adjectives derived from place names and names of ethnic groups end in -iess instead, and a closed class of native adjectives has no suffix at all.
A sizeable group of adjectives look like past participles, but are not derived from any actually existing verb. For example, ''ausgioggt(nē)'' "neutral" looks like it is the past participle of ''*ausogg'', but no such verb actually exists.


===Inflection===
===Inflection===
Adjectives are inflected for three degrees of comparison. The positive is unmarked. The comparative and superlative are marked with the suffixes -err and -iss respectively, which become -terr and -tiss after vowels.
*''klyn'' "small" > ''klynerr'' "smaller" > ''klyniss'' "smallest"
*''mojj'' "beautiful" > ''mojjerr'' "more beautiful" > ''mojjiss'' "most beautiful"
*''kra'' "big" > ''kraterr'' "bigger" > ''kratiss'' "biggest"
There are three irregular adjectives.
*''gut'' "good" > ''byterr'' "better" > ''bisst'' "best"
*''fill'' "much/many" > ''mirr'' "more" > ''filless'' "most"
*''ferr'' "far" > ''ferrtē'' "further" > ''firrst'' "furthest"
Adverbs can be derived from adjectives using the suffix -lyk. Most adjectives not ending in -ig can be used as adverbs without first adding -lyk.
Participial adjectives, as well as ''wyg'' "few, little", have separate attributive and predicative forms. When used attributively, the end in -nē, while they have no ending when used predicatively. The citation form of these adjectives is the predicative from.


===Comparison===
===Comparison===
In the formal standard language, comparisons of equality are expressed by ''ef ... solls''. However, in informal language, ''solls'' in this expression is often replaced by ''oss''.
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē bom iss ef kra solls dē haus.
| gloss = DEF tree be equally big as DEF house
| translation = The tree is as tall as the house
}}
Comparisons of inequality always use ''oss''.
{{Gloss
| phrase = Ig iss auterr oss emm.
| gloss = 1SG.SUBJ be old-COMP than 3SG.OBJ
| translation = I am older than him.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē missē iss minnig snell oss dē katt.
| gloss = DEF mouse.PL be less fast than DEF cat
| translation = The mice are not as fast as the cat.
}}


==Pronouns==
==Pronouns==
===Personal and possessive pronouns===
===Personal and possessive pronouns===
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
! colspan="2" |
! Subject
! Object
! Possessive
|-
! colspan="2" | 1sg
| ig
| mi
| miess
|-
! colspan="2" | 2sg
| ji /jɪ/
| ji /jɪ/
| jiess
|-
! rowspan="3" | 3sg
! Masculine
| hi
| emm, zigg
| hiess
|-
! Feminine
| zē
| zy, zigg
| zess
|-
! Neuter
| dē
| dē, zigg
| dess
|-
! colspan="2" | 1pl
| wi
| oss
| oss
|-
! colspan="2" | 2pl
| jis
| jis
| jisiss
|-
! rowspan="2" | 3pl
! Human
| zess
| hʉn, zess, zy
| hʉness, zess
|-
! Non-human
| zess
| zess, zy
| zess
|}
''Zigg'' and ''zy'' are singular and plural reflexive pronouns respectively. ''Hʉn'' and ''hʉness'' are mainly used for emphasis, and tend to be replaced by ''zess'' in other contexts.
The gender distinction in the third person singular is based purely on natural gender. Children and animals of unknown gender may be referred to by ''dē'', but for teenagers and adults of unknown gender it is more common to use ''hi'' as a gender-neutral pronoun.


===Relative pronouns===
===Relative pronouns===
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
!
! Without preposition
! With preposition
|-
! Person
| colspan="2" | wē
|-
! Thing
| dē
| dy
|-
! Several things
| colspan="2" rowspan="3" | dy
|-
! Sentence
|-
! "that which"
|}


===Other pronouns===
===Other pronouns===
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
!
! Which
! This
! That
! All
! Some
! None
|-
! Determiner
| willg
| rowspan="2" | ditt, dē
| rowspan="2" | di, dē
| all, anē
| somm, imig, itig
| gyn
|-
! Thing
| wass
| all, alltingiss
| itiss
| nikktitiss, nytitiss, nitiss
|-
! Person
| wi
| colspan="2" | hi, zē, zess
| anmann, all
| imann, imē
| nimē, nytimē
|-
! Place
| warr
| hirr
| dirr
| oss allpē
| irgiss
| nytirgiss, nirgiss
|-
! Time
| wann
| nu
| tann
| alltyt
| oss ojjē
| nauter
|-
! Reason
| werrmē
| colspan="2" | darross, derrmē
| colspan="3" rowspan="2" style="background:#DDDDDD" |
|-
! Manner
| hu, hulyk
| colspan="2" | zoss, solls dē
|}
''Ditt'' and ''di'' are used less often than "this" and "that" in English.
The determiners ''all'' and ''somm'' cannot be followed by a singular countable noun; they have to be followed by either a plural noun or an uncountable one. ''Anē'', ''imig'' and ''itig'' on the other hand can only be followed by a singular noun. ''Imig'' is only used before nouns referring to people, whereas ''itig'' is only used before other nouns.
''Alltingiss'' is an emphatic variant of ''all'' in the sense of "everything".
''All'' in the sense of "everyone" is dialectal and tends to be avoided in formal speech and writing.
The short forms ''nitiss'' and ''nirgiss'' of the negative pronouns are colloquial, and in many situations the full forms are preferred. By contrast, the short form ''nimē'' is generally preferred to the somewhat archaic ''nytimē''.
''solls dē'' generally refers to something more concrete than ''zoss''.
==Numerals==
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg"
!
! x
! 10x
! Ordinal
|-
! 1
| a
| tinn
| astē, atiss
|-
! 2
| to
| totē
| tostē
|-
! 3
| tri
| tritē
| tristē
|-
! 4
| forr
| forrtē
| forrstē
|-
! 5
| vy
| vytē
| vystē
|-
! 6
| zett
| zetttē
| zettstē
|-
! 7
| safē
| saftē
| safstē
|-
! 8
| ottjo
| otttē
| ottstē
|-
! 9
| nippē
| nipptē
| nippstē
|-
! 10
| tinn
| horrt
| tinnstē
|}
Words for higher numbers are ''dass'' "thousand" and ''millē'' "million".
Numbers from 11-99 are expressed as units-tens. Multiples of hundred and thousand are expressed as compounds, but ''millē'' behaves as a noun and needs to be pluralised when making multiples of it. Numbers above 100 are formed by placing the parts of it after each other, starting with the largest number.
*''toforrtē'' 42
*''horrt atotē'' 121
*''nippēdass nippēhorrt nippēnipptē'' 9999
*''to milless'' 2,000,000
*''zetttinn milless vyhorrtnippētinndass trihorrt safēnipptē'' 16,519,397
Ordinals are formed by adding -stē to the last part: ''forrhorrt tonipptēstē'' "492nd".


===Numerals===
Non-final ē in numerals is usually pronounced as /ə/.


==Compounding==
==Compounding==
Line 446: Line 894:
* In an adjective-noun-noun compound, the adjective refers to the first noun only, whereas when the adjective is used as a separate word, it refers to the entire compound.
* In an adjective-noun-noun compound, the adjective refers to the first noun only, whereas when the adjective is used as a separate word, it refers to the entire compound.


==Syntax==
==Word order==
===Word order===
===Sentence===
Bearlandic normally has SVO and V2 word order, but questions have a VSO order. Any constituent can be placed in front of the verb to add emphasis, but because of the V2 word order, the subject will have to be moved to directly after the verb.
Bearlandic normally has SVO and V2 word order, but questions have a VSO order. Any constituent can be placed in front of the verb to add emphasis, but because of the V2 word order, the subject will have to be moved to directly after the verb.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē jaggter sgit dē konin oss a sgiter.
| phrase = Dē jaggter sgit dē konin oss a sgiter.
| IPA = /dɛ ˈjɑxːtər ˈsxiːt dɛ ˈkoːnin ɔsː a ˈsxiːtər/
| gloss = The hunter shoot the rabbit with a gun
| gloss = The hunter shoot the rabbit with a gun.
| translation = The hunter shoots the rabbit with a gun.
| translation = The hunter shoots the rabbit with a gun.
}}
}}
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Oss a sgiter sgit dē jaggter dē konin.
| phrase = Oss a sgiter sgit dē jaggter dē konin.
| IPA = /ɔsː a ˈsxiːtər ˈsxiːt dɛ ˈjɑxːtər dɛ ˈkoːnin/
| gloss = With a gun shoot the hunter the rabbit.
| gloss = With a gun shoot the hunter the rabbit.
| translation = With a gun, the hunter shoots the rabbit.
| translation = With a gun, the hunter shoots the rabbit.
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = Oss dē a konin zyt sgit dē jaggter dē oss a sgiter.
| IPA = /ɔsː dɛ a ˈkoːnin ˈzɛɪ̯t ˈsxiːt dɛ ˈjɑxːtər dɛ ɔsː a sxiːtər/
| gloss = If 3SG be.BYF a rabbit shoot the hunter 3SG with a gun.
| translation = If there is a rabbit, the hunter shoots it with a gun.
}}
}}


The object is rarely fronted. Instead the passive is used, although an OVS structure with a somewhat different intonation is possible as well:
The object is usually not fronted; instead the passive is usually used. However, since pronouns distinguish between subject and object forms, if either the subject or the object (or both) is a pronoun, an OVS construction will be used.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē konin vort oss dē jaggter oss a sgiter gisgit.
| phrase = Dē konin vort oss dē jaggter gisgit.
| IPA = /dɛ ˈkoːnin ˈvoːrt ɔsː dɛ ˈjɑxːtər ɔsː a ˈsxiːtər ɣiˈsxiːt/
| gloss = The rabbit become by the hunter PERF-shoot-PERF.
| gloss = The rabbit PASS by the hunter with a gun PERF-shoot.
| translation = The rabbit is shot by the hunter with a gun.
| translation = The rabbit is shot by the hunter with a gun.
}}
}}
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē konin sgit dē jaggter oss a sgiter.
| phrase = Dē konin sgit ig.
| IPA = /dɛ ↗ˈkoːnin ↘ˈsxiːt dɛ ˈjɑxːtər ɔsː a ↗ˈsxiː↘tər/
| gloss = The rabbit shoot I.
| gloss = The rabbit shoot the hunter with a gun.
| translation = The rabbit I shoot.
| translation = The rabbit is shot by the hunter with a gun.
}}
}}


===The byform===
===Noun phrase===
As mentioned earlier, the byform is historically an infinitive. However, a few centuries ago its meaning somehow shifted so now both the historical infinitive and the present can be used after auxiliary verbs, with a small difference in meaning: the byform indicates some kind of certainty whereas the present has a more hypothetical meaning. In other words: the historical distinction between infinitive/indicative has become a distinction between ''bipaltnē'' "definite" and ''nitzykrig'' "uncertain".
Within the noun phrase the word order is determiner - number - adjective(s) - noun - modifying phrase, where the modifying phrase may be either a relative clause or a prepositional phrase. A single noun phrase may contain several adjectives, though all other elements can appear only once.


As the infinitive was only used in clauses with multiple verbs, this distinction also only arose in such sentences. Furthermore, the infinitive used to appear at the end of the clause, whereas the conjugated auxiliary verbs were placed on the second position, as usual. This is still true in modern Bearlandic, so in the definite mood the byform comes at the end and in the uncertain mood it appears on the second position.
{{Gloss
| phrase = dē tri klyn witt hissē inn dē tarrp
| gloss = the three small white house.PL in the village
| translation = the three small white houses in the village
}}


The exact use of the definite and uncertain moods vary by dialect, some using the one more often that the other and vice versa.
==Complex sentences==
===Subordinate clauses===
Subordinate clauses always begin with a subordinating word, which, depending on the type of clause, is either a conjunction or a relative pronoun, and can be preceded by a preposition. Just like modal verbs, subordinate clauses distinguish between definite, uncertain and optative moods.


To illustrate this, here are two sentences, one with definite and one with uncertain:
====Complement clauses====
Complement clauses begin with the conjunction ''dass'', which becomes ''dy'' after prepositions. Unlike in English, the conjunction cannot be left out. Usually the definite mood is used in complement clauses.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē jaggter will sgit dē konin.
| phrase = Ig wet dass hi a yzēpart hypē.
| IPA = /dɛ ˈjaxːtər ˈʋɪlː ˈsxiːt dɛ koːnin/
| gloss = 1SG.SUBJ know that 3SG.M.SUBJ INDEF car have.INF
| gloss = The hunter want shoot the rabbit.
| translation = I know (that) he has a car.
| translation = The hunter wants to shoot the rabbit (but he may fail to do so).
}}
}}


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē jaggter will dē konin sgitē.
| phrase = Ig iss zykrig oss dy ji dē wytē.
| IPA = /dɛ ˈjaxːtər ˈʋɪlː dɛ ˈkoːnin ˈsxiːtɛ/
| gloss = 1SG.SUBJ be certain PREP that 2SG 3SG.N know.INF
| gloss = The hunter want the rabbit shoot-BYF.
| translation = I am certain that you know that.
| translation = The hunter wants to shoot the rabbit (and he won't go home until he's done so).
}}
}}


===Subordinate clauses===
====Indirect questions====
Subordinate clauses always begin with a subordinating word, which, depending on the type of clause, is either a conjunction or a relative pronoun, and can be preceded by a preposition. Subclauses have the same distinction between definite/uncertain as auxiliary verbs.
Indirect yes-no questions are introduced by ''oss dy''.
 
{{Gloss
| phrase = Ig wet nikkt oss dy dē a prʉlē zyt.
| gloss = 1SG.SUBJ know not PREP that 3SG.N INDEF problem be.DEF
| translation = I don't know if that's a problem.
}}


====Noun clauses====
Indirect open questions can be formed in two ways:
Noun clauses begin with the conjunction ''dass'', which becomes ''dy'' when preceded by a preposition.
* ''oss dy'' + interrogative pronoun
* interrogative pronoun + ''dy''


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Ig wet dass dē jaggter dē konin sgitē.
| phrase = Hi frigti oss mi warr dy dē pispott dē zyti.
| IPA = /ix ˈʋeːt dɑsː dɛ ˈjaxːtər dɛ ˈkoːnin ˈsxiːtɛ/
| gloss = 3SG.M.SUBJ ask.PST PREP 1SG.OBJ where that DEF toilet PT exist-PST
| gloss = I know that the hunter the rabbit shoot-BYF
| translation = He asked me where the toilet was.
| translation = I know that the hunter shoots the rabbit.
}}
}}
====Relative clauses====
Relative clauses start with a [[#Relative pronouns|relative pronoun]]. The pronoun is followed by the subject of the clause (if it isn't the same as the antecedent), which in turn is followed by the verb.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Ig will wet oss dy hi jaggt oss konins.
| phrase = Dē mann wē plʉkti dē fiss iss stoppig.
| IPA = /ix ˈʋɪlː ˈʋeːt ɔsː dɛɪ̯ hi ˈjɑxːt ɔsː ˈkoːnins/
| gloss = DEF man REL.HUM catch-PST DEF fish be stupid
| gloss = I want know on that he hunt on rabbits
| translation = The man who caught the fish is stupid.
| translation = I'd like to know whether he hunts rabbits.
}}
}}
{{Gloss
| phrase = Hi heppt dē fiss dē hi plʉkti giotē.
| gloss = 3SG.M.SUBJ have DEF fish REL.NHUM 3SG.M.SUBJ catch-PST eat.PERF
| translation = He has eaten the fish he caught.
}}
Since the position of the verb within a relative clause is determined by strict rules, so is the choice of the verb form. In the present tense, an ē-form is used if the verb is the last word in the clause, while otherwise the ordinary present is used.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Zess wast toig oss dy wass zess muti túē.
| phrase = Ig tú dy ig willē.
| IPA = /zɛsː ˈʋaːst ˈtoːix ɔsː dɛɪ̯ ʋɑsː zɛsː ˈmyːti ˈtuːɛ/
| gloss = 1SG.SUBJ do that.which 1SG.SUBJ want-INF
| gloss = They be.PST two-ADJZ on that what they must-PST do-BYF
| translation = I do what I want.
| translation = They were disputing what they had to do.
}}
}}


====Conditional and causal clauses====
====Conditional and causal clauses====
Conditional and causal clauses both begin with the conjunction ''oss'', and are distinguished from each other by the choice of verb form.
Conditional and causal clauses both start with the conjunction ''oss'', but are distinguished from one another by the choice of moods.
 
===Participial phrases===
A participial phrase consists of the preposition ''oss'' and a participle and functions as a kind of temporal or adverbial clause. A subject may be specified, in which case it comes between ''oss'' and the participle. If no subject is specified, the subject of the participial phrase is taken to be the same as the sentence's subject.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē jaggter sgit dē konin oss dē iss hiess verking.
| phrase = Oss zangnē lopti wi nass haus.
| IPA = /dɛ ˈjɑxːtər ˈsxiːt dɛ ˈkoːnin ɔsː dɛ ˈɪsː ˈhiːɛsː ˈveːrkiŋ/
| gloss = PREP sing-PTC walk-PST 1PL.SUBJ to house
| gloss = The hunter shoot the rabbit if it be his job.
| translation = While singing, we walked home.
| translation = The hunter shoots the rabbit if it's his job.
}}
}}


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē jaggter sgit dē konin oss dē hiess verking zyt.
| phrase = Oss mi zangnē lopti wi nass haus.
| IPA = /dɛ ˈjɑxːtər ˈsxiːt dɛ ˈkoːnin ɔsː dɛ ˈhiːɛsː ˈveːrkiŋ ˈzɛɪ̯t/
| gloss = PREP 1SG.OBJ sing-PTC walk-PST 1PL.SUBJ to house
| gloss = The hunter shoot the rabbit because it his job be.BYF.
| translation = While I was singing, we walked home.
| translation = The hunter shoots the rabbit because it's his job.
}}
}}


====Relative clauses====
Participial phrases can also have objects and adverbial phrases, both of which follow the participle. Having multiple modifiers within a single participial phrase is considered awkward and is best avoided.
Relative clauses always begin with a [[#Relative pronouns|relative pronoun]], or a combination of a preposition and a relative pronoun. The verb always comes directly after the subject, which in its turn is placed directly after the relative pronoun, should that not already be the subject.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = dē mann wē et a fiss
| phrase = Hi zitti oss dirr oss lesnē a bʉk.
| IPA = /dɛ ˈmɑnː ʋɛ ˈeːt a ˈfɪsː/
| gloss = 3SG.SUBJ sit-PST PREP there PREP read-PTC INDEF book
| gloss = the man REL eat a fish
| translation = He sat there, reading a book.
| translation = the man who eats a fish.
}}
}}
===Independent infinitives===
Infinitives can be used as nouns. Just like participial phrases, independent infinitives can be followed by objects and adverbs, though they cannot have a subject.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = dē fiss dē dē mann ytē
| phrase = Ytē gʉmless iss gut oss dē zaning.
| IPA = /dɛ ˈfɪsː dɛ dɛ ˈmɑnː ˈɛɪ̯tɛ/
| gloss = eat.INF fruit-PL be good for DEF health
| gloss = the fish REL the man eat.BYF
| translation = Eating fruit is good for your health.
| translation = the fish (that) the man eats
}}
}}


===Separable verbs===
==Negation==
Separable verbs are separated in independent clauses without auxiliary verbs and conjoined in subordinate clauses. When separated from the root, the separable particle comes directly after the object.
Sentences are negated by means of a variety of negative words. The most basic negator is the adverb ''nikkt'' "not", which is usually placed after the object, or after the verb if there is no object.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Ig frag emm aus.
| phrase = Hi ziti dē mann nikkt.
| IPA = /ix ˈfraːx ɛmː aʊ̯s/
| gloss = 3SG.SUBJ see-PST DEF man not
| gloss = I ask him out
| translation = He didn't see the man.
| translation = I answer him.
}}
}}
Sentences with indefinite objects, however, are negated with ''gyn'' "no, none" instead.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = ... dass ig emm ausfragē.
| phrase = Miess brútē lif gyn vyn.
| IPA = /dɑsː ix ɛmː ˈaʊ̯sfraːɣɛ/
| gloss = 1SG.POSS brother like no wine
| gloss = that I him out-ask-BYF
| translation = My brother doesn't like wine.
| translation = ... that I answer him.
}}
}}


In main clauses with auxiliary verbs it's slightly more complicated. As mentioned in the [[#Word order|word order section]], both an SVVO and an SVOV word order can be used. This remains true when the main verb is separable, but with one extra addition: in the SVVO construction, the verb is separated, but not in the SVOV construction.
When a negative pronoun is used, no other negator has to be used.
 
{{Gloss
| phrase = Ig kuss frag emm aus.
| IPA = /ix kʏsː ˈfraːx ɛmː aʊ̯s/
| gloss = I can ask him out
| translation = I can answer him.
}}


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Ig kuss emm ausfragē.
| phrase = Ig wet nikktitiss oss dē talllirring.
| IPA = /ix kʏsː ɛmː ˈaʊ̯sfraːɣɛ/
| gloss = 1SG.SUBJ know nothing about DEF linguistics.
| gloss = I can him out-ask-BYF
| translation = I know nothing about linguistics.
| translation = I can answer him.
}}
}}


===Questions===
==Questions==
Yes-no questions are made by inverting the subject and the verb and raising the tone:
Yes-no questions are made by inverting the subject and the verb and raising the tone:


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Sgit dē jaggter dē konin?
| phrase = Pratt ji dē Bʉrnlannts?
| IPA = /ˈsxiːt dɛ ˈjɑxːtər dɛ ˈkóːnin/
| gloss = speak 2SG DEF Bearlandic
| gloss = Shoot the hunter the rabbit?
| translation = Do you speak Bearlandic?
| translation = Does the hunter shoot the rabbit?
}}
}}


Line 614: Line 1,063:


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Wi sgiti dē konin?
| phrase = Wass tú ji?
| IPA = /ˈʋi ˈsxiːti dɛ ˈkóːnin/
| gloss = what do 2SG
| gloss = Who shoot-PAST the rabbit?
| translation = What are you doing?
| translation = Who shot the rabbit?
}}
}}


As interrogative pronouns don't distinguish subject and object forms, this question could also be translated as "Whom did the rabbit shoot?". This is however rare; the latter would normally be expressed using a passive: "Wi virti oss dē konin gisgit?".
In questions, ''iss'', ''kuss'' and ''will'' usually appear in their optative forms ''yē'', ''kynē'' and ''wylē''. The latter two are used to make polite requests or offers.
 
===Noun phrases===
The word order in noun phrases is preposition-determiner-number-adjective(s)-noun-modifying phrase. The modifying phrase can be either a prepositional phrase or a relative clause. There can be multiple adjectives within a single noun phrase, but the other elements can all only appear once.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = inn miess to aut klyn grys hausen inn dē tarrp
| phrase = Yē dē a maktall?
| IPA = /ɪnːˈ miːɛsː toː aʊ̯t klɛɪ̯n ɣrɛɪ̯s ˈhaʊ̯sən ɪnː dɛ tɑrːp/
| gloss = be.OPT 3SG.N INDEF conlang
| gloss = in my two old small grey house-PL in the village
| translation = Is that a conlang?
| translation = in my two old small grey houses in the village
}}
}}
===Existentials===
Existentials use the phrase ''dē zyt'':


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē zyt a haus.
| phrase = Kynē ji mi hellfē?
| IPA = /dɛ ˈzɛɪ̯t a ˈhaʊ̯s/
| gloss = can.OPT 2SG 1SG.OBJ help-INF
| gloss = 3SG.N be.BYF a house
| translation = Could you help me?
| translation = There is a house.
}}
}}
The past is ''dē zyti''. This is the only case where a past byform is used.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē zyti a haus.
| phrase = Wylē ji itiss oss ytē?
| IPA = /dɛ ˈzɛɪ̯ti a ˈhaʊ̯s/
| gloss = want.OPT 2SG something PREP eat-INF
| gloss = 3SG.N be.BYF-PST a house
| translation = Would you like something to eat?
| translation = There was a house.
}}
}}


When existentials occur in subclauses, they always use the byform, even if the verb isn't placed at the end of the clause and a present would normally be used.
The particle ''nyē'' can be placed at the end of a sentence to form a tag question.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = ... dass dē zyt a haus.
| phrase = Ji pratt gyn Kunyziess, nyē?
| IPA = /dɑsː dɛ ˈzɛɪ̯t a ˈhaʊ̯s/
| gloss = 2SG speak none Kunesian Q
| gloss = that 3SG.N be.BYF a house
| translation = You don't speak Kunesian, do you?
| translation = ... that there is a house.
}}
}}


Using a present here would change the meaning: "dass dē ''iss'' a haus" would mean "that ''it'' is a house" rather than "that ''there'' is a house.
==''Dē zyt''==
 
The phrase ''dē zyt'' "there is, exist" behaves a bit oddly syntactically. The word ''dē'' is treated as the subject, while the thing that exists behaves as an object.
Sometimes, mostly in formal writing, a similar construction with other verbs can be used.


{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē ytē imant a appoll.
| phrase = Dē zyt a haus.
| IPA = /dɛ ˈɛɪ̯tɛ ˈimant a ˈɑpːɔlː/
| gloss = PT exist a house.
| gloss = 3SG.N eat.BYF someone an apple
| translation = there is a house.
| translation = There is someone eating an apple. = Someone is eating an apple.
}}
}}
Unlike with the normal existentials, the past of this construction uses a normal past.
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = Dē ati imant a appoll.
| phrase = Mi zyt dē.
| IPA = /dɛ ˈati ˈimant a ˈɑpːɔlː/
| gloss = 1SG.OBJ exist PT
| gloss = 3SG.N eat.PST someone an apple
| translation = I exist.
| translation = There was someone eating an apple. = Someone was eating an apple.
}}
}}


Latest revision as of 21:44, 4 July 2021

Kimmig: a ellpossgirytnē enn a prattdúlig worrtliss.

Bearlandic
Bʉrnlannts
Pronunciation[ˈbœːrnlɑnːts]
Created byDē Graut Bʉr
Native speakers~20 million (2653)
Early form
Old Bearlandic
  • Berilonian alphabet, western style
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Background

Bearlandic (Bʉrnlannts, IPA: /ˈbœːrnlɑnːts/) is one of many languages of the planet which is called dē Virrolt in Bearlandic. The language belongs to the Berilonian language family, which in its turn is a branch of the Iropo-Antilonian language family.

Spoken natively by approximately 20 million people, it is one of the most spoken Berilonian languages. It is also one of the major lingua francas of the world, so it also has millions of second-language speakers. Most speakers can pretend to speak Antilonian (another Berilonian language) as well, and many also know a few words in random other languages such as Kunesian.

"Coincidentally", it is very similar to real-world Germanic languages, in particular to Dutch, which happens to be the creator's native language. However, it is not a member of the Germanic language family, but is instead related to various languages which do not bear such similarities to real-world languages.

Phonology

Consonants

Bilabial Labio-dental Alveolar Post-alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal m /m/ n /n/ ng /ŋ/
Plosive p b /p b/ t d /t d/ k q /k kʷ/
Fricative f v /f v/ s z /s z/ (ʃ) (ç) g /x ~ ɣ/ h /h/
Approximant w /ʋ/ j /j/
Trill r /r/
Lateral app. l /l/

[ʃ] and [ç] are quite common as allophones of /s/ before stops and /x/ after /i/ respectively. This is however nonstandard and typically associated with lower classes.

The velar fricative is often slightly fronted or palatalized in the standard dialect.

All consonants except /b d ŋ kʷ v z h/ can be geminated.

The velar fricative is pronounced /ɣ/ in onsets (except in the cluster /sx/) and /x/ in codas.

Coda consonants may be voiced when the following syllable begins with a voiced consonant.

Most speakers have [ɬ] as an allophone of /l/, though the exact conditioning of this allophony varies considerably. In the cluster /tl/, the [ɬ] allophone is nearly universal, and the pronunciation of /lh/ as [ɬ], though less common, is also found all over the country. In a few places scattered across the country one may hear [sɬ] or even [ɬ] for /sl/, and in the east, some people devoice /l/ in any cluster involving voiceless consonants.

Vowels

Front Rounded Back
High i /ɪ iː/ u /ʏ yː/ ú /uː/
Mid e /ɛ eː/ ʉ /œ œː/ o /ɔ oː/
Low a /ɑ aː/

Short vowels are followed by long consonants and vice versa. Orthographically, vowel length is indicated by the doubling of the following consonant. Word-finally, short vowels are marked with a macron.

There are two diphthongs: y, pronounced /ɛɪ̯/ and au, pronounced /aʊ̯/. Just like long vowels, they are always followed by a short consonant.

In affixes, which are always unstressed, /iː/ is shortened to /i/.

Phonotactics

Bearlandic roots consist of one or two syllables and allow clusters of up to three consonants. Affixes usually consist of a single syllable (though a few consist of just a consonant) and never contain any consonant clusters.

The following rules determine which onsets are possible:

  • S can be followed by any of p t g w n l.
  • An obstruent other than q s z h can be followed by r.
  • An obstruent other than q t d h can be followed by l.
  • T d z can be followed by w.
  • K can be followed by n.
  • Ng does not occur at the beginning of a syllable.

To codas the following rules apply:

  • There is no phonemic voicing contrast, but instead all syllable-final obstruents are voiceless by default. However, they may be optionally voiced if the following syllable starts with a voiced consonant.
  • P t k s can be preceded by r l s or a homorganic nasal consonant.
  • H q do not occur at the end of a syllable.

In general, disyllabic roots consist of a syllable which would be a valid monosyllabic root followed by a sequence of a vowel and a consonant or just a vowel. In native roots, the only such sequences that are known to occur are /ər ɛrː ɪrː ɔlː ol ɪmː ɪsː ɛ ɪ ʏ oː/, and of these, /ɪmː ʏ oː/ are all restricted to a single root. In addition to the possible syllable-final cluster, /tj/ is also a possible medial cluster in disyllabic roots.

There is a slight tendency to shorten disyllabic roots to monosyllabic ones. Occasionally this has created two variants of a single root, as in valt "go for a walk" and its derived noun vantl-ing "walk".

Some non-native or recently coined words break these rules. /tl/, which is realised as [tɬ] by most speakers, is a particularly common cluster in non-inherited vocabulary.

Verbs

Conjugation

Weak verbs

"walk" "shoot" "improve" "need" "leave"
Present lop sgit byterr bi-húf aus-dwyn, dwyn aus
Past lop-ti sgit-i byterr-ti bi-húf-ti aus-dwyn-ti, dwyn-ti aus
Perfect gi-lop-t gi-sgit-Ø gi-byterr-t bi-húf-t aus-gi-dwyn-t
Ē-form lop-ē sgit-ē bytr-ē bi-húv-ē aus-dwyn-ē
Present participle lop-nē sgit-nē bytre-nē bi-húf-nē aus-dwin-nē
Past participle gi-lop-t-nē gi-sgit-Ø-nē gi-byterr-t-nē bi-húf-t-nē aus-gi-dwyn-t-nē

There are a few minor irregularities (marked in red in the table above) which are all fully predictable:

  • Verbs ending in -t don't add an extra t in the past and perfect forms.
  • Verbs ending in -n do add an extra n in the present participle, causing the preceding vowel to become short. If this vowel is y, it becomes i. If the verb already has a short vowel, the participle is written with three consecutive n's, but there is no change in pronunciation.
  • Verbs with a disyllabic root drop the second vowel in the ē-form and the present participle. In the latter form, this would result in an unpronounceable consonant cluster which is broken up by an /ə/ directly before the ending.
  • If the stem ends in a short f or s, this final fricative becomes voiced in the ē-form.
  • Verbs beginning with an unstressed prefix don't add an extra prefix in the perfect forms.
  • Verbs beginning with a stressed prefix are separable. Depending on the context, the prefix may be separated from the stem in the present and past tenses, and in the perfect, the gi- prefix comes between the separable prefix and the stem.

The ē-form is used for several unrelated purposes and may be thought of as a variant present form.

Strong verbs

Strong verbs are conjugated just like weak verbs, but additionally feature some vowel changes. These vowel changes can be summarised like this.

Present Past Perfect
a i o
a i short i
e a o
e a short i
i a o
o i short i
y i short i

The ē-form of strong verbs always has either an y or a short i, depending on the length of the stem vowel. There are three verbs whose ē-form seemingly has the wrong vowel, namely zegg "say", whose ē-form is zygē, stass "stand", whose ē-form may be either stissē or styzē, and slap "sleep", whose ē-form slapē retains the stem vowel of the present tense.

Some examples:

"carry" "stand" "weigh" "read" "win" "come" "write"
Present barr stass veg les winn komm sgryf
Past birrti stissti vagti lasti wannti kimmti sgrifti
Perfect giborrt gistisst givogt gilisst giwonnt gikimmt gisgrifft
Ē-form birrē stissē/styzē vygē lyzē winnē kimmē sgryvē
Present participle barrnē stassnē vegnē lesnē winnnē kommnē sgryfnē
Past participle giborrtnē gistisstnē givogtnē gilisstnē giwonntnē gikimmtnē gisgrifftnē

Irregular verbs

"be" "have" "go" "give" "eat" "know" "become"
Present iss heppt ga gef et wet vort
Past wast haptē gigti giffti ati wati virti
Perfect giasst gihapt gigisst gigifft giotē giwotē givirtē
Ē-form yē, zyt hypē gatē gyvē ytē wytē vortē
Present participle zytnē hepptnē gatnē gefnē etnē wetnē vortnē
Past participle wastnē gihaptnē gigisstnē gigifftnē giotnē giwotnē givirtnē

Iss has two distinct forms corresponding to the ē-forms of all other verbs. Yē is used as an infinitive, whereas zyt is used in subordinate clauses.

Tenses

Bearlandic has two simple tenses, two perfect tenses and two future tenses.

Formation

The formation of the present and the simple past is described above. The remaining four tenses are all formed periphrastically.

The perfect tenses are formed using the perfect form and an auxiliary, which depending on the verb can be either heppt or iss. As a general rule, intransitive verbs use iss, whereas transitive and impersonal verbs all use heppt. The present perfect uses the present of the auxiliary, while the past perfect uses the past.

Ig heppt a appoll giotē.
I have eaten an apple.

Dē mann iss gilopt.
The man has walked.

Dē heppt gisniwwt.
It has snowed.

Modal verbs take the same auxiliary as the main verb. The modal is put in the perfect form, while the main verb is put in the ē-form and preceded by oss.

Ig heppt gikusst oss ytē.
I have been able to eat.

Dē mann iss gikusst oss lopē.
The man has been able to walk.

The prase dē zyt "there is" becomes dē zyt giasst in the present perfect.

Dē zyt a pegging giasst.
There has been an accident.

The verb zʉll and its past form zʉllti are used to form the future and the future past respectively. These are both followed by the ē-form.

Ig zʉll ytē.
I will eat.

Anymann zʉllti bly yē.
Everyone would be happy.

Usage

The passive

The passive is formed with the verb vort and the perfect form.

Dē appoll vort giotē.
The apple is eaten.

In the perfect tenses, the perfect form of vort is optional and may be left out.

Miess ferrpratter iss gidift (givirtē).
 My phone has been stolen.

Modality

Modality is expressed using a variety of modal auxiliary verbs. The main ones are basic auxiliaries kuss "can", mut "must", will "want", mogg "may", as well as tyē, yē, hyē, wylē and kynē, which are remnants of old optative forms of tú "do", iss "be", heppt "have", will and kuss respectively.

After the basic auxiliaries one can choose between two possible constructions: SVOV using an ē-form and SVVO using the base form. These two constructions differ slightly in meaning in some contexts and are known as the "definite" and "uncertain" mood respectively. An optative may only be followed by an ē-form when used as an auxiliary. Thus one may say:

  • Ig kuss dē túē. (definite)
  • Ig kuss tú dē. (uncertain)
  • Ig kynē dē túē. (optative)

The choice between these forms is a complicated matter and varies considerably between dialects and even between different speakers of the same dialect. Some guidelines are presented below, but the reader should bear in mind that the actual usage is considerably more complicated than can be shown here.

Kuss

Kuss indicates an ability or a possibility. In affirmative sentences, it normally takes the definite mood.

Ig kuss dē Bʉrnlannts prattē.
I can speak Bearlandic.

In negative sentences, the definite mood indicates a "stronger" impossibility that the uncertain mood.

Hissē kuss nikkt flikē.
Houses cannot fly.

Ig kuss nikkt les oss dē tē dorrk zyt.
 I can't read because it's too dark.

Mut

Just like kuss, mut usually takes the definite mood in affirmative sentences.

Ig mut oss itē slapē.
I should get some sleep.

In negative sentences, the definite mood indicates something which is disrecommendable, while the uncertain mood indicates something which is possible but not necessary.

Man mut gyn rʉtig gʉmless ytē.
 You shouldn't eat rotten fruit.

Will

With will, the definite mood implies determination or immediacy, whereas the uncertain mood may imply hesitation or hindrance.

Ig will pratt oss emm, mar hi bigryf miess spraking nikkt.
I want to talk to him, but he doesn't understand my dialect.

Mogg

Mogg usually indicates permission, but occasionally it may indicate a possibility instead. In affirmative sentences it usually takes the uncertain mood.

In negative sentences, it indicates something which is forbidden and typically takes the definite mood.

The optative

As mentioned above, there exist five synthetic optatives. All other optatives are made by using one of these as an auxiliary verb. Note that although wylē derives from the ancient optative of will, it functions as a separate verb in modern Bearlandic rather than as a form of "want".

The optative can be used in several ways, two of which will be discussed in this section. Firstly, it may be used to express a wish. In this case, the optative verb comes at the beginning of the sentence, and tyē is used when the subject can control the action, whereas wylē is used when it can't.

Yē hi oss hirr!
If only he were here!

Tyē hi ytē!
May he eat!

Wylē dē zoll sgynē!
May the sun shine!

The optative may also be used to express a possibility. In this case, the normal word order (SVOV) is used and the auxiliary verb is kynē.

Ig yē túpig.
I may be mad.

Ig kynē dē túē.
I could do that.

The optative also appears in certain conditional clauses. These uses are explained here.

Verbal prefixes

Verbs can have up to two derivational prefixes. There are two types of prefixes: stressed prefixes, which are separable, and unstressed prefixes, which always remain attached to the root. A verb may have at most one prefix of either type, and when both are present, the stressed one comes first. Most are very productive and also very vague semantically.

  • Stressed prefixes:
    • aus-: this one generally marks the end of an action or a state.
      • mogg "be allowed to" -> ausmogg "forbid"
      • gygē "beard" -> ausgyg "shave" ("end the state of having a beard")
    • ferr-: this one usually creates a causative verb.
      • dwyn "disappear" -> ferrdwyn "remove"
      • sgill "be different" -> ferrsgill "distinguish"
    • inn-: this one generally indicates being or going inside, or the beginning of a state.
      • heppt "have" -> innhyf "contain" ("have inside")
      • vúr "bring" -> innvúr "bring in"
      • slap "sleep" -> innslap "fall asleep"
    • oss-: this one usually marks either a causative verbs or the beginning of a state.
      • lag "laugh" -> osslag "be ridiculous, make someone laugh"
      • rʉtig "rotten" -> ossrʉt "rot"
    • yt-: this one is no longer productive and its meaning is not yet well understood.
      • pratt "speak" -> ytpratt "pronounce"
  • Unstressed prefixes:
    • bi-: this one is very productive and can form verbs from any other word.
      • kopp "buy" -> bikopp "sell"
      • irrig "annoying" -> biirr "annoy"
      • kis "choose" -> bikis "vote"
      • straf "punishment" -> bistraf "punish"
      • siff "number" -> bisiff "calculate"
    • her-: this one indicates a repetition.
      • tú "do" -> hertú "repeat"
      • wet "know" -> herwet "remember"

Conjugation of prefixed verbs

Verbs derived from other verbs are conjugated the same as their base verbs. The only exceptions to this rule are the verbs derived from iss and heppt, which become zyt and hyf respectively when a prefix is added. Both are then conjugated like weak verbs.

Verbs derived from other parts of speech are almost always weak, except if the base word has y as its stem vowel, in which case it is strong. Thus ossrʉt is weak while ausgyg is strong.

Separation

As mentioned, the stressed prefixes can be separated from the root. This happens in the main clause, whereas the prefix remains attached in subordinate clauses.

Hi pratti miess nam fautlyk yt.
3SG.SUBJ speak-PST 1SG.POSS name wrong-ADV YT
He pronounced my name wrongly.
Ig bizaggti oss emm dass hi miess nam fautlyk ytpratti.
1SG.SUBJ tell.PST to 3SG.OBJ that 3SG.SUBJ 1SG.POSS name wrong-ADV YT-speak-PST
I told him that he pronounced my name wrongly.

Nouns

Nouns distinguish two numbers and are otherwise uninflected. A few ancient case forms survive in fixed expressions, all of them preceded by the preposition oss.

Pluralisation

Most nouns form their plural by adding -s. If the noun ends in a short vowel, the plural suffix is a long -ss.

  • vogg "bird" > voggs "birds"
  • mann "man" > manns "men"
  • fingrī "finger" > fingriss "fingers"

A few nouns feature an irregular vowel change in the plural.

  • ze "sea" > zyess "seas"
  • sten "stone" > styness "stones"
  • ry "row" > ryess "rows"
  • kennī "dog" > kenniss "dogs"

The nouns which end in -s in the singular are all irregular. Three of them have a plural in -issē.

  • haus "house" > hissē "houses"
  • maus "mouse" > missē "mice"
  • voss "fox" > vissē "foxes"

The remaining native nouns ending in -s, as well as some thirty other irregular nouns, have plurals in -er.

  • fiss "fish" > fisser "fish"
  • bom "tree" > bomer "trees"

Nouns which end in -er in the singular have identical singular and plural forms.

  • jaggter "hunter" > jaggter "hunters"

Nominalising suffixes

The main nominalising suffixes are:

  • -ē: an all-purpose noun suffix. Among the functions it can have are:
    • Forming a noun meaning "person/thing with quality X" from an adjective: stirg "strong" -> a stirgē "a strong person", lykig "similar" -> a lykigē "something similar"
    • Forming various kinds of associated nouns from various other parts of speech: knirr "cut with scissors" -> knirrē "scissors"
    • Forming diminutives, often with highly idiomatic meanings and frequently accompanied by a vowel change: vogg "bird" -> vʉggē "feather"
    • For many nouns ending in -ē, this ending has no meaning at all: atjē "bridge", hillvē "hill"
  • -hyt: an abstract noun suffix, usually but not always added to adjectives to form a nouns referring a state:
    • bly "happy" -> blyhyt "happiness"
    • brútē "brother" -> brúthyt "family"
  • -ing: an abstract noun suffix which is usually added to verbs:
    • kis "choose" -> kising "choice"
    • kopp "buy" -> kopping "trade"
  • -er: forms a noun referring to either the person doing something or the instrument used for it
    • jaggt "hunt" -> jaggter "hunter"
    • sgit "shoot" -> sgiter "gun"
  • -ness: technically not a single suffix but a pluralised nominalised participle. It forms collective nouns.
    • won "live, dwell" -> wonness "population"
    • burr "happen" -> giburrtness "history"

Adjectives

Adjectives are placed before the nouns they modify.

Formation

With a few exceptions, all adjectives end in the highly productive adjectivising suffix -ig. Adjectives derived from place names and names of ethnic groups end in -iess instead, and a closed class of native adjectives has no suffix at all.

A sizeable group of adjectives look like past participles, but are not derived from any actually existing verb. For example, ausgioggt(nē) "neutral" looks like it is the past participle of *ausogg, but no such verb actually exists.

Inflection

Adjectives are inflected for three degrees of comparison. The positive is unmarked. The comparative and superlative are marked with the suffixes -err and -iss respectively, which become -terr and -tiss after vowels.

  • klyn "small" > klynerr "smaller" > klyniss "smallest"
  • mojj "beautiful" > mojjerr "more beautiful" > mojjiss "most beautiful"
  • kra "big" > kraterr "bigger" > kratiss "biggest"

There are three irregular adjectives.

  • gut "good" > byterr "better" > bisst "best"
  • fill "much/many" > mirr "more" > filless "most"
  • ferr "far" > ferrtē "further" > firrst "furthest"

Adverbs can be derived from adjectives using the suffix -lyk. Most adjectives not ending in -ig can be used as adverbs without first adding -lyk.

Participial adjectives, as well as wyg "few, little", have separate attributive and predicative forms. When used attributively, the end in -nē, while they have no ending when used predicatively. The citation form of these adjectives is the predicative from.

Comparison

In the formal standard language, comparisons of equality are expressed by ef ... solls. However, in informal language, solls in this expression is often replaced by oss.

Dē bom iss ef kra solls dē haus.
DEF tree be equally big as DEF house
The tree is as tall as the house

Comparisons of inequality always use oss.

Ig iss auterr oss emm.
1SG.SUBJ be old-COMP than 3SG.OBJ
I am older than him.
Dē missē iss minnig snell oss dē katt.
DEF mouse.PL be less fast than DEF cat
The mice are not as fast as the cat.

Pronouns

Personal and possessive pronouns

Subject Object Possessive
1sg ig mi miess
2sg ji /jɪ/ ji /jɪ/ jiess
3sg Masculine hi emm, zigg hiess
Feminine zē zy, zigg zess
Neuter dē dē, zigg dess
1pl wi oss oss
2pl jis jis jisiss
3pl Human zess hʉn, zess, zy hʉness, zess
Non-human zess zess, zy zess

Zigg and zy are singular and plural reflexive pronouns respectively. Hʉn and hʉness are mainly used for emphasis, and tend to be replaced by zess in other contexts.

The gender distinction in the third person singular is based purely on natural gender. Children and animals of unknown gender may be referred to by dē, but for teenagers and adults of unknown gender it is more common to use hi as a gender-neutral pronoun.

Relative pronouns

Without preposition With preposition
Person wē
Thing dē dy
Several things dy
Sentence
"that which"

Other pronouns

Which This That All Some None
Determiner willg ditt, dē di, dē all, anē somm, imig, itig gyn
Thing wass all, alltingiss itiss nikktitiss, nytitiss, nitiss
Person wi hi, zē, zess anmann, all imann, imē nimē, nytimē
Place warr hirr dirr oss allpē irgiss nytirgiss, nirgiss
Time wann nu tann alltyt oss ojjē nauter
Reason werrmē darross, derrmē
Manner hu, hulyk zoss, solls dē

Ditt and di are used less often than "this" and "that" in English.

The determiners all and somm cannot be followed by a singular countable noun; they have to be followed by either a plural noun or an uncountable one. Anē, imig and itig on the other hand can only be followed by a singular noun. Imig is only used before nouns referring to people, whereas itig is only used before other nouns.

Alltingiss is an emphatic variant of all in the sense of "everything".

All in the sense of "everyone" is dialectal and tends to be avoided in formal speech and writing.

The short forms nitiss and nirgiss of the negative pronouns are colloquial, and in many situations the full forms are preferred. By contrast, the short form nimē is generally preferred to the somewhat archaic nytimē.

solls dē generally refers to something more concrete than zoss.

Numerals

x 10x Ordinal
1 a tinn astē, atiss
2 to totē tostē
3 tri tritē tristē
4 forr forrtē forrstē
5 vy vytē vystē
6 zett zetttē zettstē
7 safē saftē safstē
8 ottjo otttē ottstē
9 nippē nipptē nippstē
10 tinn horrt tinnstē

Words for higher numbers are dass "thousand" and millē "million".

Numbers from 11-99 are expressed as units-tens. Multiples of hundred and thousand are expressed as compounds, but millē behaves as a noun and needs to be pluralised when making multiples of it. Numbers above 100 are formed by placing the parts of it after each other, starting with the largest number.

  • toforrtē 42
  • horrt atotē 121
  • nippēdass nippēhorrt nippēnipptē 9999
  • to milless 2,000,000
  • zetttinn milless vyhorrtnippētinndass trihorrt safēnipptē 16,519,397

Ordinals are formed by adding -stē to the last part: forrhorrt tonipptēstē "492nd".

Non-final ē in numerals is usually pronounced as /ə/.

Compounding

Compounds can be made freely and are always head-last. There are several types:

  • Noun-noun:
    • bʉk "book" + haus "house" -> bʉkhaus "library"
  • Verb-noun:
    • slap "to sleep" + kammerr "room" -> slapkammerr "bedroom"

Adjective-noun compounds can be used when the adjective describes a typical quality.

Either part of a compound can in itself also be a compound, thus a compound can theoretically be infinitely long. Long compounds do however have some complications:

  • Noun-noun-noun compounds can be slightly ambiguous as to whether it's compound-noun or noun-compound. They can sometimes be disambiguated by context or meaning, but sometimes a workaround is needed.
  • In an adjective-noun-noun compound, the adjective refers to the first noun only, whereas when the adjective is used as a separate word, it refers to the entire compound.

Word order

Sentence

Bearlandic normally has SVO and V2 word order, but questions have a VSO order. Any constituent can be placed in front of the verb to add emphasis, but because of the V2 word order, the subject will have to be moved to directly after the verb.

Dē jaggter sgit dē konin oss a sgiter.
The hunter shoot the rabbit with a gun
The hunter shoots the rabbit with a gun.
Oss a sgiter sgit dē jaggter dē konin.
With a gun shoot the hunter the rabbit.
With a gun, the hunter shoots the rabbit.

The object is usually not fronted; instead the passive is usually used. However, since pronouns distinguish between subject and object forms, if either the subject or the object (or both) is a pronoun, an OVS construction will be used.

Dē konin vort oss dē jaggter gisgit.
The rabbit become by the hunter PERF-shoot-PERF.
The rabbit is shot by the hunter with a gun.
Dē konin sgit ig.
The rabbit shoot I.
The rabbit I shoot.

Noun phrase

Within the noun phrase the word order is determiner - number - adjective(s) - noun - modifying phrase, where the modifying phrase may be either a relative clause or a prepositional phrase. A single noun phrase may contain several adjectives, though all other elements can appear only once.

dē tri klyn witt hissē inn dē tarrp
the three small white house.PL in the village
the three small white houses in the village

Complex sentences

Subordinate clauses

Subordinate clauses always begin with a subordinating word, which, depending on the type of clause, is either a conjunction or a relative pronoun, and can be preceded by a preposition. Just like modal verbs, subordinate clauses distinguish between definite, uncertain and optative moods.

Complement clauses

Complement clauses begin with the conjunction dass, which becomes dy after prepositions. Unlike in English, the conjunction cannot be left out. Usually the definite mood is used in complement clauses.

Ig wet dass hi a yzēpart hypē.
1SG.SUBJ know that 3SG.M.SUBJ INDEF car have.INF
I know (that) he has a car.
Ig iss zykrig oss dy ji dē wytē.
1SG.SUBJ be certain PREP that 2SG 3SG.N know.INF
I am certain that you know that.

Indirect questions

Indirect yes-no questions are introduced by oss dy.

Ig wet nikkt oss dy dē a prʉlē zyt.
1SG.SUBJ know not PREP that 3SG.N INDEF problem be.DEF
I don't know if that's a problem.

Indirect open questions can be formed in two ways:

  • oss dy + interrogative pronoun
  • interrogative pronoun + dy
Hi frigti oss mi warr dy dē pispott dē zyti.
3SG.M.SUBJ ask.PST PREP 1SG.OBJ where that DEF toilet PT exist-PST
He asked me where the toilet was.

Relative clauses

Relative clauses start with a relative pronoun. The pronoun is followed by the subject of the clause (if it isn't the same as the antecedent), which in turn is followed by the verb.

Dē mann wē plʉkti dē fiss iss stoppig.
DEF man REL.HUM catch-PST DEF fish be stupid
The man who caught the fish is stupid.
Hi heppt dē fiss dē hi plʉkti giotē.
3SG.M.SUBJ have DEF fish REL.NHUM 3SG.M.SUBJ catch-PST eat.PERF
He has eaten the fish he caught.

Since the position of the verb within a relative clause is determined by strict rules, so is the choice of the verb form. In the present tense, an ē-form is used if the verb is the last word in the clause, while otherwise the ordinary present is used.

Ig tú dy ig willē.
1SG.SUBJ do that.which 1SG.SUBJ want-INF
I do what I want.

Conditional and causal clauses

Conditional and causal clauses both start with the conjunction oss, but are distinguished from one another by the choice of moods.

Participial phrases

A participial phrase consists of the preposition oss and a participle and functions as a kind of temporal or adverbial clause. A subject may be specified, in which case it comes between oss and the participle. If no subject is specified, the subject of the participial phrase is taken to be the same as the sentence's subject.

Oss zangnē lopti wi nass haus.
PREP sing-PTC walk-PST 1PL.SUBJ to house
While singing, we walked home.
Oss mi zangnē lopti wi nass haus.
PREP 1SG.OBJ sing-PTC walk-PST 1PL.SUBJ to house
While I was singing, we walked home.

Participial phrases can also have objects and adverbial phrases, both of which follow the participle. Having multiple modifiers within a single participial phrase is considered awkward and is best avoided.

Hi zitti oss dirr oss lesnē a bʉk.
3SG.SUBJ sit-PST PREP there PREP read-PTC INDEF book
He sat there, reading a book.

Independent infinitives

Infinitives can be used as nouns. Just like participial phrases, independent infinitives can be followed by objects and adverbs, though they cannot have a subject.

Ytē gʉmless iss gut oss dē zaning.
eat.INF fruit-PL be good for DEF health
Eating fruit is good for your health.

Negation

Sentences are negated by means of a variety of negative words. The most basic negator is the adverb nikkt "not", which is usually placed after the object, or after the verb if there is no object.

Hi ziti dē mann nikkt.
3SG.SUBJ see-PST DEF man not
He didn't see the man.

Sentences with indefinite objects, however, are negated with gyn "no, none" instead.

Miess brútē lif gyn vyn.
1SG.POSS brother like no wine
My brother doesn't like wine.

When a negative pronoun is used, no other negator has to be used.

Ig wet nikktitiss oss dē talllirring.
1SG.SUBJ know nothing about DEF linguistics.
I know nothing about linguistics.

Questions

Yes-no questions are made by inverting the subject and the verb and raising the tone:

Pratt ji dē Bʉrnlannts?
speak 2SG DEF Bearlandic
Do you speak Bearlandic?

Interrogative pronouns are always placed at the beginning of the phrase:

Wass tú ji?
what do 2SG
What are you doing?

In questions, iss, kuss and will usually appear in their optative forms yē, kynē and wylē. The latter two are used to make polite requests or offers.

Yē dē a maktall?
be.OPT 3SG.N INDEF conlang
Is that a conlang?
Kynē ji mi hellfē?
can.OPT 2SG 1SG.OBJ help-INF
Could you help me?
Wylē ji itiss oss ytē?
want.OPT 2SG something PREP eat-INF
Would you like something to eat?

The particle nyē can be placed at the end of a sentence to form a tag question.

Ji pratt gyn Kunyziess, nyē?
2SG speak none Kunesian Q
You don't speak Kunesian, do you?

Dē zyt

The phrase dē zyt "there is, exist" behaves a bit oddly syntactically. The word dē is treated as the subject, while the thing that exists behaves as an object.

Dē zyt a haus.
PT exist a house.
there is a house.
Mi zyt dē.
1SG.OBJ exist PT
I exist.

Samples

The North Wind and the Sun

Dē Norrtwinnt enn dē Sonn wast toig oss dy wi stirgiss wast. Oss dē tythyt kimmti a lauf wē barrti a warrm klúk oss dē vegg, enn zess avirti oss dass hi wē oss atiss kussti bitúē dass dē lauf hiess klúk austúti solls dē stirgissē gisgaut zʉllti vortē. Tann blissti dē Norrtwinnt ef hart solls dē kussti, mar oss dē harterr blissti túti dē lauf hiess klúk byigerr oss, enn oss dē ynt ferrgifti dē dē pogging. Tann bisgynti dē Sonn hilliglyk warrm oss dess lygess, enn dellyk túti dē lauf hiess klúk aus enn wast dē Norrtwinnt ferrgimut oss bizeggē dass dē sonn dē stirgissē wast oss hʉn to.


The North Wind and the Sun were disputing who was the strongest. At that moment, a traveller who wore a warm cloak came on the road, and they agreed that he who first could make the traveller take off his cloak would be considered the strongest. Then The North Wind blew as hard as it could, but the harder it blew the more closely the traveller wrapped the cloak around him, and at last it gave up the attempt. Then the Sun let its rays shine very warmly, and immediately the traveller took off his cloak and the North Wind was forced to admit that the Sun was the strongest of the two.

A bit of history

Oss dē a tingī zyti dē dē norrtig stattryks nikkt willti, wast dē ausgikrygt vortē oss dē Niwryk. Enn oss dē a tingī zytī dē dē Niwryk jagglyk willti, wast dē auskrygē dē norrtig stattryks. A kryg zʉllti kommē, mar wann?

Wyl dē kryg dē nikkt zyti makti dē norrtig stattryks grautig bihellfighyts. Kra murs fisgynti oss dē nikktitiss allig oss dē lannt enn oss sgillig plikks virti wasssgillts gimakt oss stoppē dē fikess. Oss dē tyt virti dē bihellfighyts gibyterrt enn oss zellig virti dē auslanntig veggs ferrgisligt. Oss yntighyt virti dē auslannt a sorrtig dwalstatt. Oss snell tyt wast dē bynē nitkunnig oss finntē dē vegg tʉssig oss dē statts. Zell dē dirrig manns bidwalti, enn fann nu wast difer dē lytness oss dē auslannt.

Dē statts makti oss zesszell aug bihellfighyts: dē graut vorrbylt oss dē iss dē statt Westēfúrt. Dirr virti oss atiss a fúrt gibaut oss sgilltē oss a dirrig lyter. Natig oss dē grúti a klyn statt ronnig oss dē fúrt enn darros virti niw murs gibaut. A mur virti nikkt oss nugig gidenkt, oss allig virti tri murs gibaut, enn tʉssig oss zess zyti dē wasssgillts enn fills.

Wann dē krygness oss dē Niwryk kimmti zyti dē dass dē bihellfighyts dē nikkt oss nititiss zyti: zess virti ausgilslomt, enn dē fillē virti gidot oss dē difer enn dē pylsgiter oss dē murs. Mar dē zyti a kra prʉl oss dē follk: dē etgyving wast sammig oss dē veggs ferrgisligt. Darross zyti dē minnig oss minnig oss ytē, enn dē makti dē follk wyg. Dē verletigti dē winnē oss dē Niwryk.

Ausgislomt virti dē stattryks ausgikrygt. Dē klyn tarrps wast dē letigess oss auskrygē, dʉs zess wast aug de astē oss vortē ausgikrygt. Oss dē nu hilliglyk gyn búrs oss mirr zyti wē dē statts kussti bivútē ginnti a haping inn zess. Wylig oss dē poggti dē Niwryk oss ausbrykē dē murs oss inngatē dē krygness inn dē statts. Nat tyt virti aug dē statts ausgikrygt. Oss ynt virti virti Kyrgeffstatt, dē latiss bizytnē stattryk, ausgikrygt.

Dē hillig ylanntgrúp wast oss dē niwē agivirtē oss a kiksryk.


If there was one thing that the northern city-states did not want, it was to be conquered by the New Kingdom. And if there was one thing that the New Kingdom did want, it was to conquer the northern city-states. A war was to come, but when?

While the war hadn't started yet the northern city-states made impressive defenses. Great walls appeared all over the land and at several spots canals were dug to stop the enemies. Over time the defenses were improved and at the same time the roads got worse. Eventually the countryside literally became a labyrinth. Soon it had become nearly impossible to find a way between the cities. Even the local people got lost, and from now on bandits ruled the countryside.

The cities themselves also made defenses. The great example of this is the city of Westēfúrt. A fortress wast built there to protect a local chief. Afterwards a small town arose around the fortress and new walls were built. One wall wasn't considered enough, in total three walls were built, and between them there were moats and traps.

When the troops of the New Kingdom came it became clear that the defenses hadn't been completely useless: they were slowed down, and many were killed by the bandits and the archers on top of the walls. But the was one big problem for the people: the food supply had become worse together with the roads. Therefore there was increasingly less to eat, and that made the people weak. This made it easier to win for the New Kingdom.

Slowly the city-states were conquered. The smaller villages were the easiest to conquer, so they were also the first ones to be conquered. As there were no farmers at all who could feed the cities a famine began. In the meantime the New Kingdom tried to destroy the walls to let their warriors go inside the cities. After a while the cities were conquered as well. At last Krygeffstatt, the last remaining city-state, was conquered.

The whole archipelago was united in one kingdom again.

A random sentence

Dē fillgikentnē mann hermakti miess aut enn itig mojj bot nat dē pabrúr oss a stoppig mys dē oss pegging oss a aut zworrt zwart gisgat haptē.

The well-known man repaired my old and quite beautiful boat after a stupid girl's uncle by accident had damaged it with an old black sword.

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