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{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|name=Scots Norse
|name=Scots Norse
|nativename={{lang|snon|Sudhraèsc}}
|nativename=Agharsc
|pronunciation=sˠɤðˠ.ˈreʃc
|pronunciation=ˈəːɾsk
|ethnicity=Norse Scots
|ethnicity=Norse Scots
|states=[[w:Suðreyjar|Suðreyjar]]
|states=[[w:Outer Hebrides|Aghar]]
|fam1=[[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]]
|fam1=[[w:Indo-European|Indo-European]]
|fam2=[[w:Germanic Languages|Germanic]]
|fam2=[[w:Germanic Languages|Germanic]]
Line 20: Line 20:
|created=April 3rd, 2026
|created=April 3rd, 2026
|setting=
|setting=
|dia1=Inner South
|stand1={{l|snon|Agharsc Shorchas}}
|dia2=Inner Central
|dia1=[[Eastern Scots Norse|Eastern]]
|dia3=Inner North
|dia2=[[Western Scots Norse|Western]]
|dia4=Outer South
|dia5=Outer North
|familycolor=Indo-European
|familycolor=Indo-European
|nation=Scotland
|nation=Scotland
|speakers=(L1) 2,000
|speakers=(L1) 2,500
|speakers2=(L2) < 50,000
|speakers2=(L2) < 50,000
|date=2019
|date=2020
|map=File:Lang Status 20-CR.svg
|map=File:Lang Status 20-CR.svg
|mapcaption=Scots Norse is classified as [[w:Critically endangered language|critically endangered]] by the UNESCO ''[[w:Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger|Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]''
|mapcaption=Scots Norse is classified as [[w:Critically endangered language|critically endangered]] by the UNESCO ''[[w:Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger|Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]''
Line 35: Line 33:
}}
}}


'''Scots Norse''' (Also ''Sodor Norse''; [[w:endonym|endonym]]: ''{{lang|snon|{{term|Sudhraèsc}}}}''; /sˠɤðˠ.ˈreʃc/) is a West Nordic language, thus closer to [[w:Icelandic|Icelandic]] and [[w:Faroese|Faroese]] than [[w:Swedish|Swedish]] or [[w:Danish|Danish]]. It is natively spoken throughout [[w:Suðreyjar|Suðreyjar]], being the dominant language of the [[w:Hebrides|isles]]. It has recieved heavy influence from [[w:Scots Gaelic|Gàidhlig]] over the last several centuries, contributing heavily to the spelling conventions of the language, and likely being the primary pushing force behind the development of the broad/slender distinction in Scots Norse.
Scots Norse ([[w:Autonym|Autonym]]: {{l|snon|Agharsc}} /ˈəːɾsk/) is a West Nordic language spoken in the Hebrides most closely related to [[w:Norn|Norn]], less so to [[w:Icelandic|Icelandic]] and [[w:Faroese|Faroese]], and quite distantly to [[w:Swedish|Swedish]], [[w:Norwegian|Norwegian]], and [[w:Danish|Danish]]. It has extremely significant influence from mainly [[w:Scottish Gaelic|Scots]] and [[w:Irish|Irish]] [[w:Goidelic languages|Gaelic]], and less so from the [[w:Germanic languages|Germanic]] languages [[w:Scots language|Scots]] and [[w:English language|English]]. The Gaelic influence is most noticeable in the [[w:Morphology|morphology]] and [[w:Phonology|phonology]] of Scots Norse, both with the [[w:palatalization (linguistics)|slender]]/[[w:velarization|broad]] distinction in [[w:consonants|consonants]] and the presence of [[w:consonant mutation|initial consonant mutation]].


Scots Norse is typically split into two main [[w:dialect|dialect]] groups, Inner and Outer, corresponding to the Inner and Outer Hebrides, these are further divided into North and South for both, with a Central division for Inner. These dialects are almost entirely mutually intelligible within their groups, and mostly so even between the groups. Uniting all of these is the standardized form, ''{{lang|snon|Hàsudraèsc}}'', literally meaning "High Scots Norse". ("high" as in "exalted")
Scots Norse has roughly eleven [[w:dialect|dialects]] that form the language's two [[w:dialect continuum|dialect continuums]], these being ''Western'' and ''Eastern'' Scots Norse respectively, these are further divided into specific dialects. All [[w:variety (linguistics)|varieties]] of Scots Norse are written using the [[w:Latin script|Latin script]], employing [[w:Gaelic Type|Gaelic Type]] or [[w:Insular Script|Insular]] as the [[w:script|hand]], this acts as a notable exception to the general notion that Gaelic Type and Insular only survive for ornamental or historical usages, as they are still the primary hand used for Scots Norse.
 
Uniting all of these dialects is the [[w:standard language|standard variety]], called ''Agharsc Shorchas'', literally "Sorcha's Scots Norse". This form of the language is the most conservative of them all, being largely based on the 18th century description of Western Scots Norse by Sorcha of Uist. At times, the standard form has had certain shifts undone, such as the /ɛ/-/ɪ/ merger typical of Western dialects.
 
==Classification==
Scots Norse has long been a difficulty for linguists to classify, as it shows clear signs of being a mixed language, though the extent of this has been, and still is, heavily debated and questioned. As well as the general lack of speakers, it is hard to determine whether it stands as a creole or not, thus the general consensus among modern linguists to class it under ''Gaelo-Nordic'' till enough research has been done to reclassify it under a more appropriate position, potentially as a Scottish-Norse creole.
 
The difficulty in classifying Scots Norse comes largely down to the morphology and phonology, where it is closer to the modern Gaelic languages than the other Nordic languages, having lost most inflection while simultaneously gaining a simple system of preposition inflections from heavily reduced pronouns.


Scots Norse is hard to classify type-wise, as it shows signs of [[w:creolization|creolization]], but not to the extent where it could typically be classed as a [[w:creole|creole]], this leads to the branching from Insular West Norse into so-called "Gaelo-Nordic", characterized by the partial creolization of [[w:Old West Norse|Old West Norse]] with [[w:Middle Irish|Middle Irish]] and Scots Gaelic. Regardless how it is classed, Scots Norse is with no doubt some kind of [[w:mixed language|mixed language]].
==History==
==History==
===Pre-Modern===
===Pre-Modern===
Scots Norse originates in the mid to late 13th century, around the time Suðreyjar was handed over to Scotland with the [[w:Treaty of Perth|Treaty of Perth]]. Though the language would continue to be largely unchanged from the Old Norse of the 12th century, 1266AD is often used as a dividing date between Old Norse and the earliest forms of Scots Norse. While 1266 is a relatively arbitrary date, it serves its purpose as a convenient divide between two stages, as following the Treaty of Perth, the Hebrides would gain a much larger population of [[w:Gaelic|Gaelic]] and [[w:English|English]] speakers (At this point still Middle Irish and [[w:Middle English|Middle English]]), and from roughly 1450AD onward, Scots Norse would be increasingly influenced by Scots Gaelic and, to a lesser extent, Scots.
Scots Norse originates in the mid to late 13th century, around the time Suðreyjar was handed over to [[w:Scotland|Scotland]] with the [[w:Treaty of Perth|Treaty of Perth]]. Though the language would continue to be largely unchanged from the Old Norse of the 12th century, 1266AD is often used as a dividing date between Old Norse and the earliest forms of Scots Norse. While 1266 is a relatively arbitrary date, it serves its purpose as a convenient divide between two stages, as following the Treaty of Perth, the Hebrides would gain a much larger population of Gaelic and English speakers (At this point still [[w:Middle Irish|Middle Irish]] and [[w:Middle English|Middle English]]), and from roughly 1450AD onward, Scots Norse would be increasingly influenced by Scots Gaelic and, to a lesser extent, Scots and English.


Having been spoken throughout Suðreyjar, Scots Norse had a dialect within the [[w:Isle of Man|Isle of Man]] (Scots Norse {{lang|snon|{{term|Monaèirr}}}}). Little is known about Manx Norse ({{lang|snon|{{term|Monaèsc}}}}), as it is very poorly recorded, the most extensive description being a short document from around 1500AD that contains a list of about 150 words, with a very poor description of the pronunciations. Though from this description we can gather that Manx Norse still had the [[w:dental fricative|dental fricatives]] that had been lost in other dialects (merging with t/d), we get this from the description "... these [th and dh] are like that of the Saxons' beloved þ."
Having been spoken throughout all of Suðreyjar, Scots Norse once had a dialect within the [[w:Isle of Man|Isle of Man]] ({{l|snon|Ma}}). Little is known about the Mannish dialect ({{l|snon|Mazc}}), as it is very poorly recorded, the most extensive description being a short document from around 1500AD that contains a list of about 150 words, with a very poor description of the pronunciations. Though from this description we can gather that it still had the original [[w:dental fricative|dental fricatives]] that had been lost in other dialects (merging with t/d), we get this from the description "... these [th and dh] are like that of the Saxons' beloved þ."
 
Following the treaty of Perth, the usage of Norse began declining significantly, with evidence it was nearly extinct by 1550. A small revitalization occurred in the 18th century when several of the last native speakers (having had no more than 150 remaining speakers) were gathered together by [[Sorcha of Uist]] in order to compile two main documents, [[An Etymological Dictionary of Scotland's Norse|a dictionary]] and [[A Description of Scotland's Norse|a grammar]]. This effort was mostly effective, leading to the first noticeable rise in speaker count since it began declining. By the 1880's, there would be upwards of 1,500 native speakers, a majority of them young.


Following the treaty of Perth, the usage of Norse began declining significantly, with evidence it was nearly extinct by 1550. A small revitalization occured in the mid 18th century when several of the last native speakers (at the time, Scots Norse had no more than 150 remaining speakers) gathered together to document the language so it could be taught to children. This effort was mostly effective, leading to the first noticeable rise in speaker count since it began declining. By the 1880's, there would be upwards of 1,500 native speakers, a majority of them young.
===Modern===
===Modern===
Modern Scots Norse is typically classed as critically endangered due to how few speakers it has, having no more than 2,500 native speakers as of 2020, and virtually all of them live in the Hebrides, making it extremely limited.
Modern Scots Norse is typically classed as critically endangered due to how few speakers it has, having no more than 2,500 native speakers as of 2020, and virtually all of them live in the Hebrides, making its usage extremely limited.


Since the early 1990's, Scots Norse has gained a small but dedicated community of linguists that are determined to further document it and make resources more readily available. As of 2018, an online course has been published that goes over Standard Scots Norse, and it has been continually updated since then, improving the quality and extent of the contents, having started out as a rather barebones description of the phonology, orthography, and rudimentary grammar.
Since the early 1990's, Scots Norse has gained a small but dedicated community of linguists that are determined to further document it and make resources more readily available. As of 2018, an online course has been published that goes over Standard Scots Norse, and it has been continually updated since then, improving the quality and extent of the contents, having started out as a rather barebones description of the phonology, orthography, and rudimentary grammar.


==Phonology==
==Development==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
The development of Scots Norse is one of the best understood aspects of the language, owing to its extreme divergence being an interest to linguists.
|-
===Pre-Scots Norse===
! colspan=2 rowspan=2 |
This is the form of Scots Norse when it was still a dialect of Old Norse
! colspan=3 | labial
! colspan=3 | dental
! colspan=3 | alveolar
! colspan=3 | velar
|-
! plain
! broad
! slender
! plain
! broad
! slender
! plain
! broad
! slender
! plain
! broad
! slender
|-
! colspan=2 | Nasal
| m
| mˠ
| mʲ
|
|
|
| n
| nˠ
| ɲ
|
|
|
|-
! rowspan=2 | Stop
! Unvoiced
| p
| pˠ
| pʲ
|
|
|
| t
| tˠ
| tʲ
| colspan=2 | k
| c
|-
! Voiced
| b
| bˠ
| bʲ
|
|
|
| d
| dˠ
| dʲ
| colspan=2 | g
| ɟ
|-
! rowspan=2 | Fricative
! Unvoiced
| f
| fˠ
| fʲ
| θ
| θˠ
| θʲ
| s
| sˠ
| ʃ
| h¹
| x
| ç
|-
! Voiced
| v
| vˠ
| vʲ
| ð
| ðˠ
| ðʲ
| z
| zˠ
| ʒ
| colspan=2 | ɣ
| ʝ
|-
! colspan=2 | Approximant
|
|
|
|
|
|
| r, l
| rˠ, lˠ
| rʲ, ʎ
| colspan=3 | j
|-
|}


#/h/ merges with /x/ outside of Standard Scots Norse.
*lengthening of stressed vowels in open syllables
*loss of gemination of non-sonorants.
*final /r̩/ and nominal singular /ɑr, ir/ > /ə/
*final front vowels > /ʲə/, final back vowels to /ə/
*hl, hv, hr > l, v, r
*/ɣ/ > /g/
*/w/ > /v/, causing /f/ [v] to merge back with [f], thus "arfa" [ɑr.vɑ] > [ɑr.fə] (modern /əɾf/)
*/θ, ð/ > /t, d/, with a few cases of /θ, ð/ > /f, v/
*diphthong flattening, /øy, ɒu, ɛi/ > /øː, oː, eː/
*merger of mid-high and mid-low vowels
*e > ja occasionally when Proto-Germanic *e (typically becomes ja in Old Norse anyways)
*/Cj/ > /Cʲ/


{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
===Sudrey Norse===
|-
Sudrey Norse, also occasionally called "Middle Scots Norse", is the stage directly before Modern, it is in no way intelligible with the modern language.
! rowspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | Front
! colspan=2 | Back
|-
! Unround
! Round
|-
! High
| i
|
| u
|-
! Near-High
| ɪ
| colspan=2 | ɤ~ʊ
|-
! Mid
| e
| rowspan=2 | (ə)
| o
|-
! Low
| æ~ɛ
| ɔ~ɒ
|-
|}


#/ə/ is the unstressed realization of /æ, ɔ/. (differing by slender vs broad)
*development of slender/broad/plain distinction
#/æ/ is often /ɛ/ before nasals, but rarely so anywhere else.  
*front round vowels break to /jV/
*short vowels > /ɪ, ɛ, ə, ʊ, ɔ/
*long vowels > /i, e, ɑ, u, o/
*(Western only) Loss of all gemination, including sonorants.
*loss of /ə/ between two sonorants (such as /jər/ > /ir/), unless part of an inflectional ending.
*unstressed vowels to /ə/.
*/r/ becomes /ɾ/ intervocalically<sup>?</sup>


Long vowels have long been lost, though their effects remain prominently, influencing the languages stress patterns heavily.
===Modern Scots Norse===
*/v/ > /f/ next to voiceless fricatives, such as /sv/ > /sf/.
::<small>ON.</small> {{l|non|svartr}} /ˈswɑr.tr̩/ > <small>SuNo.</small> {{l|sdno|svarta}} /ˈsvəɾ.tə/ > <small>ScNo.</small> {{l|snon|sfart}} /ˈsfəɾt/
*mutations develop through the loss of word final sounds
**lenition: from being intervocalic
::<small>ON.</small> {{l|non|agi}} /ˈɑ.ɣi/ > <small>SuNo.</small> {{l|sdno|àgi}} /ˈɑ.ɟə/ > <small>ScNo.</small> {{l|snon|àegh}} /ˈɑj/
**eclipsis: from nasal clusters
*(Eastern) Loss of all gemination.
*several palatalized sounds shift:
**/s, z, n, l, k, g, h, ɣ/ > /ʃ, ʒ, ɲ, ʎ, c, ɟ, ç, ʝ/


Every vowel can appear nasalized, though nasalization only occurs in specific positions, and is always shown with a single N. (though not all single Ns are nasalization)
==Phonology==
*Word finally
*Before a fricative (Though "nh" is /n̥/)
*In some irregular positions when loaned from another language.
===Dialects===
====Uist Norse====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
|-
! colspan=2 rowspan=2 |  
! colspan=2 rowspan=2 |  
! colspan=2 | labial
! colspan=2 | labial
! colspan=2 | dental
! colspan=2 | alveolar
! colspan=2 | alveolar
! colspan=2 | velar
! colspan=2 | velar
|-
|-
! broad
! slender
! broad
! broad
! slender
! slender
Line 216: Line 113:
! slender
! slender
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | Nasal
! colspan=2 | nasal
| m
| m
| mʲ
| mʲ
|
|
| n
| n
| ɲ
| ɲ
Line 226: Line 121:
|  
|  
|-
|-
! rowspan=2 | Stop
! rowspan=2 | stop
! Unvoiced
! unvoiced
| p
| p
| pʲ
| pʲ
|
|
| t
| t
| tʲ
| tʲ
Line 237: Line 130:
| c
| c
|-
|-
! Voiced
! voiced
| b
| b
| bʲ
| bʲ
|
|
| d
| d
| dʲ
| dʲ
Line 247: Line 138:
| ɟ
| ɟ
|-
|-
! rowspan=2 | Fricative
! rowspan=2 | fricative
! Unvoiced
! unvoiced
| f
| f
| fʲ
| fʲ
| θ
| θʲ
| s
| s
| ʃ
| ʃ
Line 258: Line 147:
| ç
| ç
|-
|-
! Voiced
! voiced
| v
| v
| vʲ
| vʲ
| ð
| ðʲ
| z
| z
| ʒ
| ʒ
| ɣ
| ɣ
| ʝ
| j
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | Approximant
! colspan=2 | approximant
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
|  
| ɾ, ɫ
| r, ɫ
| ɾʲ, ʎ
| rʲ, ʎ
| colspan=2 | j
| colspan=2 | j
|-
|-
Line 282: Line 167:
|-
|-
! rowspan=2 |  
! rowspan=2 |  
! rowspan=2 | Front
! colspan=2 | front
! colspan=2 | Back
! colspan=2 | back
|-
|-
! Unround
! short
! Round
! long
! short
! long
|-
|-
! High
! High
| ɪ
| i
| i
|  
| ɤ
| u
| u
|-
|-
! Mid
! Mid
| ɛ
| e
| e
|  
| ɔ
| o
| o
|-
|-
! Low
! Low
| ɛ
| (ɐ)
| ɔ~ɒ
|-
|}
#/ə/ is the unstressed realization of /ɛ, ɔ/. (differing by slender vs broad)
Nasal vowels in Uist Norse are typically realized slightly centralized and longer, often without the nasalization.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! rowspan=2 |
! rowspan=2 | Front
! colspan=2 | Back
|-
! Unround
! Round
|-
! High
| ɪ̈ˑ
|  
|  
| ʊ̈ˑ
|-
! Mid
| ɘˑ
|  
|  
| ɵˑ
| ə
|-
| ɑ
! Low
| ɜˑ
| (əˑ)
| ɞˑ
|-
|-
|}
|}


===Prosody===
===Prosody===
The rules for stress are very slightly more complex than they were in Old Norse, but not by much.
Stress has shifted significantly since Old Norse, instead being placed on the first long vowel in a word, if none exist, then it's placed on the first short vowel.
:Stress always goes on the left-most syllable possible. When there are vowels with a grave, stress goes to the first one, skipping over all vowels without one. (so ''sudhraèir'' is stressed on "aèi")


===Mutation===
Loan words typically keep their original stress, with vowels being made "long" as necessary to keep the stress patterning functional, such as in {{l|snon|bambù}} /bəm.ˈbu/ and {{l|snon|halò}} /xə.ˈɫo/.
Since Old Norse, initial [[w:consonant mutation|consonant mutation]] has developed. Scots Norse has several forms:
==Mutation==
:radical (basic)
Scots Norse has developed a system of mutation incredibly similar to that of Irish. These mutations are no longer productive, and have thus been grammaticalized to a point where mutations can be the only distinction between a pair of words, eg. ''è bhèodh'' ("to not comfort") vs. ''è mèodh'' ("one bed"). Thus the mutations are incredibly important to understanding the relationship between words, as well as being important to distinguishing meaning.
:lenited
:nasal
:voiced
these can be shown quite well through pronouns + lemma, as a pronoun exists that causes most of them (except voiced).


The following gives an example using each of the nominative pronouns:
Like the Goidelic languages which have influenced Scots Norse, there are two mutations: [[w:lenition|lenition]] (Scots Norse: {{l|snon|miùichin}} /ˈmʲu.çəɲ/) and [[w:eclipsis|eclipsis]] ({{l|snon|sfartin}} /ˈsɸəɾ.təɲ/). Originally these were a series of sandhi effects: lenition being caused by a consonant being intervocalic, and eclipsis caused by a consonant following a nasal (as in "lan", older "land"). Lenition also affects vowel initial words in the form of h-prothesis, though occasionally a "lenited" vowel-initial word will take {{l|snon|dh'}}, a borrowing from Gàidhlig.
:''e thàel'' /ˈɛ θoʎ/ — "I speak"
 
:''tù thàlarr'' /ˈtˠu ˈθo.lər/ — "you speak"
===Lenition===
:''ha nhàlarr'' /ˈha n̥o.lər/ — "he speaks"
Lenition as an initial mutation originally stems from the historic allophonic lenition of an intervocalic consonant, both word internally and across word boundaries, i.e if a word ended in a vowel and the next word began with a consonant + a vowel, the consonant lenited. The vowels which originally caused lenition have almost entirely been lost, with the exception of adverbial {{l|snon|-a}}, though the lenition remains as a grammaticalized feature.
:''ho nhàlarr'' /ˈxɔ ˈn̥o.lər/ — "she speaks"
 
:''tat tàlarr'' /ˈtat ˈto.lər/ — "it/they (sg) speak(s)"
Lenition turned voiced stops and nasals into fricatives, /s/ debuccalized to /h/, /f/ was elided, and /r/ may have been split between fortis and lenis, though this distinction is preserved nowhere. Lenited /t, d/ (/θ, ð/) have since merged with /x, ɣ/.
:''vit tòlu'' /vʲɪt tˠo.ɫɤ/ — "we speak"
 
:''it tòlud'' /ɪt tˠo.ɫɤd/ — "you (pl) speak"
Word-internal lenition is common, but isn't grammaticalized, unlike word-final lenition which has been grammaticalized through certain inflected forms (eg. {{l|snon|Gud}}, but ''Guedh'' in the dative).
:''tèrr tòl'' /ˈtʲer ˈtˠoɫ/ — "they (m/f) speaks"
 
:''tò thòl'' /ˈtˠo ˈθˠoɫ/ — "they (n) speak"
===Eclipsis===
Eclipsis arises from a historic cluster of /NC/, including across word boundaries. These clusters would eventually coalesce, with the nasal largely being lost. Eclipsis turned voiced stops into nasals, voiceless stops and voiced fricatives into voiced stops, and voiceless fricatives into voiced. With the loss of the original nasal, eclipsis was grammaticalized, as in ''hi'', coming from older ''hinn''. Eclipsis also affects vowel-initial words, in a very similar way to h-prothesis, as in ''alm'' > ''n'alm''.


==Orthography==
==Orthography==
(updated up to "c")
(updated up to "cn")
 
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed"
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed"
! colspan=5 | consonants
! colspan=5 | Consonants
|-
|-
! colspan=3 | Letter(s)
! colspan=3 | Letter(s)
Line 368: Line 224:
|-  
|-  
| rowspan=3 | '''b'''
| rowspan=3 | '''b'''
| colspan=2 | plain
| colspan=2 | broad
| /b/
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/b/}}
| {{term|}}
| {{l|snon|banh}} {{IPA|/ˈbəz/}}, {{l|snon|bògh}} {{IPA|/ˈbo(ɣ)/}}
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | broad
| rowspan=2 | slender
| /bˠ/
| before front vowel, or finally
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|bòeg}}}}'' /ˈbˠoɟ/
| {{l|snon|brìa}} {{IPA|/ˈbɾiə̯/}}
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| before back vowel
| /bʲ/
| {{IPA|/bj/}}
| {{term|}}
| {{l|snon|biargh}} {{IPA|/pjəɾ/}}
|-  
|-  
| rowspan=4 | '''bh'''
| rowspan=5 | '''bh'''
| colspan=2 | before u/ù, a consonant, or finally
| colspan=2 | between vowels, sometimes
| /./ or null
| {{IPA|/./}}
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|}}}}'' //
| {{l|snon|siubhal}} {{IPA|/ˈʃu.əɫ/}}
|-
| colspan=2 | finally, sometimes
| none
| {{l|snon|dubh}} {{IPA|/dɤ/}}
|-
|-
| rowspan=3 | usually
| rowspan=3 | usually
| plain
| broad
| /v/
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/v/}}
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|}}}}'' //
| {{l|snon|bhadhìs}} {{IPA|/və.ˈiʃ /}}
|-
|-
| broad
| slender, before front vowel
| /vˠ/
| {{l|snon|}} {{IPA|//}}
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|}}}}'' //
|-
|-
| slender
| slender, before back vowel
| /vʲ/
| {{IPA|/vj/}}
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|}}}}'' //
| {{l|snon|}} {{IPA|//}}
|-
|-
| rowspan=4 | '''c'''
| rowspan=2 | '''c'''
| plain/broad
| colspan=2 | broad
| /k/
| {{IPA|/k/}}
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|coeth}}}}'' /ˈkɔθʲ/
| {{l|snon|cath}} {{IPA|/kax/}}, {{l|snon|Col}} {{IPA|/kɔɫ/}}
|-
|-
| slender
| colspan=2 | slender
| /cʰ/
| {{IPA|/c/}}
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|ceth}}}}'' /ˈcɛθʲ/
| {{l|snon|ceth}} {{IPA|/cɛç/}}, {{l|snon|cìs}} {{IPA|/ciʃ/}}
|-
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''ch'''
| rowspan=2 | '''ch'''
| colspan=2 | plain/broad
| colspan=2 | broad
| /x/
| {{IPA|/x/}}
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|loch}}}}'' /ˈɫɔx/
| {{l|snon|loch}} {{IPA|/ˈɫɔx/}}, {{l|snon|Fràch}} {{IPA|/ˈfɾɑx/}}
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| colspan=2 | slender
| /ç/
| {{IPA|/ç/}}
| {{term|}} //
| {{l|snon|loech}} {{IPA|/ˈɫɔç/}}, {{l|snon|dìchial}} {{IPA|/ˈdi.çəɫ/}}
|-
|-
| colspan=3 | '''chd'''
| colspan=3 | '''chd'''
| /xk/
| {{IPA|/xk/}}
| {{term|}} //
| {{l|snon|}} {{IPA|//}}, {{l|snon|}} {{IPA|//}}
|-
|-
| colspan=3 | '''cn'''
| colspan=3 | '''cn'''
| /kʰɾ/
| {{IPA|/kɾ/}}
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|cnà}}}}'' /ˈkʰɾo/
| {{l|snon|cnà}} {{IPA|/ˈkɾɑ/}}
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''d'''
| colspan=2 | broad
| {{IPA|/t̪/}}
| {{lang|gd|cadal}} {{IPA|/ˈkʰat̪əl̪ˠ/}}, {{lang|gd|fada}} {{IPA|/ˈfat̪ə/}}
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| {{IPA|/tʲ/}}
| {{lang|gd|diùid}} {{IPA|/tʲuːtʲ/}}, {{lang|gd|dearg}} {{IPA|/ˈtʲɛɾak/}}
|-
| rowspan="5" | '''dh'''
| rowspan="3" | broad
| rowspan="2" | between vowels
| {{IPA|/./}}
| {{lang|gd|odhar}} {{IPA|/ˈo.ər/}}, {{lang|gd|cladhadh}} {{IPA|/ˈkʰl̪ˠɤ.əɣ/}}
|-
| rowspan="2" |{{IPA|/ɣ/}}
|{{lang|gd|modhail}} {{IPA|/ˈmɔɣal/}}
|-
|-
| colspan=3 | '''chn'''
| elsewhere
| /xɾ/ [r̥]
| {{lang|gd|dhà}} {{IPA|/ɣaː/}}, {{lang|gd|modh}} {{IPA|/mɔɣ/}}, {{lang|gd|tumadh}} {{IPA|/ˈt̪ʰuməɣ/}}
| ''{{lang|snon|({{term|e}}) {{term|chnà}}}}'' /(ˈɛ) ˈxɾo/
|-
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''d'''
| rowspan=2 | slender
| colspan=2 | plain
| between vowels
| /d/
| {{IPA|/./}}
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|dàge}}}}'' /ˈdoɟ/
| {{lang|gd|Gàidheal}} {{IPA|/ˈkɛː.əl̪ˠ/}}
|-
|-
| elsewhere
| {{IPA|/ʝ/}}
| {{lang|gd|dhìth}} {{IPA|/ʝiː/}}, {{lang|gd|dhìol}} {{IPA|/ʝiəl̪ˠ/}}
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''f'''
| colspan=2 | broad
| colspan=2 | broad
| /dˠ/
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/f/}}
| {{term|}} //
| {{lang|gd|fathan}} {{IPA|/ˈfahan/}}, {{lang|gd|gafann}} {{IPA|/ˈkafən̪ˠ/}}
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| rowspan=2 | slender
| /d͡ʒ/
| before front vowel
| {{term|}} //
| {{lang|gd|fios}} {{IPA|/fis̪/}}, {{lang|gd|fèill}} {{IPA|/feːʎ/}}
|-
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''dh'''
| before back vowel
| colspan=2 | intervocalic/pre-consonantal/finally
| {{IPA|/fj/}}
| /./ or null
| {{lang|gd|fiùran}} {{IPA|/ˈfjuːɾan/}}, {{lang|gd|feòl}} {{IPA|/fjɔːl̪ˠ/}}
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|òdha}}}}'' /ˈo.ə/, ''{{lang|snon|{{term|sudhraèir}}}}'' /sˠʌ.ˈrei̯θ͇/
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | plain/broad
| rowspan=2 | '''fh'''
| /ɣ/
|colspan=2 | usual
| {{term|}} //
|none
| {{lang|gd|fhios}} {{IPA|/is̪/}}, {{lang|gd|a fharadh}} {{IPA|/ˈaɾəɣ/}}
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| colspan=2 | exceptionally
| /ʝ/
| {{IPA|/h/}}
| {{term|}} //
| {{lang|gd|fhathast}} {{IPA|/ha.əs̪t̪/}}, {{lang|gd|fhèin}} {{IPA|/heːn/}}, {{lang|gd|fhuair}} {{IPA|/huəɾʲ/}}
|-
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''g'''
| rowspan=2 | '''g'''
| colspan=2 | plain/broad
| colspan=2 | broad
| /g/
| {{IPA|/k/}}
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|godh}}}}'' /ˈɡɔ/
| {{lang|gd|gad}} {{IPA|/kat̪/}}, {{lang|gd|ugan}} {{IPA|/ˈukan/}}
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| colspan=2 | slender
| /ɟ/
| {{IPA|/kʲ/}}
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|dàge}}}}'' /ˈdoɟ/
| {{lang|gd|gille}} {{IPA|/ˈkʲiʎə/}}, {{lang|gd|leig}} {{IPA|/ʎekʲ/}}
|-
| rowspan="5" | '''gh'''
| colspan=2 | finally, sometimes
| none*
| {{lang|gd|an-diugh}} {{IPA|/əɲˈtʲu/}}, {{lang|gd|nigh}} {{IPA|/ɲiː/}}
|-
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''gh'''
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" | between vowels
| colspan=2 | plain/broad
| {{IPA|/./}}*
| /ɣ/
| {{lang|gd|aghaidh}} {{IPA|/ˈɤː.ɪ/}}, {{lang|gd|fiughar}} {{IPA|/ˈfju.əɾ/}}, {{lang|gd|nigheann}} {{IPA|/ˈɲiː.an̪ˠ/}}
| ''{{lang|snon|({{term|han}}) {{term|ghodh}}}}'' /(ˈhã) ˈɣɔ/
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
|{{IPA|/ɣ/}}
| /ʝ/
|{{lang|gd|laghail}} {{IPA|/ˈl̪ˠɤɣal/}}
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|}}}}'' //
|-
|-
| colspan=3 | '''gn'''
| rowspan=2 | elsewhere
| /ɡɾ/
| broad
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|gnaèt}}}}'' /ˈɡɾet/
| {{IPA|/ɣ/}}
| {{lang|gd|mo ghoc}} {{IPA|/mə ɣɔʰk/}}, {{lang|gd|lagh}} {{IPA|/l̪ˠɤɣ/}}
|-
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''h'''
| slender
| colspan=2 | plain
| {{IPA|/ʝ/}}
| /h/
| {{lang|gd|mo ghille}} {{IPA|/mə ʝiʎə/}}, {{lang|gd|do thaigh}} {{IPA|/t̪ə hɤj/}}
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|hàte}}}}'' /ˈhot͡ʃ/
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | broad
| colspan=3 | '''gn'''
| /x/
| {{IPA|/kr/}}
| {{term|}} //
| {{lang|gd|gnè}} {{IPA|/kɾʲɛː/}}
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| colspan=3 | '''h'''
| /ç/
| {{IPA|/h/}}
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|dìhiale}}}}'' /ˈd͡ʒi.çəʎ/
| {{lang|gd|a h-athair}} {{IPA|/ə hahɪɾʲ/}}, {{lang|gd|Hearach}} {{IPA|/ˈhɛɾəx/}}
|-
|-
| rowspan=4 | '''l'''
| rowspan=4 | '''l'''
| rowspan=2 | plain
| colspan=2 | broad
| non-finally
| {{IPA|/l̪ˠ/}}
| /l/
| {{lang|gd|lachan}} {{IPA|/ˈl̪ˠaxən/}}, {{lang|gd|a laoidh}} {{IPA|/ə l̪ˠɯj/}}, {{lang|gd|balach}} {{IPA|/ˈpal̪ˠəx/}}
| {{term|}} //
|-
| finally
| /ʃ/
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|sèl}}}}'' /ˈʃeʃ/
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | broad
| rowspan=3 | slender
| /lˠ/
| initially, unlenited
| {{term|}} //
| {{IPA|/ʎ/}}
| {{lang|gd|leabaidh}} {{IPA|/ˈʎepɪ/}}, {{lang|gd|leum}} {{IPA|/ʎeːm/}}
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| initially, lenited
| /ʎ/
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/l/}}
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|sèl|sèlir}}}}'' /ˈʃe.ʎɪθ͇/
| {{lang|gd|dà leabaidh}} {{IPA|/t̪aː lepɪ/}}, {{lang|gd|bho leac}} {{IPA|/vɔ lɛʰk/}}
|-
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''ll'''
| elsewhere
| colspan=2 | plain
| {{lang|gd|cuilean}} {{IPA|/ˈkʰulan/}}, {{lang|gd|sùil}} {{IPA|/s̪uːl/}}
| /l/
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|tàll}}}}'' /ˈtol/
|-
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''ll'''
| colspan=2 | broad
| colspan=2 | broad
| /lˠ/
| {{IPA|/l̪ˠ/}}
| {{term|}} //
| {{lang|gd|balla}} {{IPA|/ˈpal̪ˠə/}}, {{lang|gd|ciall}} {{IPA|/kʰʲiəl̪ˠ/}}
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| colspan=2 | slender
| /ʎ/
| {{IPA|/ʎ/}}
| {{term|}} //
| {{lang|gd|cailleach}} {{IPA|/ˈkʰaʎəx/}}, {{lang|gd|mill}} {{IPA|/miːʎ/}}
|-  
|-  
| rowspan=3 | '''m'''
| rowspan=3 | '''m'''
| colspan=2 | plain
| colspan=2 | broad
| /m/
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/m/}}
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|màl}}}}'' /ˈmoʃ/
| {{lang|gd|maol}} {{IPA|/mɯːl̪ˠ/}}, {{lang|gd|màla}} {{IPA|/ˈmaːl̪ˠə/}}
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | broad
| rowspan=2 | slender
| /mˠ/
| before front vowel
| {{term|}} //
| {{lang|gd|milis}} {{IPA|/ˈmilɪʃ/}}, {{lang|gd|tìm}} {{IPA|/tʰʲiːm/}}
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| before back vowel
| /mʲ/
| {{IPA|/mj/}}
| {{term|}} //
| {{lang|gd|meall}} {{IPA|/mjaul̪ˠ/}}, {{lang|gd|meòg}} {{IPA|/mjɔːk/}}
|-  
|-  
| rowspan=3 | '''mh'''
| rowspan=4 | '''mh'''
| colspan=2 | plain
| colspan=2 | between vowels, sometimes
| /m̥/
| {{IPA|/./}}
| ''{{lang|snon|({{term|hi|hin}}) {{term|mhàl}}}}'' /(ˈçɪ̃) ˈm̥oʃ/
| {{lang|gd|comhairle}} {{IPA|/ˈkʰo.əɾlə/}}
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | broad
| colspan=2 | broad
| /m̥ˠ/
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/v/}}
| {{term|}} //
| {{lang|gd|àmhainn}} {{IPA|/ˈaːvɪɲ/}}, {{lang|gd|caomh}} {{IPA|/kʰɯːv/}}
|-
| rowspan=2 | slender
| before front vowel
| {{lang|gd|caoimhin}} {{IPA|/ˈkʰɯːvɪɲ/}}, {{lang|gd|làimh}} {{IPA|/ˈl̪ˠaiv/}}
|-
| before back vowel
| {{IPA|/vj/}}
| {{lang|gd|do mhealladh}} {{IPA|/t̪ɔ ˈvjal̪ˠəɣ/}}, {{lang|gd|dà mheall}} {{IPA|/t̪aː vjaul̪ˠ/}}
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| rowspan=7 | '''n'''
| /m̥ʲ/
| rowspan=3 | broad
| {{term|}} //
| initially, unlenited
|-  
| {{IPA|/n̪ˠ/}}
| rowspan=4 | '''n'''
| {{lang|gd|nàbaidh}} {{IPA|/ˈn̪ˠaːpi/}}, {{lang|gd|norrag}} {{IPA|/ˈn̪ˠɔrˠak/}}
| colspan=2 | plain
|-
| /n/
| initially, lenited
| {{term|}} //
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/n/}}
| {{lang|gd|mo nàire}} {{IPA|/mɔ ˈnaːɾʲɪ/}}, {{lang|gd|bho nàbaidh}} {{IPA|/vɔ ˈnaːpɪ/}}
|-
| elsewhere
| {{lang|gd|dona}} {{IPA|/ˈt̪ɔnə/}}, {{lang|gd|sean}} {{IPA|/ʃɛn/}}
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | broad
| rowspan=4 | slender
| /nˠ~ŋ/
| initially, unlenited
| {{term|}} //
| {{IPA|/ɲ/}}
| {{lang|gd|neul}} {{IPA|/ɲial̪ˠ/}}, {{lang|gd|neart}} {{IPA|/ɲɛɾʃt̪/}}
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| initially, lenited
| /ɲ/
| {{IPA|/n/}}
| {{term|}} //
| {{lang|gd|mo nighean}} {{IPA|/mɔ ˈni.an/}}, {{lang|gd|dà nead}} {{IPA|/t̪aː nɛt̪/}}
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | post-vocalic when final/pre-fricative
| elsewhere, after back vowel
| /Ṽ/
| {{IPA|/ɲ/}}
| {{term|}} //
| {{lang|gd|duine}} {{IPA|/ˈt̪ɯɲə/}}, {{lang|gd|càineadh}} {{IPA|/ˈkʰaːɲəɣ/}}
|-
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''nh'''
| elsewhere, after front vowel
| colspan=2 | plain
| {{IPA|/n/}}
| /n̥/
| {{lang|gd|cana}} {{IPA|/ˈkʰanə/}}, {{lang|gd|teine}} {{IPA|/ˈtʰʲenə/}}
| {{term|}} //
|-
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''ng'''
| colspan=2 | broad
| colspan=2 | broad
| /n̥ˠ~ŋ̊/
| {{IPA|/ŋɡ/}}
| {{term|}} //
| {{lang|gd|teanga}} {{IPA|/ˈtʰʲɛŋɡə/}}, {{lang|gd|fulang}} {{IPA|/ˈful̪ˠəŋɡ/}}
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| colspan=2 | slender
| /ɲ̊/
| {{IPA|/ŋʲɡʲ/}}
| {{term|}} //
| {{lang|gd|aingeal}} {{IPA|/ˈaiŋʲɡʲəl̪ˠ/}}, {{lang|gd|farsaing}} {{IPA|/ˈfaɾs̪ɪŋʲɡʲ/}}
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''nn'''
| colspan=2 | plain
| /n/
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|hann}}}}'' /han/
|-
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''nn'''
| colspan=2 | broad
| colspan=2 | broad
| /nˠ/
| {{IPA|/n̪ˠ/}}
| {{term|}} //
| {{lang|gd|ceannaich}} {{IPA|/ˈkʰʲan̪ˠɪç/}}, {{lang|gd|ann}} {{IPA|/aun̪ˠ/}}
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| colspan=2 | slender
| /ɲ/
| {{IPA|/ɲ/}}
| {{term|}} //
| {{lang|gd|bainne}} {{IPA|/ˈpaɲə/}}, {{lang|gd|tinn}} {{IPA|/tʰʲiːɲ/}}
|-
| rowspan="5" | '''p'''
| rowspan=4 | broad </br>slender not before back vowel
| initially or after consonant
| {{IPA|/pʰ/}}
| {{lang|gd|post}} {{IPA|/pʰɔs̪t̪/}}, {{lang|gd|campa}} {{IPA|/ˈkʰaumpə/}}, {{lang|gd|peasair}} {{IPA|/ˈpʰes̪ɪɾʲ/}},
|-
|-
| rowspan=4 | '''p'''
| between vowels
| rowspan=2 | plain
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/ʰp/}}
| initially, before a vowel/finally
| {{lang|gd|cupa}} {{IPA|/ˈkʰuʰpə/}}, {{lang|gd|cipean}} {{IPA|/ˈkʰʲiʰpan/}} 
| /pʰ/
| {{term|}} //
|-
|-
| elsewhere
| finally after vowel
| /p/
| {{lang|gd|cuip}} {{IPA|/ˈkʰuiʰp/}}  
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|priadh}}}}'' /ˈprʲa/
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | broad
| finally after consonant
| /pˠ/
| {{IPA|/p/}}
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|post}}}}'' /ˈpˠɔstʰ/
| {{lang|gd|ailp}} {{IPA|/alp/}}  
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| slender before back vowel
| /pʲ/
| after consonant, or initially
| {{term|}} //
| {{IPA|/pʰj/}}
| {{lang|gd|piuthar}} {{IPA|/ˈpʰju.əɾ/}}, {{lang|gd|peall}} {{IPA|/pʰjaul̪ˠ/}}
|-  
|-  
| rowspan=3 | '''ph'''
| rowspan=3 | '''ph'''
| colspan=2 | plain
| colspan=2 | broad
| /f/
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/f/}}
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|ophàrr}}}}'' /ɒ.ˈfor/
| {{lang|gd|sa phost}} {{IPA|/s̪ə fɔs̪t̪/}}, {{lang|gd|bho phàiste}} {{IPA|/vɔ ˈfaːʃtʲə/}}
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | broad
| rowspan=2 | slender
| /fˠ/
| before front vowel
| ''{{lang|snon|({{term|sa}}) {{term|phost}}}}'' /(ˈsa) ˈfˠɔstʰ/
| {{lang|gd|dà pheasair}} {{IPA|/t̪aː ˈfes̪ɪɾʲ/}}, {{lang|gd|mo pheata}} {{IPA|/mɔ ˈfɛʰt̪ə/}}
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| before back vowel
| /fʲ/
| {{IPA|/fj/}}
| ''{{lang|snon|({{term|han}}) {{term|phiutharr}}}}'' /(ˈhã) ˈfʲɤ.ər/
| {{lang|gd|mo phiuthar}} {{IPA|/mɔ ˈfju.əɾ/}}, {{lang|gd|sa pheann}} {{IPA|/s̪ə fjaun̪ˠ/}}
|-
|-
| rowspan=4 | '''r'''
| rowspan=4 | '''r'''
| colspan=2 | finally
| colspan=2 | initially, unlenited
| /θ͇/
| {{IPA|/rˠ/}}
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|bhar}}}}'' /ˈvaθ͇/
| {{lang|gd|ràmh}} {{IPA|/rˠaːv/}}, {{lang|gd|rionnag}} {{IPA|/ˈrˠun̪ˠak/}}
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | plain
| colspan=2 | initially, lenited
| /r/
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/ɾ/}}
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|sudhraèscc}}}}'' /sˠʌ.ˈreskʰ/
| {{lang|gd|do rùn}} {{IPA|/tɔ ɾuːn/}}, {{lang|gd|bho rèic}} {{IPA|/vɔ ɾeːʰkʲ/}}
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | broad
| rowspan=2 | elsewhere
| /rˠ/
| broad
| {{term|}} //
| {{lang|gd|caran}} {{IPA|/ˈkʰaɾan/}}, {{lang|gd|mura}} {{IPA|/ˈmuɾə/}}
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| slender
| /rʲ/
| {{IPA|/ɾʲ/}}
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|bhère}}}}'' /ˈvʲerʲ/
| {{lang|gd|cìr}} {{IPA|/kʰʲiːɾʲ/}}, {{lang|gd|cuireadh}} {{IPA|/ˈkʰuɾʲəɣ/}}
|-
| rowspan=4 | '''rr'''
| colspan=2 | finally
| /r/
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|bhàrr}}}}'' /ˈvor/
|-
| colspan=2 | plain
| /r/
| {{term|}} //
|-
| colspan=2 | broad
| /rˠ/
| {{term|}} //
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| colspan=3 | '''rr'''
| /rʲ/
| {{IPA|/rˠ/}}
| {{term|}} //
| {{lang|gd|cearr}} {{IPA|/kʰʲaːrˠ/}}, {{lang|gd|barra}} {{IPA|/ˈparˠə/}}
|-
|-
| colspan=3 | '''-rt''', '''-rd'''
| colspan=3 | '''-rt''', '''-rd'''
| /ɾʃt̪/
| {{IPA|/ɾʃt̪/}}
| {{term|}} //
| {{lang|gd|neart}} {{IPA|/ɲɛɾʃt̪/}}, {{lang|gd|bord}} {{IPA|/pɔːɾʃt̪/}}
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''s'''
| colspan=2 | plain
| /s/
| {{term|}} //
|-
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''s'''
| colspan=2 | broad
| colspan=2 | broad
| /sˠ/
| {{IPA|/s̪/}}
| {{term|}} //
| {{lang|gd|sàr}} {{IPA|/s̪aːɾ/}}, {{lang|gd|casan}} {{IPA|/ˈkʰas̪an/}}
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| colspan=2 | slender
| /ʃ/
| {{IPA|/ʃ/}}
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|sèl}}}}'' /ˈʃeʃ/
| {{lang|gd|siùcair}} {{IPA|/ˈʃuːʰkɪɾʲ/}}, {{lang|gd|càise}} {{IPA|/ˈkʰaːʃə/}}
|-  
|-  
| rowspan=3 | '''sh'''
| rowspan=3 | '''sh'''
| colspan=2 | plain
| colspan=2 | broad
| /h/
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/h/}}
| {{term|}} //
| {{lang|gd|ro shalach}} {{IPA|/ɾɔ ˈhal̪ˠəx/}}, {{lang|gd|glè shoilleir}} {{IPA|/kleː ˈhɤʎɪɾʲ/}}
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | broad
| rowspan=2 | slender
| /x/
| before front vowel
| {{term|}} //
| {{lang|gd|dà shìl}} {{IPA|/t̪aː hiːʎ/}}, {{lang|gd|glè shean}} {{IPA|/kleː hɛn/}}
|-
| before back vowel
| {{IPA|/hj/}}
| {{lang|gd|de shiùcair}} {{IPA|/tʲe ˈhjuːʰkɪɾʲ/}}, {{lang|gd|a sheòladh}} {{IPA|/ə ˈhjɔːl̪ˠəɣ/}}
|-
| colspan=3 | '''sr, str'''
| {{IPA|/s̪t̪ɾ/}}
| {{lang|gd|sràc}} {{IPA|/s̪t̪ɾaːʰk/}}, {{lang|gd|strì}} {{IPA|/s̪t̪ɾʲiː/}}
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| rowspan=8 | '''t'''
| /ç/
| rowspan=4 | broad
| ''{{lang|snon|({{term|bholl}}) {{term|shèl}}}}'' /(ˈvˠɔl) ˈçeʃ/
| initially, or non-finally after consonant
| {{IPA|/t̪ʰ/}}
| {{lang|gd|tasdan}} {{IPA|/ˈt̪ʰas̪t̪an/}}, {{lang|gd|molta}} {{IPA|/ˈmɔl̪ˠt̪ə/}}
|-
|-
| rowspan=5 | '''t'''
| between vowels
| rowspan=2 | plain
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/ʰt̪/}}
| initially/finally
| {{lang|gd|bàta}} {{IPA|/ˈpaːʰt̪ə/}}
| /tʰ/
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|tàll}}}}'' /ˈtʰol/
|-
|-
| elsewhere
| finally, after vowel
| /t/
| {{lang|gd|put}} {{IPA|/pʰuʰt̪/}}
| {{term|}} //
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | broad
| finally, after consonant
| /tˠ/
| {{IPA|/t/}}
| {{term|}} //
|
|-
|-
| rowspan=2 | slender
| rowspan=4 | slender
| initially/finally
| initially, or non-finally after consonant
| /t͡ʃʰ/
| {{IPA|/tʰʲ/}}
| {{term|}} //
| {{lang|gd|tiugh}} {{IPA|/tʰʲu/}}, {{lang|gd|caillte}} {{IPA|/ˈkʰaiʎtʲə/}}
|-
|-
| elsewhere
| between vowels
| /t͡ʃ/
| rowspan="2" | {{IPA|/ʰtʲ/}}
| {{term|}} //
| {{lang|gd|litir}} {{IPA|/ˈʎiʰtʲɪɾʲ/}}
|-
|-
| rowspan=4 | '''th'''
| finally, after vowel
| colspan=2 | intervocalic/pre-consonantal/finally
| {{lang|gd|cait}} {{IPA|/kʰɛʰtʲ/}}
| /./ or null
| {{term|}} //
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | plain
| finally, after consonant
| /h/
| {{IPA|/tʲ/}}
| {{term|}} //
| {{lang|gd|ailt}} {{IPA|/altʲ/}}
|-
| rowspan="6" | '''th'''
| colspan=2 | finally
| none
| {{lang|gd|teth}} {{IPA|/tʰʲe/}}, {{lang|gd|leth}} {{IPA|/ʎe/}}, {{lang|gd|strath}} {{IPA|/s̪t̪ɾa/}}
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | broad
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" | between vowels
| /x/
| {{IPA|/./}}
| ''{{lang|snon|{{term|thù}}}}'' /ˈxu/
| {{lang|gd|leotha}} {{IPA|/ˈlɔ.ə/}}, {{lang|gd|piuthar}} {{IPA|/ˈpʰju.əɾ/}}, {{lang|gd|cnòthan}} {{IPA|/ˈkɾɔː.ən/}}
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| rowspan="3" |{{IPA|/h/}}
| /ç/
|{{lang|gd|beatha}} {{IPA|/ˈpɛhə/}}, {{lang|gd|fathan}} {{IPA|/ˈfahan/}}, {{lang|gd|a mhàthair}} {{IPA|/ə ˈvaːhɪɾʲ/}}
| {{term|}} //
|-
|-
| rowspan=3 | z
| rowspan="3" | initially
| colspan=2 | plain
| broad
| /z/
| {{lang|gd|mo thòn}} {{IPA|/mɔ hɔːn/}}, {{lang|gd|do thaigh}} {{IPA|/t̪ɔ hɤʝ/}}
| {{term|}} //
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | broad
| slender, before front vowel
| /zˠ/
| {{lang|gd|thig}} {{IPA|/hikʲ/}}, {{lang|gd|ro thinn}} {{IPA|/rˠɔ hiːɲ/}}
| {{term|}} //
|-
|-
| colspan=2 | slender
| slender, before back vowel
| /ʒ/
| {{IPA|/hj/}}
| ''{{lang|snon|({{term|an}}) {{term|zèl}}}}'' /(ˈan) ˈʒeʃ/
| {{lang|gd|do theaghlach}} {{IPA|/t̪ɔ ˈhjɔːl̪ˠəx/}}, {{lang|gd|glè thiugh}} {{IPA|/kleː hju/}}
|-
|-
|}
|}


==Morphology==
==Morphology==
===Nouns===
Most parts of speech are split among three "types" or "classes" based on the mutation they cause in the following word, these are called "radical", "lenite", and "eclipse", and they generally don't affect the word itself. Verbs form the primary exception, as they very consistently follow a single pattern, with the dictionary form (the infinitive) always being a lenite.
A major development in nouns is the complete loss of the definite forms, being replaced by the independent "hinn", which precedes the noun, triggering nasal mutation in some forms.


The nominative and accusative merged together in the mid 1700's, leading to a necessarily stricter word order. The neuter has also merged with the masculine.
A set of colors will be applied within the tables here, each color highlighting a specific thing.
====Strong nouns====
*red: the ending.
*blue: the mutation.
*green: the impersonal infix. (for verbs)
*purple: the mutation within the ending. (for prepositions)
===Nominals===
====Nouns====
Scots Norse nouns decline for three cases (direct, genitive, and dative), two genders (masculine and feminine), and two numbers (singular and plural). The direct comes the merging of the nominative and the accusative, the two having fell together due to sound changes. The definite forms distinctive of the Nordic languages have been dropped in favor of the standalone article {{l|snon|hi}}.
 
Nouns generally follow two patterns, which themselves are incredibly similar, the only true distinction being the direct plural, which is -ar in the masculine and -ir in the feminine. Another distinction is the direct singular, where the coda can appear broad in slender roots, such as {{l|snon|bèodh}}, with a root of ''bèdh-'', though this distinction only really exists for elder speakers.
=====Masculines=====
=====Masculines=====
These first few are masculine a-stems.
The following set of tables will display a few examples of the native masculine pattern.
{{snon-decl-m-a|ald|1l=h-ald|1n=n-ald}}
{{inflection-table-top|palette=blue|title=Native masculine nouns|tall=yes}}
{{snon-decl-m-a|hàt|hòt|1e=hàet|1l='àt|2l='òt|1el='àet|1n=nhàt|2n=nhòt|1en=nhàet}}
! rowspan=3 |
{{snon-decl-m-a|r=y|hàmar|hòmar|1l='àmar|2l='òmar|1n=nhàmar|2n=nhòmar}}
! colspan=2 class=outer | {{l|snon|veolp}} ("puppy")
! rowspan=11 class=separator |  
! colspan=2 class=outer | {{l|snon|a}} ("fragrance")
! rowspan=11 class=separator |
! colspan=2 class=outer | {{l|snon|alm}} ("elm tree")
|-
! colspan=2 | indefinite
! colspan=2 | indefinite
! colspan=2 | indefinite
|-
! class=secondary | singular
! class=secondary | plural
! class=secondary | singular
! class=secondary | plural
! class=secondary | singular
! class=secondary | plural
|-
! direct
| ve<span style="color:red">o</span>lp
| velp<span style="color:red">ar</span>
| a
| ang<span style="color:red">ar</span>
| alm
| alm<span style="color:red">ar</span>
|-
! genitive
| velp<span style="color:red">s</span>
| ve<span style="color:red">o</span>lph
| a<span style="color:red">z</span>
| angh
| al<span style="color:red">z</span>
| almh
|-
! dative
| velph
| velph<span style="color:red">u</span>
| a<span style="color:red">e</span>ngh
| angh<span style="color:red">u</span>
| a<span style="color:red">e</span>lmh
| almh<span style="color:red">u</span>
|-
! rowspan=2 |
! colspan=2 | definite
! colspan=2 | definite
! colspan=2 | definite
|-
! class=secondary | singular
! class=secondary | plural
! class=secondary | singular
! class=secondary | plural
! class=secondary | singular
! class=secondary | plural
|-
! direct
| hi <span style="color:blue">b</span>e<span style="color:red">o</span>lp
| hìnhar velp<span style="color:red">ar</span>
| hi <span style="color:blue">n'</span>a
| hìnhar ang<span style="color:red">ar</span>
| hi <span style="color:blue">n'</span>alm
| hìnhar alm<span style="color:red">ar</span>
|-
! genitive
| hiz velp<span style="color:red">s</span>
| hionh <span style="color:blue">vh</span>e<span style="color:red">o</span>lph
| hiz a<span style="color:red">z</span>
| hionh <span style="color:blue">h'</span>angh
| hiz al<span style="color:red">z</span>
| hionh <span style="color:blue">h'</span>almh
|-
! dative
| hình <span style="color:blue">b</span>elph
| hìnhu <span style="color:blue">b</span>elph<span style="color:red">u</span>
| hình <span style="color:blue">n'</span>a<span style="color:red">e</span>ngh
| hìnhu <span style="color:blue">n'</span>angh<span style="color:red">u</span>
| hình <span style="color:blue">n'</span>a<span style="color:red">e</span>lmh
| hìnhu <span style="color:blue">n'</span>almh<span style="color:red">u</span>
|-
{{inflection-table-bottom|notes={{{15|}}}}}


These next two were originally neuter.
While both ''a'' and ''alm'' appear irregular, they are not so, as the forms are entirely expected. ''a'' comes from older ''ang'', the nasal being lost in the direct singular, but preserved in other forms. The genitive singular taking -z is from eclipsis of the normal -s due to the roots' nasal.
{{snon-decl-m-a|màl|mòl|1e=màel|1l=mhàl|2l=mhòl|1el=mhàel}}
{{snon-decl-m-a|post|1e=poest|1l=phost|1el=phoest|1n=mhost|1en=mhoest}}


=====Feminines=====
The definite forms typically include a vocative, formed with the particle {{l|snon|a}} plus the direct form. These are excluded here as it is not a "true" case.
{{snon-decl-f-ōn|arrv|orrv|1l=h-arrv|2l=h-orrv|1n=n-arrv|2n=n-orrv}}


===Adjectives===
Nouns from Scottish and Irish tend to instead take {{l|snon|-an}} for the direct plural, after the regular plural in Scottish.
As with nouns, the definiteness distinction has been lost in adjectives, though it was lost far earlier than in nouns, this is attributed to the increasing reliance on the noun for definiteness. (Which itself too eventually fell to the use of "hi")
{{inflection-table-top|palette=blue|title=Gaelic masculine nouns|tall=yes}}
! rowspan=3 |
! colspan=2 class=outer | {{l|snon|día}} ("god")
! rowspan=11 class=separator |
! colspan=2 class=outer | {{l|snon|loch}} ("loch")
! rowspan=11 class=separator |
! colspan=2 class=outer | {{l|snon|}} ("")
|-
! colspan=2 | indefinite
! colspan=2 | indefinite
! colspan=2 | indefinite
|-
! class=secondary | singular
! class=secondary | plural
! class=secondary | singular
! class=secondary | plural
! class=secondary | singular
! class=secondary | plural
|-
! direct
| día
| díath<span style="color:red">an</span>
| loch
| loch<span style="color:red">an</span>
|
|
|-
! genitive
| día<span style="color:red">s</span>
| día
| loch<span style="color:red">s</span>
| loch
|
|
|-
! dative
| día
| díath<span style="color:red">u</span>
| lo<span style="color:red">e</span>ch
| loch<span style="color:red">u</span>
|
|
|-
! rowspan=2 |
! colspan=2 | definite
! colspan=2 | definite
! colspan=2 | definite
|-
! class=secondary | singular
! class=secondary | plural
! class=secondary | singular
! class=secondary | plural
! class=secondary | singular
! class=secondary | plural
|-
! direct
| hi <span style="color:blue">n</span>ía
| hìnhar díath<span style="color:red">an</span>
| hi loch
| hìnhar loch<span style="color:red">an</span>
| hi  
| hìnhar
|-
! genitive
| hiz día<span style="color:red">s</span>
| hionh <span style="color:blue">dh</span>ía
| hiz loch<span style="color:red">s</span>
| hionh loch
| hiz
| hionh
|-
! dative
| hình <span style="color:blue">n</span>ía
| hìnhu <span style="color:blue">n</span>íath<span style="color:red">u</span>
| hình lo<span style="color:red">e</span>ch
| hìnhu loch<span style="color:red">u</span>
| hình
| hìnhu
|-
{{inflection-table-bottom}}


The forms of adjectives quickly began falling together, with the nominative/accusative distinction being lost quite early on.
Other than the ''-an'' plural, all nouns follow roughly the same pattern, with some variation between depending on the environment. This makes Scots Norse stunningly regular, to a point largely unseen for a Germanic language, especially one that preserves so much of the declension system.
{{snon-decl-adj|sèl}}
 
====Adjectives====
Adjectives act much like nouns, to the point the two are often used as each other (eg. "sèl" being used as the noun "happiness"). Also like nouns, adjectives dropped the definite (weak) forms, which greatly simplified the adjective declensions.
{{inflection-table-top|title=Regular adjective (sèl)|palette=blue|tall=yes}}
! positive
! masculine
! feminine
! plural
|-
! nominative
| sè<span style="color:red">o</span>l <sup>L</sup>
| sèl
| sèl<span style="color:red">ar</span>
|-
! genitive
| sèl<span style="color:red">sh</span>
| sèl<span style="color:red">ar</span>
| sè<span style="color:red">o</span>l <sup>L</sup>
|-
! dative
| sè<span style="color:red">o</span>l <sup>E</sup>
| sèl <sup>L</sup>
| sèl<span style="color:red">u</span> <sup>E</sup>
|-
| class=separator colspan=4 |
|-
! comparative
! masculine
! feminine
! plural
|-
! nom./gen.
| sèl<span style="color:red">ar</span>
| sèl<span style="color:red">ir</span>
| sèl<span style="color:red">ir</span>
|-
! dative
| sèl<span style="color:red">ar</span>
| sèl<span style="color:red">ir</span>
| sèl<span style="color:red">uru</span> <sup>E</sup>
|-
| class=separator colspan=4 |
|-
! superlative
! masculine
! feminine
! plural
|-
! nominative
| sèl<span style="color:red">ast</span> <sup>L</sup>
| sèl<span style="color:red">ust</span>
| sèl<span style="color:red">astar</span>
|-
! genitive
| sèl<span style="color:red">asts</span>
| sèl<span style="color:red">astar</span>
| sèl<span style="color:red">ast</span> <sup>L</sup>
|-
! dative
| sèl<span style="color:red">ust</span> <sup>E</sup>
| sèl<span style="color:red">ist</span> <sup>L</sup>
| sèl<span style="color:red">ustu</span> <sup>E</sup>
|-
{{inflection-table-bottom|notes=<sup>L</sup> Triggers lenition &emsp; <sup>E</sup> Triggers eclipsis}}
 
====Pronouns====
The personal pronouns have largely simplified from Old Norse, with case essentially lost in them. The modern plural forms seem to descend from the old dual (as in Icelandic and Faroese), thus only a singular/plural distinction is made. The reflexive pronoun has largely been lost, only preserved in the form of {{l|snon|-sc}}, which is used to form the reflexive voice.
 
The suffix forms are largely only used colloquially on verbs for person and number marking (eg. "I speak" is "mèlirg" in colloquial Scots Norse). These suffixes are far more common in Eastern Scots Norse than Western.
{{inflection-table-top|title=Personal pronouns|palette=blue|tall=yes}}
! colspan=3 rowspan=2 |
! colspan=2 | plain
! colspan=2 | emphatic
! rowspan=2 | possessive
|-
! plain
! suffix
! plain
! suffix
|-
! rowspan=4 | sg.
! colspan=2 | 1st
| {{l|snon|mic}}
| {{l|snon|-g}}
| {{l|snon|mìnhich}}
| {{l|snon|-ich}}
| {{l|snon|mì}} <sup>E</sup>
|-
! colspan=2 | 2nd
| {{l|snon|tic}}
| {{l|snon|-ch}}
| {{l|snon|tìda}} <sup>L</sup>
| {{l|snon|-ta}} <sup>L</sup>
| {{l|snon|tì}} <sup>E</sup>
|-
! rowspan=2 | 3rd
! ''m''
| {{l|snon|ha}} <sup>E</sup>
| {{l|snon|-a}} <sup>E</sup>
| {{l|snon|haza}} <sup>E</sup>
| {{l|snon|-a|-(z)a}} <sup>E</sup>
| {{l|snon|haz}}
|-
! ''f''
| {{l|snon|hành}} <sup>L</sup>
| {{l|snon|-anh}} <sup>L</sup>
| {{l|snon|henha}} <sup>E</sup>
| {{l|snon|-a|-(nh)a}} <sup>E</sup>
| {{l|snon|henhar}}
|-
! rowspan=4 | pl.
! colspan=2 | 1st
| {{l|snon|och}}
| {{l|snon|-ach}}
| {{l|snon|ochuith}}
| {{l|snon|-uith}}
| {{l|snon|ochar}}
|-
! colspan=2 | 2nd
| {{l|snon|uech}}
| {{l|snon|-uech}}
| {{l|snon|uechith}}
| {{l|snon|-tith}}
| {{l|snon|uechar}}
|-
! colspan=2 | 3rd
| {{l|snon|tèr}}
| {{l|snon|-ti}}
| {{l|snon|tèrthir}}
| {{l|snon|-thir}}
| {{l|snon|tèor}}
|-
{{inflection-table-bottom|notes=<sup>L</sup> Triggers lenition &emsp; <sup>E</sup> Triggers eclipsis}}


===Prepositions===
===Prepositions===
Scots Norse has a very, very simple system of inflected prepositions, only inflecting for person and number, but never for case or gender, likely because it can usually be told through context.
Scots Norse has a system of inflected prepositions incredibly similar to the Gaelic languages, these are required, thus ''**vid hành'' is ungrammatical, instead requiring ''videnh''. Scots Norse is incredibly unusual in that prepositions are split into three classes or patterns based on the interaction between the root and the ending.
 
 
{{inflection-table-top|title=Inflection of {{l|snon|til}} (class 1)|palette=blue|tall=yes}}
! class=outer colspan=3 |
! plain
! emphatic
|-
! class=outer rowspan=4 | singular
! colspan=2 | 1st
| til<span style="color:red">mì</span> <sup>E</sup>
| til<span style="color:red">mìnhic</span>
|-
! colspan=2 | 2nd
| til<span style="color:red">tì</span> <sup>E</sup>
| til<span style="color:red">tìda</span>
|-
! rowspan=2 | 3rd
! class=secondary | ''m''
| til<span style="color:red">az</span>
| til<span style="color:red">aza</span> <sup>E</sup>
|-
! class=secondary | ''f''
| til<span style="color:red">enh</span>
| til<span style="color:red">enha</span> <sup>E</sup>
|-
! class=outer rowspan=3 | plural
! colspan=2 | 1st
| til<span style="color:red">ach</span>
| til<span style="color:red">achúith</span>
|-
! colspan=2 | 2nd
| til<span style="color:red">ich</span>
| til<span style="color:red">ichith</span>
|-
! colspan=2 | 3rd
| til<span style="color:red">tèor</span> <sup>L</sup>
| til<span style="color:red">tèorthi</span>
|-
{{inflection-table-bottom|notes=<sup>E</sup>: Triggers eclipsis&emsp;<sup>L</sup>: Triggers lenition}}
{{inflection-table-top|title=Inflection of {{l|snon|vid}} (class 1)|palette=blue|tall=yes}}
! class=outer colspan=3 |
! plain
! emphatic
|-
! class=outer rowspan=4 | singular
! colspan=2 | 1st
| vid<span style="color:red">mì</span> <sup>E</sup>
| vid<span style="color:red">mìnhic</span>
|-
! colspan=2 | 2nd
| vid<span style="color:red">tì</span> <sup>E</sup>
| vid<span style="color:red">tìda</span>
|-
! rowspan=2 | 3rd
! class=secondary | ''m''
| vid<span style="color:red">az</span>
| vid<span style="color:red">aza</span> <sup>E</sup>
|-
! class=secondary | ''f''
| vid<span style="color:red">enh</span>
| vid<span style="color:red">enha</span> <sup>E</sup>
|-
! class=outer rowspan=3 | plural
! colspan=2 | 1st
| vid<span style="color:red">ach</span>
| vid<span style="color:red">achúith</span>
|-
! colspan=2 | 2nd
| vid<span style="color:red">ich</span>
| vid<span style="color:red">ichith</span>
|-
! colspan=2 | 3rd
| vid<span style="color:red">tèor</span> <sup>L</sup>
| vid<span style="color:red">tèorthi</span>
|-
{{inflection-table-bottom|notes=<sup>E</sup>: Triggers eclipsis&emsp;<sup>L</sup>: Triggers lenition}}


A large amount of speakers simply don't use inflected prepositions, though the majority does.


{{snon-infl-prep|in|1l=inh|1ol=ionh|1v=im}}
{{inflection-table-top|title=Inflection of {{l|snon|frà}} (class 2)|palette=blue|tall=yes}}
! class=outer colspan=3 |
! plain
! emphatic
|-
! class=outer rowspan=4 | singular
! colspan=2 | 1st
| frà<span style="color:purple">mh</span><span style="color:red">ì</span> <sup>E</sup>
| frà<span style="color:purple">mh</span><span style="color:red">ìnhic</span>
|-
! colspan=2 | 2nd
| frà<span style="color:purple">th</span><span style="color:red">ì</span> <sup>E</sup>
| frà<span style="color:purple">th</span><span style="color:red">ìda</span>
|-
! rowspan=2 | 3rd
! class=secondary | ''m''
| frà<span style="color:purple">h</span><span style="color:red">az</span>
| frà<span style="color:purple">h</span><span style="color:red">aza</span> <sup>E</sup>
|-
! class=secondary | ''f''
| frà<span style="color:purple">h</span><span style="color:red">enh</span>
| frà<span style="color:purple">h</span><span style="color:red">enha</span> <sup>E</sup>
|-
! class=outer rowspan=3 | plural
! colspan=2 | 1st
| frà<span style="color:purple">th</span><span style="color:red">ach</span>
| frà<span style="color:purple">th</span><span style="color:red">achúith</span>
|-
! colspan=2 | 2nd
| frà<span style="color:purple">th</span><span style="color:red">ich</span>
| frà<span style="color:purple">th</span><span style="color:red">ichith</span>
|-
! colspan=2 | 3rd
| frà<span style="color:purple">th</span><span style="color:red">èor</span> <sup>L</sup>
| frà<span style="color:purple">th</span><span style="color:red">èorthi</span>
|-
{{inflection-table-bottom|notes=<sup>E</sup>: Triggers eclipsis&emsp;<sup>L</sup>: Triggers lenition}}
{{inflection-table-top|title=Inflection of {{l|snon|ì}} (class 2)|palette=blue|tall=yes}}
! class=outer colspan=3 |
! plain
! emphatic
|-
! class=outer rowspan=4 | singular
! colspan=2 | 1st
| ì<span style="color:purple">mh</span><span style="color:red">ì</span> <sup>E</sup>
| ì<span style="color:purple">mh</span><span style="color:red">ìnhic</span>
|-
! colspan=2 | 2nd
| ì<span style="color:purple">th</span><span style="color:red">ì</span> <sup>E</sup>
| ì<span style="color:purple">th</span><span style="color:red">ìda</span>
|-
! rowspan=2 | 3rd
! class=secondary | ''m''
| ì<span style="color:purple">h</span><span style="color:red">az</span>
| ì<span style="color:purple">h</span><span style="color:red">aza</span> <sup>E</sup>
|-
! class=secondary | ''f''
| ì<span style="color:purple">h</span><span style="color:red">enh</span>
| ì<span style="color:purple">h</span><span style="color:red">enha</span> <sup>E</sup>
|-
! class=outer rowspan=3 | plural
! colspan=2 | 1st
| ì<span style="color:purple">th</span><span style="color:red">ach</span>
| ì<span style="color:purple">th</span><span style="color:red">achúith</span>
|-
! colspan=2 | 2nd
| ì<span style="color:purple">th</span><span style="color:red">ich</span>
| ì<span style="color:purple">th</span><span style="color:red">ichith</span>
|-
! colspan=2 | 3rd
| ì<span style="color:purple">th</span><span style="color:red">èor</span> <sup>L</sup>
| ì<span style="color:purple">th</span><span style="color:red">èorthi</span>
|-
{{inflection-table-bottom|notes=<sup>E</sup>: Triggers eclipsis&emsp;<sup>L</sup>: Triggers lenition}}






{{snon-infl-prep|til|1l=tilh|1ol=tiolh|1v=tilv}}
{{inflection-table-top|title=Inflection of {{l|snon|i}} (class 2)|palette=blue|tall=yes}}
! class=outer colspan=3 |
! plain
! emphatic
|-
! class=outer rowspan=4 | singular
! colspan=2 | 1st
| i<span style="color:purple">n</span><span style="color:red">ì</span> <sup>E</sup>
| i<span style="color:purple">n</span><span style="color:red">ìnhic</span>
|-
! colspan=2 | 2nd
| i<span style="color:purple">d</span><span style="color:red">ì</span> <sup>E</sup>
| i<span style="color:purple">d</span><span style="color:red">ìda</span>
|-
! rowspan=2 | 3rd
! class=secondary | ''m''
| i<span style="color:purple">gh</span><span style="color:red">az</span>
| i<span style="color:purple">gh</span><span style="color:red">aza</span> <sup>E</sup>
|-
! class=secondary | ''f''
| i<span style="color:purple">gh</span><span style="color:red">enh</span>
| i<span style="color:purple">gh</span><span style="color:red">enha</span> <sup>E</sup>
|-
! class=outer rowspan=3 | plural
! colspan=2 | 1st
| i<span style="color:purple">nh</span><span style="color:red">ach</span>
| i<span style="color:purple">nh</span><span style="color:red">achúith</span>
|-
! colspan=2 | 2nd
| i<span style="color:purple">nh</span><span style="color:red">ich</span>
| i<span style="color:purple">nh</span><span style="color:red">ichith</span>
|-
! colspan=2 | 3rd
| i<span style="color:purple">d</span><span style="color:red">èor</span> <sup>L</sup>
| i<span style="color:purple">d</span><span style="color:red">èorthi</span>
|-
{{inflection-table-bottom|notes=<sup>E</sup>: Triggers eclipsis&emsp;<sup>L</sup>: Triggers lenition}}
{{inflection-table-top|title=Inflection of {{l|snon|anh}} (class 2)|palette=blue|tall=yes}}
! class=outer colspan=3 |
! plain
! emphatic
|-
! class=outer rowspan=4 | singular
! colspan=2 | 1st
| anh<span style="color:purple">n</span><span style="color:red">ì</span> <sup>E</sup>
| anh<span style="color:purple">n</span><span style="color:red">ìnhic</span>
|-
! colspan=2 | 2nd
| anh<span style="color:purple">d</span><span style="color:red">ì</span> <sup>E</sup>
| anh<span style="color:purple">d</span><span style="color:red">ìda</span>
|-
! rowspan=2 | 3rd
! class=secondary | ''m''
| anh<span style="color:purple">gh</span><span style="color:red">az</span>
| anh<span style="color:purple">gh</span><span style="color:red">aza</span> <sup>E</sup>
|-
! class=secondary | ''f''
| anh<span style="color:purple">gh</span><span style="color:red">enh</span>
| anh<span style="color:purple">gh</span><span style="color:red">enha</span> <sup>E</sup>
|-
! class=outer rowspan=3 | plural
! colspan=2 | 1st
| anh<span style="color:red">ach</span>
| anh<span style="color:red">achúith</span>
|-
! colspan=2 | 2nd
| anh<span style="color:red">ich</span>
| anh<span style="color:red">ichith</span>
|-
! colspan=2 | 3rd
| anh<span style="color:purple">d</span><span style="color:red">èor</span> <sup>L</sup>
| anh<span style="color:purple">d</span><span style="color:red">èorthi</span>
|-
{{inflection-table-bottom|notes=<sup>E</sup>: Triggers eclipsis&emsp;<sup>L</sup>: Triggers lenition}}


===Verbs===
===Verbs===
Many significant changes have happened to the verb system since Old Norse, notably both the mood and voice distinctions have been lost. The active indicative has descended into the present and past tense, while the active subjunctive was lost entirely. The oppositive happened in the mediopassive, with the subjunctive becoming the future and stative, while the indicative was lost.
Many significant changes have happened to the verb system since Old Norse, notably both the mood and voice distinctions have been lost. The active indicative has descended into the present and past tense, while the active subjunctive was lost entirely. The mediopassive became the future and imperative (the mood distinction in the mediopassive largely having already collapsed in Old Norse). The reciprocal, originally formed through the mediopassive, has entirely been replaced by {{l|snon|hinhar}}. The impersonal {{l|snon|-t-}} likely descends from a reduced form of Old Norse ''þat'', the development similar to English ''it'' as an impersonal pronoun.


The stative doesn't exist for every verb, but the forms are still displayed for convenience's sake.
The reduction of verbs to such a limited number of forms led to analogy that leveled them all down to essentially two patterns (excluding a few irregular verbs), which seemingly descend from Old Norse's weak class 2.


The original mediopassive indicative only remains in a small set of verbs acting as a reciprocal, typically physical actions taken towards others, like {{lang|snon|{{term|}}}} ("to fight"), {{lang|snon|{{term|slà}}}} ("to hit"), {{lang|snon|{{term|}}}} ("to embrace"), as well as a few abstract verbs, such as {{lang|snon|{{term|}}}} ("to love"). Otherwise it's been replaced by {{lang|snon|{{term|hìnu n-onaru}}}}
{{inflection-table-top|title=Conjugation of {{l|snon|tàl}}|palette=blue|tall=yes}}
====Strong verbs====
! class=outer colspan=2 |
Strong verbs have survived rather well into Scots Norse, at times weak verbs have been made strong (though the opposite has also happened).
! present
=====Class 1=====
! past
=====Class 2=====
! future
=====Class 3=====
! conditional
=====Class 4=====
|-
=====Class 5=====
! colspan=2 | infinitive
=====Class 6=====
| tàl(<span style="color:red">aich</span>)
=====Class 7=====
| tàl<span style="color:red">adh</span>
| tàl<span style="color:red">ast</span>
| tàl<span style="color:red">adhast</span>
|-
! colspan=2 | participle
| tàl<span style="color:red">in</span>
| tàl<span style="color:red">a</span>
| tàl<span style="color:red">anist</span>
| tàl<span style="color:red">ast</span>
|-
| class=separator colspan=9 |
|-
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! colspan=2 | positive
! colspan=2 | negative
|-
! class=secondary | personal
! class=secondary | impersonal
! class=secondary | personal
! class=secondary | impersonal
|-
! rowspan=4 | ind.
! class=secondary | pres.
| tàl<span style="color:red">ir</span>
| tàl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">ir</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">th</span>àl<span style="color:red">ir</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">th</span>àl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">ir</span>
|-
! class=secondary | past
| tàl<span style="color:red">adhir</span>
| tàl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhir</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">th</span>àl<span style="color:red">adhir</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">th</span>àl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhir</span>
|-
! class=secondary | fut.
| tàl<span style="color:red">ist</span>
| tàl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">ist</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">th</span>àl<span style="color:red">ist</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">th</span>àl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">ist</span>
|-
! class=secondary | cond.
| tàl<span style="color:red">adhist</span>
| tàl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhist</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">th</span>àl<span style="color:red">adhist</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">th</span>àl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhist</span>
|-
! rowspan=4 | cont.
! class=secondary | pres.
| tàl<span style="color:red">irúi</span>
| tàl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">irúi</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">th</span>àl<span style="color:red">irúi</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">th</span>àl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">irúi</span>
|-
! class=secondary | past
| tàl<span style="color:red">adhirúi</span>
| tàl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhirúi</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">th</span>àl<span style="color:red">adhirúi</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">th</span>àl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhirúi</span>
|-
! class=secondary | fut.
| tàl<span style="color:red">istúi</span>
| tàl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">istúi</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">th</span>àl<span style="color:red">istúi</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">th</span>àl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">istúi</span>
|-
! class=secondary | cond.
| tàl<span style="color:red">adhistúi</span>
| tàl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhistúi</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">th</span>àl<span style="color:red">adhistúi</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">th</span>àl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhistúi</span>
|-
! rowspan=4 | perf.
! class=secondary | pres.
| tàl<span style="color:red">irúa</span>
| tàl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">irúa</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">th</span>àl<span style="color:red">irúa</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">th</span>àl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">irúa</span>
|-
! class=secondary | past
| tàl<span style="color:red">adhirúa</span>
| tàl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhirúa</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">th</span>àl<span style="color:red">adhirúa</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">th</span>àl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhirúa</span>
|-
! class=secondary | fut.
| tàl<span style="color:red">istúa</span>
| tàl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">istúa</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">th</span>àl<span style="color:red">istúa</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">th</span>àl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">istúa</span>
|-
! class=secondary | cond.
| tàl<span style="color:red">adhistúa</span>
| tàl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhistúa</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">th</span>àl<span style="color:red">adhistúa</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">th</span>àl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhistúa</span>
|-
! colspan=2 | imp.
| tàl
| tàl<span style="color:green">t</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">th</span>àl
| è <span style="color:blue">th</span>àl<span style="color:green">t</span>
|-
{{inflection-table-bottom}}


====Weak verbs====
{{inflection-table-top|title=Conjugation of {{l|snon|mèl}}|palette=blue|tall=yes}}
=====Class 1=====
! class=outer colspan=2 |
The original distinction between "heavy" and "light" stems has long been lost in Scots Norse, the distinction between them having either been leveled out or sound changes led to its loss.
! present
! past
! future
! conditional
|-
! colspan=2 | infinitive
| mèl(<span style="color:red">ich</span>)
| mèl<span style="color:red">adh</span>
| mèl<span style="color:red">ast</span>
| mèl<span style="color:red">adhast</span>
|-
! colspan=2 | participle
| mèl<span style="color:red">in</span>
| mèl<span style="color:red">a</span>
| mèl<span style="color:red">anist</span>
| mèl<span style="color:red">ast</span>
|-
| class=separator colspan=9 |
|-
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! colspan=2 | positive
! colspan=2 | negative
|-
! class=secondary | personal
! class=secondary | impersonal
! class=secondary | personal
! class=secondary | impersonal
|-
! rowspan=4 | ind.
! class=secondary | pres.
| mèl<span style="color:red">ir</span>
| mèl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">ir</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">mh</span>èl<span style="color:red">ir</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">mh</span>èl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">ir</span>
|-
! class=secondary | past
| mèl<span style="color:red">adhir</span>
| mèl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhir</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">mh</span>èl<span style="color:red">adhir</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">mh</span>èl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhir</span>
|-
! class=secondary | fut.
| mèl<span style="color:red">ist</span>
| mèl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">ist</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">mh</span>èl<span style="color:red">ist</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">mh</span>èl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">ist</span>
|-
! class=secondary | cond.
| mèl<span style="color:red">adhist</span>
| mèl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhist</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">mh</span>èl<span style="color:red">adhist</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">mh</span>èl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhist</span>
|-
! rowspan=4 | cont.
! class=secondary | pres.
| mèl<span style="color:red">irúi</span>
| mèl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">irúi</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">mh</span>èl<span style="color:red">irúi</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">mh</span>èl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">irúi</span>
|-
! class=secondary | past
| mèl<span style="color:red">adhirúi</span>
| mèl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhirúi</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">mh</span>èl<span style="color:red">adhirúi</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">mh</span>èl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhirúi</span>
|-
! class=secondary | fut.
| mèl<span style="color:red">istúi</span>
| mèl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">istúi</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">mh</span>èl<span style="color:red">istúi</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">mh</span>èl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">istúi</span>
|-
! class=secondary | cond.
| mèl<span style="color:red">adhistúi</span>
| mèl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhistúi</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">mh</span>èl<span style="color:red">adhistúi</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">mh</span>èl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhistúi</span>
|-
! rowspan=4 | perf.
! class=secondary | pres.
| mèl<span style="color:red">irúa</span>
| mèl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">irúa</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">mh</span>èl<span style="color:red">irúa</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">mh</span>èl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">irúa</span>
|-
! class=secondary | past
| mèl<span style="color:red">adhirúa</span>
| mèl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhirúa</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">mh</span>èl<span style="color:red">adhirúa</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">mh</span>èl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhirúa</span>
|-
! class=secondary | fut.
| mèl<span style="color:red">istúa</span>
| mèl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">istúa</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">mh</span>èl<span style="color:red">istúa</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">mh</span>èl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">istúa</span>
|-
! class=secondary | cond.
| mèl<span style="color:red">adhistúa</span>
| mèl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhistúa</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">mh</span>èl<span style="color:red">adhistúa</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">mh</span>èl<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhistúa</span>
|-
! colspan=2 | imp.
| mèl
| mèl<span style="color:green">t</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">mh</span>èl
| è <span style="color:blue">mh</span>èl<span style="color:green">t</span>
|-
{{inflection-table-bottom}}


{{snon-conj-weak1|mèl|mèlt|1o=mèol|2o=mèolt}}
{{inflection-table-top|title=Conjugation of {{l|snon|àgh}}|palette=blue|tall=yes}}
! class=outer colspan=2 |
! present
! past
! future
! conditional
|-
! colspan=2 | infinitive
| àgh(<span style="color:red">aich</span>)
| àgh<span style="color:red">adh</span>
| àgh<span style="color:red">ast</span>
| àgh<span style="color:red">adhast</span>
|-
! colspan=2 | participle
| àgh<span style="color:red">in</span>
| àgh<span style="color:red">a</span>
| àgh<span style="color:red">anist</span>
| àgh<span style="color:red">ast</span>
|-
| class=separator colspan=9 |
|-
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! colspan=2 | positive
! colspan=2 | negative
|-
! class=secondary | personal
! class=secondary | impersonal
! class=secondary | personal
! class=secondary | impersonal
|-
! rowspan=4 | ind.
! class=secondary | pres.
| àgh<span style="color:red">ir</span>
| àgh<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">ir</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">h'</span>àgh<span style="color:red">ir</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">h'</span>àgh<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">ir</span>
|-
! class=secondary | past
| àgh<span style="color:red">adhir</span>
| àgh<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhir</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">h'</span>àgh<span style="color:red">adhir</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">h'</span>àgh<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhir</span>
|-
! class=secondary | fut.
| àgh<span style="color:red">ist</span>
| àgh<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">ist</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">h'</span>àgh<span style="color:red">ist</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">h'</span>àgh<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">ist</span>
|-
! class=secondary | cond.
| àgh<span style="color:red">adhist</span>
| àgh<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhist</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">h'</span>àgh<span style="color:red">adhist</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">h'</span>àgh<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhist</span>
|-
! rowspan=4 | cont.
! class=secondary | pres.
| àgh<span style="color:red">irúi</span>
| àgh<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">irúi</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">h'</span>àgh<span style="color:red">irúi</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">h'</span>àgh<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">irúi</span>
|-
! class=secondary | past
| àgh<span style="color:red">adhirúi</span>
| àgh<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhirúi</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">h'</span>àgh<span style="color:red">adhirúi</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">h'</span>àgh<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhirúi</span>
|-
! class=secondary | fut.
| àgh<span style="color:red">istúi</span>
| àgh<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">istúi</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">h'</span>àgh<span style="color:red">istúi</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">h'</span>àgh<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">istúi</span>
|-
! class=secondary | cond.
| àgh<span style="color:red">adhistúi</span>
| àgh<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhistúi</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">h'</span>àgh<span style="color:red">adhistúi</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">h'</span>àgh<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhistúi</span>
|-
! rowspan=4 | perf.
! class=secondary | pres.
| àgh<span style="color:red">irúa</span>
| àgh<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">irúa</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">h'</span>àgh<span style="color:red">irúa</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">h'</span>àgh<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">irúa</span>
|-
! class=secondary | past
| àgh<span style="color:red">adhirúa</span>
| àgh<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhirúa</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">h'</span>àgh<span style="color:red">adhirúa</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">h'</span>àgh<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhirúa</span>
|-
! class=secondary | fut.
| àgh<span style="color:red">istúa</span>
| àgh<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">istúa</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">h'</span>àgh<span style="color:red">istúa</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">h'</span>àgh<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">istúa</span>
|-
! class=secondary | cond.
| àgh<span style="color:red">adhistúa</span>
| àgh<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhistúa</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">h'</span>àgh<span style="color:red">adhistúa</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">h'</span>àgh<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhistúa</span>
|-
! colspan=2 | imp.
| àgh
| àgh<span style="color:green">t</span>
| è <span style="color:blue">h'</span>àgh
| è <span style="color:blue">h'</span>àgh<span style="color:green">t</span>
|-
{{inflection-table-bottom}}


=====Class 2=====
====''i-''negatives====
{{snon-conj-weak2|tàl|tàldh|1e=tàel|2e=tàeldh|1u=tòl|2u=tòldh}}
This is a very small class of verbs that take {{l|snon|i-}} to form the negative, this prefix causing eclipsis in the root, thus a verb like ''bì'' will have a negative ''imì'', as seen below.


=====Class 3=====
{{inflection-table-top|title=Conjugation of {{l|snon|bì}}|palette=blue|tall=yes}}
! class=outer colspan=2 |
! present
! past
! future
! conditional
|-
! colspan=2 | infinitive
| bì(th<span style="color:red">ich</span>)
| bìth<span style="color:red">adh</span>
| bìth<span style="color:red">ast</span>
| bìth<span style="color:red">adhast</span>
|-
! colspan=2 | participle
| bìth<span style="color:red">in</span>
| bìth<span style="color:red">a</span>
| bìth<span style="color:red">anist</span>
| bìth<span style="color:red">ast</span>
|-
| class=separator colspan=9 |
|-
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! colspan=2 | positive
! colspan=2 | negative
|-
! class=secondary | personal
! class=secondary | impersonal
! class=secondary | personal
! class=secondary | impersonal
|-
! rowspan=4 | ind.
! class=secondary | pres.
| bìth<span style="color:red">ir</span>
| bì<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">ir</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">m</span>ìth<span style="color:red">ir</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">m</span>ì<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">ir</span>
|-
! class=secondary | past
| bìth<span style="color:red">adhir</span>
| bì<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhir</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">m</span>ìth<span style="color:red">adhir</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">m</span>ì<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhir</span>
|-
! class=secondary | fut.
| bìth<span style="color:red">ist</span>
| bì<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">ist</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">m</span>ìth<span style="color:red">ist</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">m</span>ì<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">ist</span>
|-
! class=secondary | cond.
| bìth<span style="color:red">adhist</span>
| bì<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhist</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">m</span>ìth<span style="color:red">adhist</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">m</span>ì<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhist</span>
|-
! rowspan=4 | cont.
! class=secondary | pres.
| bìth<span style="color:red">irúi</span>
| bì<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">irúi</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">m</span>ìth<span style="color:red">irúi</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">m</span>ì<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">irúi</span>
|-
! class=secondary | past
| bìth<span style="color:red">adhirúi</span>
| bì<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhirúi</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">m</span>ìth<span style="color:red">adhirúi</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">m</span>ì<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhirúi</span>
|-
! class=secondary | fut.
| bìth<span style="color:red">istúi</span>
| bì<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">istúi</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">m</span>ìth<span style="color:red">istúi</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">m</span>ì<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">istúi</span>
|-
! class=secondary | cond.
| bìth<span style="color:red">adhistúi</span>
| bì<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhistúi</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">m</span>ìth<span style="color:red">adhistúi</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">m</span>ì<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhistúi</span>
|-
! rowspan=4 | perf.
! class=secondary | pres.
| bìth<span style="color:red">irúa</span>
| bì<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">irúa</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">m</span>ìth<span style="color:red">irúa</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">m</span>ì<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">irúa</span>
|-
! class=secondary | past
| bìth<span style="color:red">adhirúa</span>
| bì<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhirúa</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">m</span>ìth<span style="color:red">adhirúa</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">m</span>ì<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhirúa</span>
|-
! class=secondary | fut.
| bìth<span style="color:red">istúa</span>
| bì<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">istúa</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">m</span>ìth<span style="color:red">istúa</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">m</span>ì<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">istúa</span>
|-
! class=secondary | cond.
| bìth<span style="color:red">adhistúa</span>
| bì<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhistúa</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">m</span>ìth<span style="color:red">adhistúa</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">m</span>ì<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhistúa</span>
|-
! colspan=2 | imp.
| bì
| bì<span style="color:green">t</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">m</span>ì
| i<span style="color:blue">m</span>ì<span style="color:green">t</span>
|-
{{inflection-table-bottom}}


====Suppletive verbs====
{{inflection-table-top|title=Conjugation of {{l|snon|vèr}}|palette=blue|tall=yes}}
! class=outer colspan=2 |
! present
! past
! future
! conditional
|-
! colspan=2 | infinitive
| vèr(<span style="color:red">ich</span>)
| vèr<span style="color:red">adh</span>
| vèr<span style="color:red">ast</span>
| vèr<span style="color:red">adhast</span>
|-
! colspan=2 | participle
| vèr<span style="color:red">in</span>
| vèr<span style="color:red">a</span>
| vèr<span style="color:red">anist</span>
| vèr<span style="color:red">ast</span>
|-
| class=separator colspan=9 |
|-
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |
! colspan=2 | positive
! colspan=2 | negative
|-
! class=secondary | personal
! class=secondary | impersonal
! class=secondary | personal
! class=secondary | impersonal
|-
! rowspan=4 | ind.
! class=secondary | pres.
| vèr<span style="color:red">ir</span>
| vèr<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">ir</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">b</span>èr<span style="color:red">ir</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">b</span>èr<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">ir</span>
|-
! class=secondary | past
| vèr<span style="color:red">adhir</span>
| vèr<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhir</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">b</span>èr<span style="color:red">adhir</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">b</span>èr<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhir</span>
|-
! class=secondary | fut.
| vèr<span style="color:red">ist</span>
| vèr<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">ist</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">b</span>èr<span style="color:red">ist</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">b</span>èr<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">ist</span>
|-
! class=secondary | cond.
| vèr<span style="color:red">adhist</span>
| vèr<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhist</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">b</span>èr<span style="color:red">adhist</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">b</span>èr<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhist</span>
|-
! rowspan=4 | cont.
! class=secondary | pres.
| vèr<span style="color:red">irúi</span>
| vèr<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">irúi</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">b</span>èr<span style="color:red">irúi</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">b</span>èr<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">irúi</span>
|-
! class=secondary | past
| vèr<span style="color:red">adhirúi</span>
| vèr<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhirúi</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">b</span>èr<span style="color:red">adhirúi</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">b</span>èr<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhirúi</span>
|-
! class=secondary | fut.
| vèr<span style="color:red">istúi</span>
| vèr<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">istúi</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">b</span>èr<span style="color:red">istúi</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">b</span>èr<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">istúi</span>
|-
! class=secondary | cond.
| vèr<span style="color:red">adhistúi</span>
| vèr<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhistúi</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">b</span>èr<span style="color:red">adhistúi</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">b</span>èr<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhistúi</span>
|-
! rowspan=4 | perf.
! class=secondary | pres.
| vèr<span style="color:red">irúa</span>
| vèr<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">irúa</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">b</span>èr<span style="color:red">irúa</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">b</span>èr<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">irúa</span>
|-
! class=secondary | past
| vèr<span style="color:red">adhirúa</span>
| vèr<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhirúa</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">b</span>èr<span style="color:red">adhirúa</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">b</span>èr<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhirúa</span>
|-
! class=secondary | fut.
| vèr<span style="color:red">istúa</span>
| vèr<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">istúa</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">b</span>èr<span style="color:red">istúa</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">b</span>èr<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">istúa</span>
|-
! class=secondary | cond.
| vèr<span style="color:red">adhistúa</span>
| vèr<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhistúa</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">b</span>èr<span style="color:red">adhistúa</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">b</span>èr<span style="color:green">t</span><span style="color:red">adhistúa</span>
|-
! colspan=2 | imp.
| vèr
| vèr<span style="color:green">t</span>
| i<span style="color:blue">b</span>èr
| i<span style="color:blue">b</span>èr<span style="color:green">t</span>
|-
{{inflection-table-bottom}}


==Syntax==
==Syntax==
===Word order===
Scots Norse word order is incredibly strict, relying more on particles than word order for changing the sentence type. The typical order is:
#Preverbal particle(s)
#Verb
#Postverbal particle(s)
#Subject
#Preposition(s) (usually)
#Direct object or predicate adjective
#Indirect object
An example:
{{interlinear|lang=snon|number=(1)|abbreviations=DIR:direct case
| èthir mic hi màth.
| eat.PRES 1sg the food.DIR
| I eat the food.
}}
Prepositions are placed largely as in English, but the usage can often differ, eg. "i" ("in") goes before the direct object, but is also used for many other things, such as "under" in "under construction" ("i miùeghi", literally "in building").
Adjectives and genitives, much like in Gàidhlig, come after the noun, eg. "blòemh ròdh" for "red flower" and "blòemh mì" for "my flower".
{{interlinear|lang=snon|number=(2)|abbreviations=DIR:direct case
|{⟨i⟩ mlòmhir ⟨u⟩} blòm ròdh mì
|⟨CONT⟩bloom.PRES flower.DIR red.DIR 1sg.POSS
|
}}
===Questions and answers===
Scots Norse lacks a true equivalent to "no", the closest thing being "è(gh)" ("not"), which can often be used on it's own when a form of "be" + "not" suffices for an answer, as in:
{{interlinear|lang=snon|number=(3)|abbreviations=DIR:direct case
| vàrt mèlir tic vidmì?
| Q speak.PRES 2sg with.1sg
| Will you speak with me?
}}
{{interlinear|lang=snon|number=&emsp;(3.1)|indent=6
| ègh
| NEG
| I won't
}}
Following this usage of "ègh", "ghià" (Old Norse "já") is often used as an affirmative, as in:
{{interlinear|lang=snon|number=(4)|abbreviations=DIR:direct case
| vàrt èthist tic màenh-màls vidmìnhic?
| Q eat.FUT 2sg dinner.DIR with.1sg.EMP
| Will you eat dinner with me?
}}
{{interlinear|lang=snon|number=&emsp;(4.1)|indent=6
| ghià!
| AFF
| I will!
}}
As has likely been noticed by now, questions consistently contain "vàrt" at the beginning, this is a general question particle, akin to Gàidhlig "an".
==="To be"===
====Existential ''bì''====
Likely under the influence of Irish, the verb "bìodh" (Old Norse "bíða") shifted to an existential copula, expressing existence, location, and condition, rather than an impersonal one, while an odd development, the extreme influence of the Gaelic languages does well explain it, in this sense it's most often spelt "bì", with the various endings being appended with an apostrophe, as in "bì'ir" or "bì'adhist", in these forms it is often pronounced /bj-/, thus /bjəjʃt/ for "bì'adhist".
{{interlinear|lang=snon|number=(5)|abbreviations=DIR:direct case
|bì'ir Gud
|EXIST.PRES God.DIR
|God exists
}}
{{interlinear|lang=snon|number=(6)|abbreviations=DIR:direct case
|bì'ir hìnhar eplar o ghình moerdh
|EXIST.PRES the.PL.DIR apple.PL.DIR on the.DAT table.DAT
|the apples are on the table
}}
''bì'' has developed in such a way where a noun phrase cannot directly act as the predicate, instead needing to be preceded by ''u'', as in:
====Copulative ''vèr''====
The verb {{l|snon|vèr}} acts as the so-called "equative 'to be'", eg. the verb "to be" as used to mean "X = Y", as in:
{{interlinear|lang=snon|number=(8)
|vèrir mic sèl
|COP.PRES 1sg happy
|I am happy
}}
"vèr" in the present tense can often be dropped when paired with an emphatic pronoun, compare '''''vèrir mic hi dèter.''''' vs. '''''mìnhich hi dèter.''''', both meaning "I am the teacher."
When saying "this/that is", "tèsh" and "ta" are used, with the verb dropped in the present tense.
:(5a) ''tèsh thèter mì'' "This (is) my teacher"
:(5b) ''ta hi dèter'' "That's the teacher"
"in him/her" can also be used with an adjective to intensify it.
{{interlinear|lang=snon|number=(9)
|vèrir ha zèol h'ighaz
|COP.PRES 3sg.M happy in.3sg.M
|He is happy
}}
{{interlinear|lang=snon|number=(10)
|vèrir hành bhrìa h'ighenh
|COP.PRES 3sg.F beautiful in.3sg.F
|She is beautiful
}}
===Evidentiality===
Evidentiality in Scots Norse is entirely analytical, though based on the verb. There are three main classes of evidentials; the factual, the direct, and the indirect. The factual is distinguished from the direct by moreso conveying what is known to be correct than what is witnessed to be correct, eg. "humans need oxygen" vs "the injured dog has healed (and I saw it)", the former being factual while the latter is direct.
The factual is typically formed through a verbs' indicative, but it can also take the long infinitive of "bì" ("bìthich"; "to exist") for emphasis, such as:
{{interlinear|lang=snon|number=(11)|abbreviations=DIR:direct case
|crevhir me màth
|require.PRES human.DIR.PL food.DIR
|humans require food
}}
{{interlinear|lang=snon|number=(12)|abbreviations=DIR:direct case
|crevhir bìthich me màth
|require.PRES EXIST.INF human.DIR.PL food.DIR
|humans require food (and I ''know'' it)
}}
The direct is typically formed with the past infinitive of "sià" ("siàthadh"; "perceived"), thus:
{{interlinear|lang=snon|number=(13)|abbreviations=DIR:direct case
|{⟨as⟩ lèocnscir ⟨u⟩} siàthadh hi gù
|⟨PERF⟩heal.PRES.IMPRS see.PAST.INF the.DIR dog.DIR
|the dog has healed (and I saw it)
}}
The indirect tends to be formed with the past infinitive of "seogh" ("seoghadh"; "told"):
{{interlinear|lang=snon|number=(14)|abbreviations=DIR:direct case
|fàradhir seoghadh tèr circh
|fare.PAST tell.PAST.INF 3pl church.DAT
|they went to church (so I was told)
}}
To better show all three classes, the sentence "he went home" will be used to show each.
{{interlinear|lang=snon|number=(15a)|abbreviations=DIR:direct case
|fàradhir (bìthich) ha hèmh
|fare.PAST (EXIST.INF) 3sg.m home.DAT
|he went home
}}
{{interlinear|lang=snon|number=(15b)|abbreviations=DIR:direct case
|fàradhir siàthadh ha hèmh
|fare.PAST perceive.PAST.INF 3sg.m home.DAT
|(I saw that) he went home
}}
{{interlinear|lang=snon|number=(15b)|abbreviations=DIR:direct case
|fàradhir seoghadh ha hèmh
|fare.PAST tell.PAST.INF 3sg.m home.DAT
|(I was told that) he went home
}}
==Texts==
==Texts==
===UDHR Article 1===
===UDHR Article 1===
'''Original (English)''':
:'''Original (English)'''
:All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
 
:'''Old Norse (modern translation)'''
Allir menn eru bornir frjálsir ok jafnir at virðingu ok réttum. Þeir eru allir viti gœddir ok samvizku, ok skulu gøra hvárr til annars bróðurliga.


'''Old Norse (modern translation)''':
:'''Scots Norse'''
:Allir menn eru bornir frjálsir ok jafnir at virðingu ok réttum. Þeir eru allir viti gœddir ok samvizku, ok skulu gøra hvárr til annars bróðurliga.
vèrir me n'al bhòri vrials 's ghiab, vhèrin vhirdhi 's rèth h'attì. vèrin giòedh 's sabasc h'attì, 's scùl ghiòer hinhar til bròdhligh.
:"all men are born free and equal, having dignity and rights. they have reason and conscience, and should act to eachother as a brotherhood"


'''Scots Norse''':
===The Cold Winter is Near===
:{{lang|snon|alirr me n-èor bhornirr friàlsirr o hiavnirr, hàevn vhirding h-o rhèot h-at tèrr. tèrr èor h-alirr vìt ghaèddirr o shanviosc, h-o shcùl ghaèr vhàrr til anarr bhròdhurligh.}}
{| class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
:(alirr me n-èor bhornirr friàlsirr o hiavnirr, hàevn vhirding h-o rhèot h-at tèrr. tèrr èor h-alirr vìt ghaèddirr o shanviosc, h-o shcùl ghaèr vhàrr til anarr bhròdhurligh.)
! Scots Norse
:/ˈa.ʎɪr ˈmʲɛ ˈɲeɾˠ ˈvˠɔrˠ.ɲɪrˠ ˈfʲrʲol.ʃɪrʲ ɔ ˈçav.ɲɪrʲ ˈhovʲɲ ˈvʲɪrʲ.dʲɪŋ hɔ ˈɾʲetˠ çətʲ tʲerʲ ˈtʲerʲ ˈeɾ ˈha.ʎɪr ˈvʲitʲ ˈɣe.dʲɪrʲ ɔ ˈhã.vɪsˠk hɔ ʰkul ˈɣeɾʲ ˈɣor tʲɪʎ ˈa.ɲərʲ ˈvˠrˠo.ðˠur.ʎɪʝ/
!
! English
|-
| vèrir hi bèth cald faisg, fàr cathadh hèr.
| &emsp;
| style="font-style:italic;" | The cold winter is near, a blizzard will come.
|-
| fhiàr hùs varm mhì, n'a vhìonh.
|
| style="font-style:italic;" | Come in my warm house, o' friend.
|-
| velkùmha! fàr hèr, siuingh 's dans, èth 's drech!
|
| style="font-style:italic;" | Welcome! Come here, sing and dance, eat and drink!
|-
| vèrir tesh ètlin mhì.
|
| style="font-style:italic;" | That is my plan.
|-
| bìthir vat, 's al, 's miòlc go niù frà hi giù unì!
|
| style="font-style:italic;" | We have water, beer, and fresh milk from the cow.
|-
| ò, 's sùp varm!
|
| style="font-style:italic;" | Oh, and warm soup!
|}


:'''English translation'''
==Vocabulary==
::lit: "all men are born free and equal, being dignity and rights at them. they are all endowed to reason and to conscience, and should act each to others to brotherly(ness)"
===Phrasebook===
::"all men are born free and equal, having dignity and rights. they are all endowed with reason and conscience, and should act to eachother as a brotherhood"
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="text-align:center;"
|- style="font-weight:bold;"
! colspan="3" style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Greetings
|- style="font-weight:bold;"
! Scots Norse
! English
! Usage notes
|-
| {{l|snon|velcùmha}}
| welcome
| style="font-style:italic;" |
|-
| {{l|snon|morgu ngòdh}} (masc), {{l|snon|morgu ngòd}} (fem), {{l|snon|morgu ngòdhar}} (pl)
| good morning
| rowspan=3 style="font-style:italic;" | must agree for gender
|-
| {{l|snon|afta ngòdh}} (masc), {{l|snon|afta ngòd}} (fem), {{l|snon|afta ngòdhar}} (pl)
| good evening
|-
| {{l|snon|dàgh ghòdh}} (masc), {{l|snon|dàgh ghòd}} (fem), {{l|snon|dàgh ghòdhar}} (pl)
| good day, (formal) hello
|-
| {{l|snon|farvel}}
| farewell, goodbye
|-
| {{l|snon|halò}}
| hello, hi
| rowspan=2 style="font-style:italic;" | casual
|-
| {{l|snon|bái}}
| (good)bye
|-
|}




===Deor===
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="text-align:center;"
{{col-begin}}
|- style="font-weight:bold;"
{{col-break|width=250}}
! colspan="3" style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Introductions
'''Old English'''
|- style="font-style:normal; font-weight:bold;"
:Welund him be wurman
! Scots Norse
::wræces cunnade,
! English
:anhydig eorl
|-
::earfoþa dreag,
| style="font-style:normal;" | {{l|snon|vàrt}} {{l|snon|bìthir}} {{l|snon|nav}} {{l|snon|atì}}?
:hæfde him to gesiþþe
| what is your name? <small>''(lit. "what name have you?")''</small>
::sorge and longaþ,
|-
:wintercealde wræce,
| style="font-style:normal;" | {{l|snon|bì|bìthir}} {{l|snon|hi}} {{l|snon|nav}} ... {{l|snon|u|atmì}}
::wean oft onfond
| my name is... <small>''(lit. "I have the name...")''</small>
:siþþan hine Niðhad on
|-
::nede legde,
| style="font-style:normal;" | {{l|snon|vernig}} {{l|snon|tù}}?; {{l|snon|vergù}}?
:swoncre seonobende
| how are you?
::on syllan monn.
|-
:Þæs ofereode,
| style="font-style:normal;" | {{l|snon|vèrir}} {{l|snon|mic}} [], {{l|snon|'s}} {{l|snon|tù}}?
::þisses swa mæg.
| I am [adj], and you?
{{col-break}}
|-
'''Scots Norse'''
| style="font-style:normal;" | {{l|snon|vàrt}} {{l|snon|fàr|fàradhir}} {{l|snon|frà}} {{l|snon|tù}} {{l|snon|ver}}?
:Vòluenn shi, thur ròvnirr
| where are you from?
::cvàlarr cenn,
|-
:ànar iall
| style="font-style:normal;" | {{l|snon|fàradhir}} {{l|snon|frà}} {{l|snon|mic}}...
::arrvidh thoeld,
| I am from...
:-
|}
::-
:-
::-
:-
::-
:-
::-
:ta h-oevgangtirr,
::tash thil mègh.
{{col-end}}
(lines with "-" are yet to be translated)


==Lexical comparison==
===Numerals===
{|class="wikitable"
!1
|{{l|snon|è}}
|-
!2
|{{l|snon|tfè}}, {{l|snon|tfèr}}
|-
!3
|{{l|snon|trì}}
|-
!4
|{{l|snon|fiòer}}
|-
!5
|{{l|snon|fi}}
|-
!6
|{{l|snon|siach}}
|-
!7
|{{l|snon|siò}}
|-
!8
|{{l|snon|àth}}
|-
!9
|{{l|snon|niù}}
|-
!10
|{{l|snon|tiù}}
|-
!11
|{{l|snon|eliovh}}
|-
!12
|{{l|snon|tòlv}}
|-
|}
===Colors===
===Time===
===Lexical comparison===
====Leipzig-Jakarta====
{|class="wikitable collapsible collapsed"
{|class="wikitable collapsible collapsed"
|-
|-
Line 875: Line 2,051:
| fire
| fire
| eldr
| eldr
| ald /ˈæʎdʲ/
| {{l|snon|eld}}
| eldur
| eldur
| eld
| eld
Line 882: Line 2,058:
| nose
| nose
| nǫs
| nǫs
| no /ˈnˠɔ/
| {{l|snon|nas}}
| nös
| nös
| nas
| nas
Line 889: Line 2,065:
| to go
| to go
| ganga
| ganga
| gang /ˈɟæŋ̟/
| {{l|snon|gangh}}
| ganga
| ganga
| gånga
| gånga
Line 896: Line 2,072:
| water
| water
| vatn
| vatn
| vat /ˈvʲætʲ/
| {{l|snon|vat}}
| vatn
| vatn
| vatten
| vatten
|-
|-
|5
|5
| mouth
| mouth (body)</br>(river)
| (body) munnr</br>(river) mynni</br>(river) óss
| munnr</br>mynni
| (body) muenn /ˈmˠɤɲ/</br>(river) mainn /ˈmiɲ/
| {{l|snon|mun}}</br>{{l|snon|miuin}}
|  
| munnur</br>mynni
| mun</br>mynne
|-
|-
|6
|6
| tongue
| tongue
| tunga
| tunga
| tueng /ˈtˠɤŋ̟/
| {{l|snon|tung}}
| tunga
| tunga
|-
|-
|7
|7
| blood
| blood
| blóð
| blóð
| blòd /ˈbˠɫodˠ/
| {{l|snon|blòd}}
| blóð
| blod
|-
|-
|8
|8
| bone
| bone
| bein
| bein
| bè /ˈbʲe/
| {{l|snon|bè}}
| bein
| ben
|-
|-
|9
|9
| 2sg pronoun (you)
| 2sg pronoun (you)
| þú
| þú
| tù /ˈtˠu/
| {{l|snon|tù}}
| þú
| du
|-
|-
|10
|10
| root
| root
| rót
| rót
| ròt /ˈrˠotˠ/
| {{l|snon|ròt}}
| rót
| rot
|-
|-
|11
|11
| to come (move)
| to come (move)
| koma
| koma
| còem /ˈkomʲ/
| {{l|snon|cùmh}}
| koma
| komma
|-
|-
|12
|12
| breast
| breast
| brjóst
| brjóst
| briòst /ˈbʲrʲosˠ(tˠ)/
| {{l|snon|briòst}}
| brjóst
| bröst
|-
|-
|13
|13
| rain
| rain
| regn
| regn
| rei /ˈrʲɛː/
| {{l|snon|reg}}
| regn
| regn
|-
|-
|14
|14
| 1sg pronoun (I)
| 1sg pronoun (I)
| ek
| ek
| e /ɛɛ/
| {{l|snon|mic}}
| èg
| jag
|-
|-
|15
|15
| name
| name
| nafn
| nafn
| nav /ˈnʲæ/
| {{l|snon|nav}}
| nafn
| namn
|-
|-
|16
|16
| louse ([[:w:Phthiraptera|Phthirapteron]])
| louse ([[:w:Phthiraptera|Phthirapteron]])
|  
| lús
|  
| {{l|snon|lùs}}
|  
| lús
| lus
|-
|-
|17
|17
| wing
| wing
|  
| vængr
|  
| {{l|snon|vèngh}}
|  
| vængur
| vinge
|-
|-
|18
|18
| flesh/meat
| flesh/meat
|  
| hold
|  
| {{l|snon|hold}}
|  
| hold
| hull
|-
|-
|19
|19
| arm/hand
| arm/hand
|  
| armr, hǫnd
|  
| {{l|snon|arm}}, {{l|snon|han}}
|  
| armur, hönd
| arm, hand
|-
|-
|20
|20
| fly ([[:w:Fly|Dipteron]])
| fly ([[:w:Fly|Dipteron]])
|  
| fluga
|  
| {{l|snon|flùgh}}
|  
| fluga
| fluga
|-
|-
|21
|21
| night (time)
| night (time)
| nátt
| nátt
| nàtt /ˈnot/
| {{l|snon|nàt}}
| nátt, nótt
| natt
|-
|-
|22
|22
| ear
| ear
|  
| eyra
|  
| {{l|snon|or}}
|  
| eyra
| ör(a)
|-
|-
|23
|23
| neck
| neck
|  
| hals
|  
| {{l|snon|hàls}}
|  
| háls
| hals
|-
|-
|24
|24
| far (prep.)
| far (prep.)
|  
| fjarri
|  
| {{l|snon|fiaer}}
|  
| fjarri
| fjärran
|-
|-
|25
|25
| to do/make
| to do/make
|  
| gera
|  
| {{l|snon|gèor}}
|  
| gera, gjöra
| göra
|-
|-
|26
|26
| house/structure
| house/structure
|  
| hús
|  
| {{l|snon|hùs}}
|  
| hús
| hus
|-
|-
|27
|27
Line 1,036: Line 2,245:
| to say
| to say
| tala
| tala
| tàel /ˈtoʎ/
| {{l|snon|tàl}}
| tala
| tala
|-
|-
|30
|30
Line 1,059: Line 2,270:
| one (number)
| one (number)
| einn
| einn
| è /ˈe/
| {{l|snon|è}}
| einn
| en
|-
|-
|34
|34
Line 1,068: Line 2,281:
|-
|-
|35
|35
| 3sg pronoun (they)
| 3sg pronoun (they) (m)</br>(f)</br>(n)
| hann (m)</br>hǫ́n (f)</br>þat (n)
| hann</br>hǫ́n</br>þat
| ha (m) /ˈha/</br>hò (f) /ˈxo/
| {{l|snon|ha}}</br>{{l|snon|hành}}
| hann</br>hún, hón
| han</br>hon
|-
|-
|36
|36
Line 1,093: Line 2,308:
| this (pron.)
| this (pron.)
| sá
| sá
| tà /ˈto/
| {{l|snon|tesh}}
| sá
| det
|-
|-
|40
|40
| fish
| fish
| fiskr
| fiskr
| fisc /ˈfʲɪʃc/
| {{l|snon|fisc}}
| fiskur
| fisk
|-
|-
|41
|41
Line 1,108: Line 2,327:
|42
|42
| to drink
| to drink
|  
| drekka
|  
| {{l|snon|drech}}
|  
| drekka
| dricka
|-
|-
|43
|43
| black (color)
| black (color)
|  
| svartr
|  
| {{l|snon|sfart}}
|  
| svartur
| svart
|-
|-
|44
|44
Line 1,192: Line 2,413:
|56
|56
| not (adj./adv.)
| not (adj./adv.)
| eigi</br>(verbal) -at
| eigi
| ègh /eʝ/</br>(verbal) -(a)t /(ə)tʲ/
| {{l|snon|è}}, {{l|snon|i-}}
| eigi, ei, ekki
| ej, icke
|-
|-
|57
|57
| good
| good
|  
| góðr
|  
| {{l|snon|gòdh}}
|  
| góður
| god
|-
|-
|58
|58
| to know
| to know
| kunna</br>(a person) kenna
| kunna</br>(a person) kenna
| cuen /ˈkɤ̃/</br>(a person) cen /ˈcɛ̃/
| {{l|snon|cunh}}
| kunna
| kunna
|-
|-
|59
|59
Line 1,261: Line 2,487:
|-
|-
|68
|68
| skin/hide
| skin/hide (animal)</br>(general)
| feldr (animal)</br> skinn (general)</br>húð
| feldr</br> skinn, húð
| feld /ˈfʲɛʎdʲ/ (animal)</br> sci /ˈʃcɪ/ (general)</br>hùd /ˈxudˠ/
| {{l|snon|feld}}</br> {{l|snon|sci}}, {{l|snon|hùd}}
| feldur
| fäll
|-
|-
|69
|69
Line 1,297: Line 2,525:
|74
|74
| old
| old
|  
| gamall
|  
| {{l|snon|ald}}
|  
| gamall
| gammal
|-
|-
|75
|75
| to eat
| to eat
| eta
| eta
| èt /ˈetʲ/
| {{l|snon|èth}}
| eta, éta
| äta
|-
|-
|76
|76
Line 1,369: Line 2,600:
| dog
| dog
| hundr</br>rakki
| hundr</br>rakki
| huenn /ˈxɤɲ/ (archaic)</br>rac /ˈrʲæc/</br>(affectionate) cù /ˈku/
| {{l|snon|hun}}</br>{{l|snon|raech}}</br>{{l|snon|cù}}
| hundur</br>rakki
| hundur</br>rakki
| hund</br>rakka
| hund</br>rakka
Line 1,412: Line 2,643:
| bird
| bird
| fugl
| fugl
| fùil /ˈfˠɯʎ/
| {{l|snon|fùghl}}
| fugl
| fågel, fogel
|-
|-
|94
|94
Line 1,441: Line 2,674:
| in
| in
| í
| í
| ì /i/
| {{l|snon|i}}
| í
| i
|-
|-
|99
|99
Line 1,456: Line 2,691:
|-
|-
|}
|}
==See also==
*[[Scots Norse/Agharsc|This page in Scots Norse]]
*[[:Category:Scots Norse lemmas|Scots Norse dictionary]]


[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Languages]]
Line 1,461: Line 2,700:
[[Category:A posteriori]]
[[Category:A posteriori]]
[[Category:Germanic languages]]
[[Category:Germanic languages]]
[[Category:Scots Norse|Scots Norse]]
[[Category:Scots Norse language]]

Latest revision as of 01:01, 20 May 2026


Scots Norse
Agharsc
Pronunciation[ˈəːɾsk]
Created byMelinoë
DateApril 3rd, 2026
Native toAghar
EthnicityNorse Scots
Native speakers(L1) 2,500 (2020)
(L2) < 50,000
Early forms
Standard form
Dialects
Official status
Official language in
Scotland
Scots Norse is classified as critically endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Scots Norse (Autonym: Agharsc /ˈəːɾsk/) is a West Nordic language spoken in the Hebrides most closely related to Norn, less so to Icelandic and Faroese, and quite distantly to Swedish, Norwegian, and Danish. It has extremely significant influence from mainly Scots and Irish Gaelic, and less so from the Germanic languages Scots and English. The Gaelic influence is most noticeable in the morphology and phonology of Scots Norse, both with the slender/broad distinction in consonants and the presence of initial consonant mutation.

Scots Norse has roughly eleven dialects that form the language's two dialect continuums, these being Western and Eastern Scots Norse respectively, these are further divided into specific dialects. All varieties of Scots Norse are written using the Latin script, employing Gaelic Type or Insular as the hand, this acts as a notable exception to the general notion that Gaelic Type and Insular only survive for ornamental or historical usages, as they are still the primary hand used for Scots Norse.

Uniting all of these dialects is the standard variety, called Agharsc Shorchas, literally "Sorcha's Scots Norse". This form of the language is the most conservative of them all, being largely based on the 18th century description of Western Scots Norse by Sorcha of Uist. At times, the standard form has had certain shifts undone, such as the /ɛ/-/ɪ/ merger typical of Western dialects.

Classification

Scots Norse has long been a difficulty for linguists to classify, as it shows clear signs of being a mixed language, though the extent of this has been, and still is, heavily debated and questioned. As well as the general lack of speakers, it is hard to determine whether it stands as a creole or not, thus the general consensus among modern linguists to class it under Gaelo-Nordic till enough research has been done to reclassify it under a more appropriate position, potentially as a Scottish-Norse creole.

The difficulty in classifying Scots Norse comes largely down to the morphology and phonology, where it is closer to the modern Gaelic languages than the other Nordic languages, having lost most inflection while simultaneously gaining a simple system of preposition inflections from heavily reduced pronouns.

History

Pre-Modern

Scots Norse originates in the mid to late 13th century, around the time Suðreyjar was handed over to Scotland with the Treaty of Perth. Though the language would continue to be largely unchanged from the Old Norse of the 12th century, 1266AD is often used as a dividing date between Old Norse and the earliest forms of Scots Norse. While 1266 is a relatively arbitrary date, it serves its purpose as a convenient divide between two stages, as following the Treaty of Perth, the Hebrides would gain a much larger population of Gaelic and English speakers (At this point still Middle Irish and Middle English), and from roughly 1450AD onward, Scots Norse would be increasingly influenced by Scots Gaelic and, to a lesser extent, Scots and English.

Having been spoken throughout all of Suðreyjar, Scots Norse once had a dialect within the Isle of Man (Ma). Little is known about the Mannish dialect (Mazc), as it is very poorly recorded, the most extensive description being a short document from around 1500AD that contains a list of about 150 words, with a very poor description of the pronunciations. Though from this description we can gather that it still had the original dental fricatives that had been lost in other dialects (merging with t/d), we get this from the description "... these [th and dh] are like that of the Saxons' beloved þ."

Following the treaty of Perth, the usage of Norse began declining significantly, with evidence it was nearly extinct by 1550. A small revitalization occurred in the 18th century when several of the last native speakers (having had no more than 150 remaining speakers) were gathered together by Sorcha of Uist in order to compile two main documents, a dictionary and a grammar. This effort was mostly effective, leading to the first noticeable rise in speaker count since it began declining. By the 1880's, there would be upwards of 1,500 native speakers, a majority of them young.

Modern

Modern Scots Norse is typically classed as critically endangered due to how few speakers it has, having no more than 2,500 native speakers as of 2020, and virtually all of them live in the Hebrides, making its usage extremely limited.

Since the early 1990's, Scots Norse has gained a small but dedicated community of linguists that are determined to further document it and make resources more readily available. As of 2018, an online course has been published that goes over Standard Scots Norse, and it has been continually updated since then, improving the quality and extent of the contents, having started out as a rather barebones description of the phonology, orthography, and rudimentary grammar.

Development

The development of Scots Norse is one of the best understood aspects of the language, owing to its extreme divergence being an interest to linguists.

Pre-Scots Norse

This is the form of Scots Norse when it was still a dialect of Old Norse

  • lengthening of stressed vowels in open syllables
  • loss of gemination of non-sonorants.
  • final /r̩/ and nominal singular /ɑr, ir/ > /ə/
  • final front vowels > /ʲə/, final back vowels to /ə/
  • hl, hv, hr > l, v, r
  • /ɣ/ > /g/
  • /w/ > /v/, causing /f/ [v] to merge back with [f], thus "arfa" [ɑr.vɑ] > [ɑr.fə] (modern /əɾf/)
  • /θ, ð/ > /t, d/, with a few cases of /θ, ð/ > /f, v/
  • diphthong flattening, /øy, ɒu, ɛi/ > /øː, oː, eː/
  • merger of mid-high and mid-low vowels
  • e > ja occasionally when Proto-Germanic *e (typically becomes ja in Old Norse anyways)
  • /Cj/ > /Cʲ/

Sudrey Norse

Sudrey Norse, also occasionally called "Middle Scots Norse", is the stage directly before Modern, it is in no way intelligible with the modern language.

  • development of slender/broad/plain distinction
  • front round vowels break to /jV/
  • short vowels > /ɪ, ɛ, ə, ʊ, ɔ/
  • long vowels > /i, e, ɑ, u, o/
  • (Western only) Loss of all gemination, including sonorants.
  • loss of /ə/ between two sonorants (such as /jər/ > /ir/), unless part of an inflectional ending.
  • unstressed vowels to /ə/.
  • /r/ becomes /ɾ/ intervocalically?

Modern Scots Norse

  • /v/ > /f/ next to voiceless fricatives, such as /sv/ > /sf/.
ON. svartr /ˈswɑr.tr̩/ > SuNo. svarta /ˈsvəɾ.tə/ > ScNo. sfart /ˈsfəɾt/
  • mutations develop through the loss of word final sounds
    • lenition: from being intervocalic
ON. agi /ˈɑ.ɣi/ > SuNo. àgi /ˈɑ.ɟə/ > ScNo. àegh /ˈɑj/
    • eclipsis: from nasal clusters
  • (Eastern) Loss of all gemination.
  • several palatalized sounds shift:
    • /s, z, n, l, k, g, h, ɣ/ > /ʃ, ʒ, ɲ, ʎ, c, ɟ, ç, ʝ/

Phonology

labial alveolar velar
broad slender broad slender broad slender
nasal m mʲ n ɲ
stop unvoiced p pʲ t tʲ k c
voiced b bʲ d dʲ g ɟ
fricative unvoiced f fʲ s ʃ x ç
voiced v vʲ z ʒ ɣ j
approximant ɾ, ɫ ɾʲ, ʎ j
front back
short long short long
High ɪ i ɤ u
Mid ɛ e ɔ o
Low ə ɑ

Prosody

Stress has shifted significantly since Old Norse, instead being placed on the first long vowel in a word, if none exist, then it's placed on the first short vowel.

Loan words typically keep their original stress, with vowels being made "long" as necessary to keep the stress patterning functional, such as in bambù /bəm.ˈbu/ and halò /xə.ˈɫo/.

Mutation

Scots Norse has developed a system of mutation incredibly similar to that of Irish. These mutations are no longer productive, and have thus been grammaticalized to a point where mutations can be the only distinction between a pair of words, eg. è bhèodh ("to not comfort") vs. è mèodh ("one bed"). Thus the mutations are incredibly important to understanding the relationship between words, as well as being important to distinguishing meaning.

Like the Goidelic languages which have influenced Scots Norse, there are two mutations: lenition (Scots Norse: miùichin /ˈmʲu.çəɲ/) and eclipsis (sfartin /ˈsɸəɾ.təɲ/). Originally these were a series of sandhi effects: lenition being caused by a consonant being intervocalic, and eclipsis caused by a consonant following a nasal (as in "lan", older "land"). Lenition also affects vowel initial words in the form of h-prothesis, though occasionally a "lenited" vowel-initial word will take dh', a borrowing from Gàidhlig.

Lenition

Lenition as an initial mutation originally stems from the historic allophonic lenition of an intervocalic consonant, both word internally and across word boundaries, i.e if a word ended in a vowel and the next word began with a consonant + a vowel, the consonant lenited. The vowels which originally caused lenition have almost entirely been lost, with the exception of adverbial -a, though the lenition remains as a grammaticalized feature.

Lenition turned voiced stops and nasals into fricatives, /s/ debuccalized to /h/, /f/ was elided, and /r/ may have been split between fortis and lenis, though this distinction is preserved nowhere. Lenited /t, d/ (/θ, ð/) have since merged with /x, ɣ/.

Word-internal lenition is common, but isn't grammaticalized, unlike word-final lenition which has been grammaticalized through certain inflected forms (eg. Gud, but Guedh in the dative).

Eclipsis

Eclipsis arises from a historic cluster of /NC/, including across word boundaries. These clusters would eventually coalesce, with the nasal largely being lost. Eclipsis turned voiced stops into nasals, voiceless stops and voiced fricatives into voiced stops, and voiceless fricatives into voiced. With the loss of the original nasal, eclipsis was grammaticalized, as in hi, coming from older hinn. Eclipsis also affects vowel-initial words, in a very similar way to h-prothesis, as in alm > n'alm.

Orthography

(updated up to "cn")

Morphology

Most parts of speech are split among three "types" or "classes" based on the mutation they cause in the following word, these are called "radical", "lenite", and "eclipse", and they generally don't affect the word itself. Verbs form the primary exception, as they very consistently follow a single pattern, with the dictionary form (the infinitive) always being a lenite.

A set of colors will be applied within the tables here, each color highlighting a specific thing.

  • red: the ending.
  • blue: the mutation.
  • green: the impersonal infix. (for verbs)
  • purple: the mutation within the ending. (for prepositions)

Nominals

Nouns

Scots Norse nouns decline for three cases (direct, genitive, and dative), two genders (masculine and feminine), and two numbers (singular and plural). The direct comes the merging of the nominative and the accusative, the two having fell together due to sound changes. The definite forms distinctive of the Nordic languages have been dropped in favor of the standalone article hi.

Nouns generally follow two patterns, which themselves are incredibly similar, the only true distinction being the direct plural, which is -ar in the masculine and -ir in the feminine. Another distinction is the direct singular, where the coda can appear broad in slender roots, such as bèodh, with a root of bèdh-, though this distinction only really exists for elder speakers.

Masculines

The following set of tables will display a few examples of the native masculine pattern.

Native masculine nouns
veolp ("puppy") a ("fragrance") alm ("elm tree")
indefinite indefinite indefinite
singular plural singular plural singular plural
direct veolp velpar a angar alm almar
genitive velps veolph az angh alz almh
dative velph velphu aengh anghu aelmh almhu
definite definite definite
singular plural singular plural singular plural
direct hi beolp hìnhar velpar hi n'a hìnhar angar hi n'alm hìnhar almar
genitive hiz velps hionh vheolph hiz az hionh h'angh hiz alz hionh h'almh
dative hình belph hìnhu belphu hình n'aengh hìnhu n'anghu hình n'aelmh hìnhu n'almhu

While both a and alm appear irregular, they are not so, as the forms are entirely expected. a comes from older ang, the nasal being lost in the direct singular, but preserved in other forms. The genitive singular taking -z is from eclipsis of the normal -s due to the roots' nasal.

The definite forms typically include a vocative, formed with the particle a plus the direct form. These are excluded here as it is not a "true" case.

Nouns from Scottish and Irish tend to instead take -an for the direct plural, after the regular plural in Scottish.

Gaelic masculine nouns
día ("god") loch ("loch") [Term?] ("")
indefinite indefinite indefinite
singular plural singular plural singular plural
direct día díathan loch lochan
genitive días día lochs loch
dative día díathu loech lochu
definite definite definite
singular plural singular plural singular plural
direct hi nía hìnhar díathan hi loch hìnhar lochan hi hìnhar
genitive hiz días hionh dhía hiz lochs hionh loch hiz hionh
dative hình nía hìnhu níathu hình loech hìnhu lochu hình hìnhu

Other than the -an plural, all nouns follow roughly the same pattern, with some variation between depending on the environment. This makes Scots Norse stunningly regular, to a point largely unseen for a Germanic language, especially one that preserves so much of the declension system.

Adjectives

Adjectives act much like nouns, to the point the two are often used as each other (eg. "sèl" being used as the noun "happiness"). Also like nouns, adjectives dropped the definite (weak) forms, which greatly simplified the adjective declensions.

Regular adjective (sèl)
positive masculine feminine plural
nominative sèol L sèl sèlar
genitive sèlsh sèlar sèol L
dative sèol E sèl L sèlu E
comparative masculine feminine plural
nom./gen. sèlar sèlir sèlir
dative sèlar sèlir sèluru E
superlative masculine feminine plural
nominative sèlast L sèlust sèlastar
genitive sèlasts sèlastar sèlast L
dative sèlust E sèlist L sèlustu E

L Triggers lenition   E Triggers eclipsis

Pronouns

The personal pronouns have largely simplified from Old Norse, with case essentially lost in them. The modern plural forms seem to descend from the old dual (as in Icelandic and Faroese), thus only a singular/plural distinction is made. The reflexive pronoun has largely been lost, only preserved in the form of -sc, which is used to form the reflexive voice.

The suffix forms are largely only used colloquially on verbs for person and number marking (eg. "I speak" is "mèlirg" in colloquial Scots Norse). These suffixes are far more common in Eastern Scots Norse than Western.

Personal pronouns
plain emphatic possessive
plain suffix plain suffix
sg. 1st mic -g mìnhich -ich mì E
2nd tic -ch tìda L -ta L tì E
3rd m ha E -a E haza E -(z)a E haz
f hành L -anh L henha E -(nh)a E henhar
pl. 1st och -ach ochuith -uith ochar
2nd uech -uech uechith -tith uechar
3rd tèr -ti tèrthir -thir tèor

L Triggers lenition   E Triggers eclipsis

Prepositions

Scots Norse has a system of inflected prepositions incredibly similar to the Gaelic languages, these are required, thus **vid hành is ungrammatical, instead requiring videnh. Scots Norse is incredibly unusual in that prepositions are split into three classes or patterns based on the interaction between the root and the ending.


Inflection of til (class 1)
plain emphatic
singular 1st tilmì E tilmìnhic
2nd tiltì E tiltìda
3rd m tilaz tilaza E
f tilenh tilenha E
plural 1st tilach tilachúith
2nd tilich tilichith
3rd tiltèor L tiltèorthi

E: Triggers eclipsis L: Triggers lenition

Inflection of vid (class 1)
plain emphatic
singular 1st vidmì E vidmìnhic
2nd vidtì E vidtìda
3rd m vidaz vidaza E
f videnh videnha E
plural 1st vidach vidachúith
2nd vidich vidichith
3rd vidtèor L vidtèorthi

E: Triggers eclipsis L: Triggers lenition


Inflection of frà (class 2)
plain emphatic
singular 1st fràmhì E fràmhìnhic
2nd fràthì E fràthìda
3rd m fràhaz fràhaza E
f fràhenh fràhenha E
plural 1st fràthach fràthachúith
2nd fràthich fràthichith
3rd fràthèor L fràthèorthi

E: Triggers eclipsis L: Triggers lenition

Inflection of ì (class 2)
plain emphatic
singular 1st ìmhì E ìmhìnhic
2nd ìthì E ìthìda
3rd m ìhaz ìhaza E
f ìhenh ìhenha E
plural 1st ìthach ìthachúith
2nd ìthich ìthichith
3rd ìthèor L ìthèorthi

E: Triggers eclipsis L: Triggers lenition


Inflection of i (class 2)
plain emphatic
singular 1st inì E inìnhic
2nd idì E idìda
3rd m ighaz ighaza E
f ighenh ighenha E
plural 1st inhach inhachúith
2nd inhich inhichith
3rd idèor L idèorthi

E: Triggers eclipsis L: Triggers lenition

Inflection of anh (class 2)
plain emphatic
singular 1st anhnì E anhnìnhic
2nd anhdì E anhdìda
3rd m anhghaz anhghaza E
f anhghenh anhghenha E
plural 1st anhach anhachúith
2nd anhich anhichith
3rd anhdèor L anhdèorthi

E: Triggers eclipsis L: Triggers lenition

Verbs

Many significant changes have happened to the verb system since Old Norse, notably both the mood and voice distinctions have been lost. The active indicative has descended into the present and past tense, while the active subjunctive was lost entirely. The mediopassive became the future and imperative (the mood distinction in the mediopassive largely having already collapsed in Old Norse). The reciprocal, originally formed through the mediopassive, has entirely been replaced by hinhar. The impersonal -t- likely descends from a reduced form of Old Norse þat, the development similar to English it as an impersonal pronoun.

The reduction of verbs to such a limited number of forms led to analogy that leveled them all down to essentially two patterns (excluding a few irregular verbs), which seemingly descend from Old Norse's weak class 2.

Conjugation of tàl
present past future conditional
infinitive tàl(aich) tàladh tàlast tàladhast
participle tàlin tàla tàlanist tàlast
positive negative
personal impersonal personal impersonal
ind. pres. tàlir tàltir è thàlir è thàltir
past tàladhir tàltadhir è thàladhir è thàltadhir
fut. tàlist tàltist è thàlist è thàltist
cond. tàladhist tàltadhist è thàladhist è thàltadhist
cont. pres. tàlirúi tàltirúi è thàlirúi è thàltirúi
past tàladhirúi tàltadhirúi è thàladhirúi è thàltadhirúi
fut. tàlistúi tàltistúi è thàlistúi è thàltistúi
cond. tàladhistúi tàltadhistúi è thàladhistúi è thàltadhistúi
perf. pres. tàlirúa tàltirúa è thàlirúa è thàltirúa
past tàladhirúa tàltadhirúa è thàladhirúa è thàltadhirúa
fut. tàlistúa tàltistúa è thàlistúa è thàltistúa
cond. tàladhistúa tàltadhistúa è thàladhistúa è thàltadhistúa
imp. tàl tàlt è thàl è thàlt
Conjugation of mèl
present past future conditional
infinitive mèl(ich) mèladh mèlast mèladhast
participle mèlin mèla mèlanist mèlast
positive negative
personal impersonal personal impersonal
ind. pres. mèlir mèltir è mhèlir è mhèltir
past mèladhir mèltadhir è mhèladhir è mhèltadhir
fut. mèlist mèltist è mhèlist è mhèltist
cond. mèladhist mèltadhist è mhèladhist è mhèltadhist
cont. pres. mèlirúi mèltirúi è mhèlirúi è mhèltirúi
past mèladhirúi mèltadhirúi è mhèladhirúi è mhèltadhirúi
fut. mèlistúi mèltistúi è mhèlistúi è mhèltistúi
cond. mèladhistúi mèltadhistúi è mhèladhistúi è mhèltadhistúi
perf. pres. mèlirúa mèltirúa è mhèlirúa è mhèltirúa
past mèladhirúa mèltadhirúa è mhèladhirúa è mhèltadhirúa
fut. mèlistúa mèltistúa è mhèlistúa è mhèltistúa
cond. mèladhistúa mèltadhistúa è mhèladhistúa è mhèltadhistúa
imp. mèl mèlt è mhèl è mhèlt
Conjugation of àgh
present past future conditional
infinitive àgh(aich) àghadh àghast àghadhast
participle àghin àgha àghanist àghast
positive negative
personal impersonal personal impersonal
ind. pres. àghir àghtir è h'àghir è h'àghtir
past àghadhir àghtadhir è h'àghadhir è h'àghtadhir
fut. àghist àghtist è h'àghist è h'àghtist
cond. àghadhist àghtadhist è h'àghadhist è h'àghtadhist
cont. pres. àghirúi àghtirúi è h'àghirúi è h'àghtirúi
past àghadhirúi àghtadhirúi è h'àghadhirúi è h'àghtadhirúi
fut. àghistúi àghtistúi è h'àghistúi è h'àghtistúi
cond. àghadhistúi àghtadhistúi è h'àghadhistúi è h'àghtadhistúi
perf. pres. àghirúa àghtirúa è h'àghirúa è h'àghtirúa
past àghadhirúa àghtadhirúa è h'àghadhirúa è h'àghtadhirúa
fut. àghistúa àghtistúa è h'àghistúa è h'àghtistúa
cond. àghadhistúa àghtadhistúa è h'àghadhistúa è h'àghtadhistúa
imp. àgh àght è h'àgh è h'àght

i-negatives

This is a very small class of verbs that take i- to form the negative, this prefix causing eclipsis in the root, thus a verb like bì will have a negative imì, as seen below.

Conjugation of bì
present past future conditional
infinitive bì(thich) bìthadh bìthast bìthadhast
participle bìthin bìtha bìthanist bìthast
positive negative
personal impersonal personal impersonal
ind. pres. bìthir bìtir imìthir imìtir
past bìthadhir bìtadhir imìthadhir imìtadhir
fut. bìthist bìtist imìthist imìtist
cond. bìthadhist bìtadhist imìthadhist imìtadhist
cont. pres. bìthirúi bìtirúi imìthirúi imìtirúi
past bìthadhirúi bìtadhirúi imìthadhirúi imìtadhirúi
fut. bìthistúi bìtistúi imìthistúi imìtistúi
cond. bìthadhistúi bìtadhistúi imìthadhistúi imìtadhistúi
perf. pres. bìthirúa bìtirúa imìthirúa imìtirúa
past bìthadhirúa bìtadhirúa imìthadhirúa imìtadhirúa
fut. bìthistúa bìtistúa imìthistúa imìtistúa
cond. bìthadhistúa bìtadhistúa imìthadhistúa imìtadhistúa
imp. bì bìt imì imìt
Conjugation of vèr
present past future conditional
infinitive vèr(ich) vèradh vèrast vèradhast
participle vèrin vèra vèranist vèrast
positive negative
personal impersonal personal impersonal
ind. pres. vèrir vèrtir ibèrir ibèrtir
past vèradhir vèrtadhir ibèradhir ibèrtadhir
fut. vèrist vèrtist ibèrist ibèrtist
cond. vèradhist vèrtadhist ibèradhist ibèrtadhist
cont. pres. vèrirúi vèrtirúi ibèrirúi ibèrtirúi
past vèradhirúi vèrtadhirúi ibèradhirúi ibèrtadhirúi
fut. vèristúi vèrtistúi ibèristúi ibèrtistúi
cond. vèradhistúi vèrtadhistúi ibèradhistúi ibèrtadhistúi
perf. pres. vèrirúa vèrtirúa ibèrirúa ibèrtirúa
past vèradhirúa vèrtadhirúa ibèradhirúa ibèrtadhirúa
fut. vèristúa vèrtistúa ibèristúa ibèrtistúa
cond. vèradhistúa vèrtadhistúa ibèradhistúa ibèrtadhistúa
imp. vèr vèrt ibèr ibèrt

Syntax

Word order

Scots Norse word order is incredibly strict, relying more on particles than word order for changing the sentence type. The typical order is:

  1. Preverbal particle(s)
  2. Verb
  3. Postverbal particle(s)
  4. Subject
  5. Preposition(s) (usually)
  6. Direct object or predicate adjective
  7. Indirect object

An example:

(1)

èthir

eat.PRES

mic

1sg

hi

the

màth.

food.DIR

èthir mic hi màth.

eat.PRES 1sg the food.DIR

I eat the food.

Prepositions are placed largely as in English, but the usage can often differ, eg. "i" ("in") goes before the direct object, but is also used for many other things, such as "under" in "under construction" ("i miùeghi", literally "in building").

Adjectives and genitives, much like in Gàidhlig, come after the noun, eg. "blòemh ròdh" for "red flower" and "blòemh mì" for "my flower".

(2)

⟨i⟩ mlòmhir ⟨u⟩

⟨CONT⟩bloom.PRES

blòm

flower.DIR

ròdh

red.DIR

mì

1sg.POSS

{⟨i⟩ mlòmhir ⟨u⟩} blòm ròdh mì

⟨CONT⟩bloom.PRES flower.DIR red.DIR 1sg.POSS

Questions and answers

Scots Norse lacks a true equivalent to "no", the closest thing being "è(gh)" ("not"), which can often be used on it's own when a form of "be" + "not" suffices for an answer, as in:

(3)

vàrt

Q

mèlir

speak.PRES

tic

2sg

vidmì?

with.1sg

vàrt mèlir tic vidmì?

Q speak.PRES 2sg with.1sg

Will you speak with me?

 (3.1)

ègh

NEG

ègh

NEG

I won't

Following this usage of "ègh", "ghià" (Old Norse "já") is often used as an affirmative, as in:

(4)

vàrt

Q

èthist

eat.FUT

tic

2sg

màenh-màls

dinner.DIR

vidmìnhic?

with.1sg.EMP

vàrt èthist tic màenh-màls vidmìnhic?

Q eat.FUT 2sg dinner.DIR with.1sg.EMP

Will you eat dinner with me?

 (4.1)

ghià!

AFF

ghià!

AFF

I will!

As has likely been noticed by now, questions consistently contain "vàrt" at the beginning, this is a general question particle, akin to Gàidhlig "an".

"To be"

Existential bì

Likely under the influence of Irish, the verb "bìodh" (Old Norse "bíða") shifted to an existential copula, expressing existence, location, and condition, rather than an impersonal one, while an odd development, the extreme influence of the Gaelic languages does well explain it, in this sense it's most often spelt "bì", with the various endings being appended with an apostrophe, as in "bì'ir" or "bì'adhist", in these forms it is often pronounced /bj-/, thus /bjəjʃt/ for "bì'adhist".

(5)

bì'ir

EXIST.PRES

Gud

God.DIR

bì'ir Gud

EXIST.PRES God.DIR

God exists

(6)

bì'ir

EXIST.PRES

hìnhar

the.PL.DIR

eplar

apple.PL.DIR

o

on

ghình

the.DAT

moerdh

table.DAT

bì'ir hìnhar eplar o ghình moerdh

EXIST.PRES the.PL.DIR apple.PL.DIR on the.DAT table.DAT

the apples are on the table

bì has developed in such a way where a noun phrase cannot directly act as the predicate, instead needing to be preceded by u, as in:

Copulative vèr

The verb vèr acts as the so-called "equative 'to be'", eg. the verb "to be" as used to mean "X = Y", as in:

(8)

vèrir

COP.PRES

mic

1sg

sèl

happy

vèrir mic sèl

COP.PRES 1sg happy

I am happy

"vèr" in the present tense can often be dropped when paired with an emphatic pronoun, compare vèrir mic hi dèter. vs. mìnhich hi dèter., both meaning "I am the teacher."

When saying "this/that is", "tèsh" and "ta" are used, with the verb dropped in the present tense.

(5a) tèsh thèter mì "This (is) my teacher"
(5b) ta hi dèter "That's the teacher"

"in him/her" can also be used with an adjective to intensify it.

(9)

vèrir

COP.PRES

ha

3sg.M

zèol

happy

h'ighaz

in.3sg.M

vèrir ha zèol h'ighaz

COP.PRES 3sg.M happy in.3sg.M

He is happy

(10)

vèrir

COP.PRES

hành

3sg.F

bhrìa

beautiful

h'ighenh

in.3sg.F

vèrir hành bhrìa h'ighenh

COP.PRES 3sg.F beautiful in.3sg.F

She is beautiful

Evidentiality

Evidentiality in Scots Norse is entirely analytical, though based on the verb. There are three main classes of evidentials; the factual, the direct, and the indirect. The factual is distinguished from the direct by moreso conveying what is known to be correct than what is witnessed to be correct, eg. "humans need oxygen" vs "the injured dog has healed (and I saw it)", the former being factual while the latter is direct.

The factual is typically formed through a verbs' indicative, but it can also take the long infinitive of "bì" ("bìthich"; "to exist") for emphasis, such as:

(11)

crevhir

require.PRES

me

human.DIR.PL

màth

food.DIR

crevhir me màth

require.PRES human.DIR.PL food.DIR

humans require food

(12)

crevhir

require.PRES

bìthich

EXIST.INF

me

human.DIR.PL

màth

food.DIR

crevhir bìthich me màth

require.PRES EXIST.INF human.DIR.PL food.DIR

humans require food (and I know it)

The direct is typically formed with the past infinitive of "sià" ("siàthadh"; "perceived"), thus:

(13)

⟨as⟩ lèocnscir ⟨u⟩

⟨PERF⟩heal.PRES.IMPRS

siàthadh

see.PAST.INF

hi

the.DIR

gù

dog.DIR

{⟨as⟩ lèocnscir ⟨u⟩} siàthadh hi gù

⟨PERF⟩heal.PRES.IMPRS see.PAST.INF the.DIR dog.DIR

the dog has healed (and I saw it)

The indirect tends to be formed with the past infinitive of "seogh" ("seoghadh"; "told"):

(14)

fàradhir

fare.PAST

seoghadh

tell.PAST.INF

tèr

3pl

circh

church.DAT

fàradhir seoghadh tèr circh

fare.PAST tell.PAST.INF 3pl church.DAT

they went to church (so I was told)

To better show all three classes, the sentence "he went home" will be used to show each.

(15a)

fàradhir

fare.PAST

(bìthich)

(EXIST.INF)

ha

3sg.m

hèmh

home.DAT

fàradhir (bìthich) ha hèmh

fare.PAST (EXIST.INF) 3sg.m home.DAT

he went home

(15b)

fàradhir

fare.PAST

siàthadh

perceive.PAST.INF

ha

3sg.m

hèmh

home.DAT

fàradhir siàthadh ha hèmh

fare.PAST perceive.PAST.INF 3sg.m home.DAT

(I saw that) he went home

(15b)

fàradhir

fare.PAST

seoghadh

tell.PAST.INF

ha

3sg.m

hèmh

home.DAT

fàradhir seoghadh ha hèmh

fare.PAST tell.PAST.INF 3sg.m home.DAT

(I was told that) he went home

Texts

UDHR Article 1

Original (English)

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Old Norse (modern translation)

Allir menn eru bornir frjálsir ok jafnir at virðingu ok réttum. Þeir eru allir viti gœddir ok samvizku, ok skulu gøra hvárr til annars bróðurliga.

Scots Norse

vèrir me n'al bhòri vrials 's ghiab, vhèrin vhirdhi 's rèth h'attì. vèrin giòedh 's sabasc h'attì, 's scùl ghiòer hinhar til bròdhligh.

"all men are born free and equal, having dignity and rights. they have reason and conscience, and should act to eachother as a brotherhood"

The Cold Winter is Near

Scots Norse English
vèrir hi bèth cald faisg, fàr cathadh hèr.   The cold winter is near, a blizzard will come.
fhiàr hùs varm mhì, n'a vhìonh. Come in my warm house, o' friend.
velkùmha! fàr hèr, siuingh 's dans, èth 's drech! Welcome! Come here, sing and dance, eat and drink!
vèrir tesh ètlin mhì. That is my plan.
bìthir vat, 's al, 's miòlc go niù frà hi giù unì! We have water, beer, and fresh milk from the cow.
ò, 's sùp varm! Oh, and warm soup!

Vocabulary

Phrasebook


Numerals

1 è
2 tfè, tfèr
3 trì
4 fiòer
5 fi
6 siach
7 siò
8 àth
9 niù
10 tiù
11 eliovh
12 tòlv

Colors

Time

Lexical comparison

Leipzig-Jakarta

See also

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