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|created          = Dec 2021
|created          = Dec 2021
|familycolor      = australian
|familycolor      = australian
|fam1              = East Mandabudi <small>''(areal)''</small>
|fam1              = East Taktapṣaikhulu <small>''(areal)''</small>
|ancestor          = Pre-Dundulanyä
|ancestor          = Pre-Dundulanyä
|creator          = [[User:Lili21|Lili21]]
|creator          = User:Lili21
|stand1            = Modern Standard Dundulanyä
|stand1            = Modern Standard Dundulanyä
|script1          = Dundulanyä abugida
|script1          = Dundulanyä abugida
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}}
}}


'''Dundulanyä''' {{IPA|[dundulɐnjɛ]}}, natively known as ''dundulanyä ḫamfafa''<ref>Literally "Dundulanyä our-language", with a 1PL possessive; the stylistic variant ''dundulanyä ḫamfarān'' (lit. "Dundulanyä their-language") is sometimes found in neutral contexts.</ref> {{IPA|[dundulɐnjɛ ħɐmɸɐɸɐ]}}, is the most spoken language on the planet [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]] (Dun.: ''Lelḫajāṃrya''). It is the official language of the Confederation of the United Dundulanyä Republics, which makes it the main lingua franca across the two southern hemisphere continents, Lusaṃrīte - where it originated - and Jūhma.
'''Dundulanyä''' {{IPA|[dundulɐnjɛ]}}, natively known as ''dundulanyä ḫamfafa''<ref>Literally "Dundulanyä our-language", with a 1PL possessive; the stylistic variant ''dundulanyä ḫamfarān'' (lit. "Dundulanyä their-language") is sometimes found in neutral contexts.</ref> {{IPA|[dundulɐnjɛ ħɐmɸɐɸɐ]}}, is the most spoken language on the planet [[Verse:Eventoa|Eventoa]] (Dun.: ''Lelḫajāṃrya''). It is the official language of the Confederation of the United Dundulanyä Republics, the pluricultural political entity which occupies the majority of the two southern hemisphere continents, Lusaṃrīte - where the language itself originated - and Jūhma, where it is the main lingua franca.


Dundulanyä itself has a long history, being first attested about 2400 years before the present in the areas of Central Lusaṃrīte, where the Dundulanyä civilization first developed; through successive empires and religious proselytism, people and language spread across many areas of the continent - most notably Dundulanyä-ifying the north shore of the Inland Seas by the end of Classical Lusaṃrītene Antiquity. As the dominant civilization of Lusaṃrīte, the Dundulanyä spread their language to become the main lingua franca of trade and culture in most of the continent and in eastern Jūhma; the massive demographical changes brought by the epidemics that were the result of increased contact with the civilizations of the northern hemisphere effectively enabled the Dundulanyä culture to spread in areas where formerly other civilizations were dominant. By the modern and contemporary eras, a more standardized version of classical Dundulanyä remained the lingua franca among multiple peoples across Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma, and the situation remained more or less the same after the collapse of the Fifth Dundulanyä Empire and through the Three Leagues Period.
Dundulanyä itself has a long history, being first attested about 2600 years before the present in the areas of Central Lusaṃrīte, in the region of Taktapṣikha, where the Dundulanyä civilization first developed; through religious, cultural and political expansion, people and language spread across many areas of the continent, most notably Dundulanyä-ifying the north shore of the Inland Seas by the end of Classical Lusaṃrītene Antiquity. As the most advanced civilization on Lusaṃrīte, the Dundulanyä spread their language to become the main lingua franca of trade and culture in most of the continent and in eastern Jūhma; then, the massive demographical changes brought by the epidemics that were the result of increased contact with the Northern hemisphere civilizations effectively enabled the Dundulanyä culture to spread in areas where formerly other cultures had been dominant. By the modern and contemporary eras, a more standardized version of classical Dundulanyä remained the lingua franca among multiple peoples across Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma, and the situation remained more or less the same after the collapse of the Fifth Dundulanyä Empire and through the Three Leagues Period.


Today, Dundulanyä is the official language of the Confederation of the United Dundulanyä Republics (''laḫlurayäh dundulanyäɂi lileṣkorukṣarte śūsmurdibeṣarān''), the multicultural political entity that is dominant throughout Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma; the standard language is a heavily standardized version of the classical language, with many of the less regular forms having fallen out of use after one millennium of being essentially a L2 for the totality of its speakers; high style language and creative usage, however, still uses forms that have fallen out of use in the everyday language. Dundulanyä, along with any of the regional languages of the Confederation, is the main language for its 1,9 billion inhabitants, a number to which should be added a substantial amount of foreign users in virtually all other countries in Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma.
Today, Dundulanyä is the official language of the Confederation of the United Dundulanyä Republics (''laḫlurayäh dundulanyäɂi lileṣkorukṣarte śūsmurdibeṣarān''); the standard language is a heavily prescriptive and codified version of the classical language, with many of the less regular forms having fallen out of use after one millennium of being essentially a second language for the totality of its speakers; high style language and creative usage, however, still uses forms no longer used in the everyday language. Dundulanyä, coexisting in diglossia with hundreds of languages - its own daughter languages, creoles based on Dundulanyä, or completely unrelated ones - together known as the "vernaculars" or ''tūsahufāni'', is the main language for the 1,9 billion people living in the Confederation, a number to which should be added a substantial amount of foreign users in virtually all other countries in Lusaṃrīte and Jūhma.
 
Both the language and the setting are still under construction: see the [[Dundulanyä#External history|External history section on this page]] for more.


==Internal history==
==Internal history==
The relationship of Dundulanyä to other languages is poorly understood, given the limited attestations of neighboring languages contemporary to archaic Dundulanyä. It is classified as an East Mandabudi language, an areal grouping that includes Dundulanyä and some ancient - and scarcely attested - languages of that area based on some criteria that have been found, such as Austronesian-type alignment, a possessive system like the one of Dundulanyä itself, a duodecimal number system, and heavily inflected nouns, that are not found in the most thoroughly attested languages of that era, the neighboring West Mandabudi and Dailishi languages.
The relationship of Dundulanyä to other languages is poorly understood, given the limited attestations of neighboring languages contemporary to archaic Dundulanyä. It is classified as an East Taktapṣaikhulu language, an areal grouping that includes Dundulanyä and some ancient - and scarcely attested - languages of that area based on some criteria that have been found, such as Austronesian-type alignment, a possessive system like the one of Dundulanyä itself, a duodecimal number system, and heavily inflected nouns, that are not found in the most thoroughly attested languages of that era, the neighboring West Taktapṣaikhulu and Dailishi languages.


==Phonology (''yāṃsaśodda'')==
==Phonology (''yāṃsaśodda'')==
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| colspan=3 | {{IPA|ʀ̩ ʀ̩ː}}  
| colspan=3 | {{IPA|ʀ̩ ʀ̩ː}}  
|}
|}
The two diphthongs {{IPA|/aɪ̯ aʊ̯/}} were most likely realized as {{IPA|[aɪ̯ aʊ̯]}} in Classical Dundulanyä and that one is considered the most literary and formal pronunciation today, however, it is most commonly used by speakers from the North Shore (excluding Līlah), parts of Śola, the Śusopai (Western Lusaṃrīte) and most of Jūhma. The majority of speakers - in Taktapṣikha, Śubhāla, the Toyubeshian islands, Western Jūhma, and the majority of inland Central and Southern Lusaṃrīte pronounce them as {{IPA|[ɛɪ̯ ɔʊ̯]}}. In Northern Lusaṃrīte and southwards along the coast including the city of Līlah and the Dendāɂneye, as well as in some of the northern islands, the intermediate pronunciation {{IPA|[æɪ̯ ɑʊ̯]}} with more open but non-centralized first elements are most commonly heard.


The consonant inventory is more complex, with a pattern of “soft” and “hard” consonants traditionally recognized by classical Dundulanyä grammarians, not on a phonetic basis but starting from their relationship inside Dundulanyä morphology. In most cases, the difference is based on aspiration.
The consonant inventory is more complex, with a pattern of “soft” and “hard” consonants traditionally recognized by classical Dundulanyä grammarians, not on a phonetic basis but starting from their relationship inside Dundulanyä morphology. In most cases, the difference is based on aspiration.
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# {{IPA|/ɖ/}} and {{IPA|/ɖʱ/}} are generally represented by the stop realizations, however, in the contemporary spoken language, except when adjacent to another consonant they are most commonly realized as any of {{IPA|[ɽ(ʱ) ɭ(ʱ) ɻ(ʱ)]}} depending on the geographical origin of the speaker, realizations which are influenced by the historical development of Classical Dundulanyä {{IPA|/ɖ ɖʱ/}} in the modern vernaculars.
# {{IPA|/ɖ/}} and {{IPA|/ɖʱ/}} are generally represented by the stop realizations, however, in the contemporary spoken language, except when adjacent to another consonant they are most commonly realized as any of {{IPA|[ɽ(ʱ) ɭ(ʱ) ɻ(ʱ)]}} depending on the geographical origin of the speaker, realizations which are influenced by the historical development of Classical Dundulanyä {{IPA|/ɖ ɖʱ/}} in the modern vernaculars.
# The '''q''' {{IPA|/ɢ/}} phoneme is represented here by its most accepted contemporary pronunciation, as there is some debate about its prevailing quality in Classical Dundulanyä. It is also the phoneme which realization varies the most throughout the Dundulanyä-speaking world, often having different realizations depending on the position in the word, or often merging with other phonemes - generally with one of {{IPA|/g/}}, {{IPA|/k/}} or {{IPA|/ʔ/}}.<br/>In the standard pronunciation (as well as in the entire North Shore, in and around the city of Līlah, and elsewhere in most of Northern and Western Lusaṃrīte), it is {{IPA|[ɢ]}} word-initially and syllable-initially, and a fricative (either uvular {{IPA|[χ]}}-{{IPA|[ʁ]}} or velar {{IPA|[x]}}-{{IPA|[ɣ]}}) in coda, voiceless before voiceless consonants and voiced otherwise.
# The '''q''' {{IPA|/ɢ/}} phoneme is represented here by its most accepted contemporary pronunciation, as there is some debate about its prevailing quality in Classical Dundulanyä. It is also the phoneme which realization varies the most throughout the Dundulanyä-speaking world, often having different realizations depending on the position in the word, or often merging with other phonemes - generally with one of {{IPA|/g/}}, {{IPA|/k/}} or {{IPA|/ʔ/}}.<br/>In the standard pronunciation (as well as in the entire North Shore, in and around the city of Līlah, and elsewhere in most of Northern and Western Lusaṃrīte), it is {{IPA|[ɢ]}} word-initially and syllable-initially, and a fricative (either uvular {{IPA|[χ]}}-{{IPA|[ʁ]}} or velar {{IPA|[x]}}-{{IPA|[ɣ]}}) in coda, voiceless before voiceless consonants and voiced otherwise.
Some maximalist analyses of contemporary Dundulanyä phonology include other phonemes beyond the standard set; however, the most common analysis, used throughout this and related articles, has the benefit of having a nearly 1:1 correspondence between phonemes and graphemes. For example, a few modern grammarians include a palato-labial series, corresponding to palatal + {{IPA|/ʋ/}} clusters in the analysis above, realized as {{IPA|[Cʷ]}} in many modern pronunciations (cf. {{IPA|[ɕʷɐ̹ŋɡɐ]}} for {{IPA|/ɕʋɐŋɡɐ/}} ''śvaṅga'' "money").


With the partial exception of {{IPA|/ħ/}}, words may only end in soft consonants and/or clusters of an approximant followed by a single soft stop or fricative. In the romanization, some apparent exceptions may be seen due to saṃdhi in words followed by clitics, such as in ''logh va'' "I don't go" {{IPA|[lɔɡʱʋɐ]}}.
With the partial exception of {{IPA|/ħ/}}, words may only end in soft consonants and/or clusters of an approximant followed by a single soft stop or fricative. In the romanization, some apparent exceptions may be seen due to saṃdhi in words followed by clitics, such as in ''logh va'' "I don't go" {{IPA|[lɔɡʱʋɐ]}}.
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-'''tp̃'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''tc'''- → -'''cc'''-; -'''tk'''- → -'''kt'''-;<br/>
-'''tp̃'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''tc'''- → -'''cc'''-; -'''tk'''- → -'''kt'''-;<br/>
-'''ṭp̃'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''ṭc'''- → -'''cc'''-; -'''ṭk'''- → -'''kṭ'''-;<br/>
-'''ṭp̃'''- → -'''p̃p̃'''-; -'''ṭc'''- → -'''cc'''-; -'''ṭk'''- → -'''kṭ'''-;<br/>
-'''cp'''- → -'''śp'''-; -'''cp̃'''- → -'''hp̃'''-; -'''ct'''- → -'''kt'''-; -'''cṭ'''- → -'''ṣṭ'''-; -'''ck'''- → -'''śk'''-;<br/>
-'''cp'''- → -'''kp'''-; -'''cp̃'''- → -'''kp̃'''-; -'''ct'''- → -'''kt'''-; -'''cṭ'''- → -'''kṭ'''-; -'''ck'''- → -'''kk'''-;<br/>
-'''kc'''- → -'''cc'''-.
-'''kc'''- → -'''cc'''-.


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-'''db'''- → -'''bd'''-; -'''db̃'''- → -'''r̃b̃'''-; -'''dj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''dg'''- → -'''gd'''-; -'''dq'''- → -'''ɂd'''-;<br/>
-'''db'''- → -'''bd'''-; -'''db̃'''- → -'''r̃b̃'''-; -'''dj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''dg'''- → -'''gd'''-; -'''dq'''- → -'''ɂd'''-;<br/>
-'''ḍb'''- → -'''bḍ'''-; -'''ḍb̃'''- → -'''r̃b̃'''-; -'''ḍj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''ḍg'''- → -'''gḍ'''-; -'''ḍq'''- → -'''ɂḍ'''-;<br/>
-'''ḍb'''- → -'''bḍ'''-; -'''ḍb̃'''- → -'''r̃b̃'''-; -'''ḍj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''ḍg'''- → -'''gḍ'''-; -'''ḍq'''- → -'''ɂḍ'''-;<br/>
-'''jb̃'''- → -'''r̃b̃'''-; -'''j''' + any other stop, including aspirated ones and '''ɂ''' → -'''jñ'''-;<br/>
-'''jb̃'''- → -'''gb̃'''-; -'''j''' + any other stop, including aspirated ones and '''ɂ''' → -'''jñ'''-;<br/>
-'''gj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''gq'''- → -'''qq'''-.
-'''gj'''- → -'''ñj'''-; -'''gq'''- → -'''qq'''-.


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* '''s''' or '''ś''' plus any voiced stop, or '''ṣ''' followed by any non-dental/retroflex voiced stop, disappear but synchronically lengthen the previous vowel;
* '''s''' or '''ś''' plus any voiced stop, or '''ṣ''' followed by any non-dental/retroflex voiced stop, disappear but synchronically lengthen the previous vowel;
* Coronal stops followed  by '''ṣ''' or '''ś''' result in a palatal affricate;
* Coronal stops followed  by '''ṣ''' or '''ś''' result in a palatal affricate;
** The sequences ''-ṅk(h) [ṣ/ś]-'' and ''-ṅg(h) [ṣ/ś]-'' likewise result in ''-ñc(h)-'' and ''-ñj(h)-'';
* All sibilants become '''r''' in front of '''q'''.
* All sibilants become '''r''' in front of '''q'''.


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* ''-Cla-'' nouns have their oblique stem in ''-Cṛ-'' (through intermediate *-Cl̥-), e.g. ''sislam'' "door" → oblique stem ''sisṛm-'' (PreD *sisl̥m-), whence e.g. accusative ''sisṛmat''.
* ''-Cla-'' nouns have their oblique stem in ''-Cṛ-'' (through intermediate *-Cl̥-), e.g. ''sislam'' "door" → oblique stem ''sisṛm-'' (PreD *sisl̥m-), whence e.g. accusative ''sisṛmat''.
Such stems are also used in derivational morphology, see e.g. ''prāsisṛmapa'' (backyard) for an example with the root ''sislam''.
Such stems are also used in derivational morphology, see e.g. ''prāsisṛmapa'' (backyard) for an example with the root ''sislam''.
==Writing system (''gūstyeṣa'')==
<!-- [[File:Chlouvānem-script-parts.png|thumbnail|The word ''chlǣvānem'' in the language's native script, with the parts colour-coded according to function.]] -->
Dundulanyä has been written since the early 2nd millennium in an abugida called ''dundulanyä gūstyeṣafa'' or ''dundulanyä gūstyeṣarān'' ("Dundulanyä script", the noun ''gūstyeṣa'' is actually a collective derivation from ''gūstya'' "character", ultimately from the root ''√gos-'' "to cut"), developed with influence of the [[Lannä|Lannä script]]. Quite interestingly, while in the earliest forms of the Lannä script adapted for Dundulanyä there are diacritics and derived forms, some of those were later replaced by apparent ex nihilo new characters: as Dundulanyä has 43 consonant phonemes compared to the mere 19 of Lannä, it is clear by comparing different stages of the writing system that the disambiguation of different consonants through shapes and not just diacritics has been the main factor causing the script to change.<br/>The orthography for Dundulanyä represents how it was pronounced in Classical times, but it is completely regular to read in all present-day local pronunciations, despite variations, especially for the letters '''ḍ, ḍh''' and '''q''' and the diphthongs '''ai''' and '''au'''.
The Dundulanyä alphabet is distinguished by a large number of curved letter forms, arising from the need of limiting horizontal lines as much as possible in order to avoid tearing the leaves on which early writers wrote. A few glyphs have diagonal or vertical lines, but in pre-typewriting times there was a tendency to have them slightly curved; however, horizontal lines are today found in the exclamation and question marks (which are early modern inventions) and in mathematical symbols; the ''vikṣecūlte'', or inherent-vowel-cancelling sign, is also nowadays often represented as a horizontal stroke under the consonant, following the most common handwriting styles; however, formerly it was (and formally still is) written as a subscript circumflex.
Being an abugida, vowels (including diphthongs) are mainly represented by diacritics written by the consonant they come after (some vowel diacritics, however, are actually written before the consonant they are tied to); '''a''' is however inherent in any consonant and therefore does not need a diacritic sign. Consonant clusters are usually representing by stacking the consonants on one another (with those that appear under the main consonant sometimes being simplified), but a few consonants such as '''r''' and '''l''' have simplified combining forms. The consonant '''ṃ''' is written with diacritics and can't appear alone. There are also special forms for final '''-m''', '''-t''', '''-k''', and '''-h''' due to their commonness; other consonants without inherent vowels have to be written with a diacritic sign called ''vikṣecūlte'' (deleter), which has the form of a subscript circumflex or, most commonly, subscript horizontal stroke, or as conjunct consonants.
The romanization used for Dundulanyä represents each phoneme via a single character or digraph, but it stays as close as possible to the native script. Aspirated stops and diphthongs are romanized as digraphs and not by single letters; geminate letters, which are represented with a diacritic in the native script, are romanized by writing the consonant twice - in the aspirated stops, only the first letter is written twice, so /ppʰ/ is '''pph''' and not *phph.
Romanization table in native alphabetical order, grouping consonants in ''laḫlai'' (groups) as done in native analyses:
{| class="wikitable" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|-
|+ Consonants
|-
! rowspan=2 | cihelaḫla<br/>(labials) || ''m'' !! ''p'' !! ''ph'' !! ''b'' !! ''bh'' !! ''f'' !! ''v''
|-
| {{IPA|/m/}} || {{IPA|/p/}} || {{IPA|/pʰ/}} || {{IPA|/b/}} || {{IPA|/bʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ɸ/}} || {{IPA|/ʋ/}}
|-
! rowspan=2 | glipicihelaḫla<br/>(linguolabials) || ''m̃'' !! ''p̃'' !! ''p̃h'' !! ''b̃'' !! ''b̃h'' !! ''r̃'' !!
|-
| {{IPA|/n̼/}} || {{IPA|/t̼/}} || {{IPA|/t̼ʰ/}} || {{IPA|/d̼/}} || {{IPA|/d̼ʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ɹ̼/}} ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | yasaṃlaḫla<br/>(dentals) || ''n'' !! ''t'' !! ''th'' !! ''d'' !! ''dh'' !! ''s'' !! ''l''
|-
| {{IPA|/n/}} || {{IPA|/t̪/}} || {{IPA|/t̪ʰ/}} || {{IPA|/d̪/}} || {{IPA|/d̪ʱ/}} || {{IPA|/s/}} || {{IPA|/l/}}
|-
! rowspan=2 | fultalaḫla<br/>(retroflexes) || ''ṇ'' !! ''ṭ'' !! ''ṭh'' !! ''ḍ'' !! ''ḍh'' !! ''ṣ'' !!
|-
| {{IPA|/ɳ/}} || {{IPA|/ʈ/}} || {{IPA|/ʈʰ/}} || {{IPA|/ɖ/}} || {{IPA|/ɖʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ʂ/}} ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | nihāsvulaḫla<br/>(palatals) || ''ñ'' !! ''c'' !! ''ch'' !! ''j'' !! ''jh'' !! ''ś'' !! ''y''
|-
| {{IPA|/ɲ/}} || {{IPA|/c͡ɕ/}} || {{IPA|/c͡ɕʰ/}} || {{IPA|/ɟ͡ʑ/}} || {{IPA|/ɟ͡ʑʱ/}} || {{IPA|/ɕ/}} || {{IPA|/j/}}
|-
! rowspan=2 | bhyuḍvīlaḫla<br/>(velars) || ''ṅ'' !! ''k'' !! ''kh'' !! ''g'' !! ''gh'' !! !!
|-
| {{IPA|/ŋ/}} || {{IPA|/k/}} || {{IPA|/kʰ/}} || {{IPA|/ɡ/}} || {{IPA|/ɡʱ/}} ||
|-
! rowspan=2 | diṇḍhalaḫla<br/>(laryngeals) || ''ṃ'' !! ''ɂ'' !! ''q'' !! ''h'' !! ''ḫ'' !! ''r'' !!
|-
| {{IPA|/◌̃/}} || {{IPA|/ʔ/}} || {{IPA|/ɢ/}} || {{IPA|/ɦ/}} || {{IPA|/ħ/}} || {{IPA|/ʀ/}}
|}


==Morphology (''hufāmvailaḫlana'')==
==Morphology (''hufāmvailaḫlana'')==
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|}
|}


The majority of roots belongs to either the 0 class, or to classes II to IV. Other classes are much rarer, with V and especially VIII being the least common overall. Many class I roots have a sonorant such as '''l''', '''m''' or '''n''' (rarely other nasals), continuing formations parallel to class IV in reconstructed Pre-Dundulanyä. Class I roots may, due to their shape, be further simplified in the zero-grade; see ''haf-'', zero-grade ''iṣf-'' "to insert, fill" or ''rañj-'', zero-grade ''ṛj-'' "to name, identify"; some others have a short vowel in the zero-grade and a long vowel in the (identical) middle- and higher-grade forms, as with ''sākh-'' (zero-grade ''sakh-'', higher-grade ''sākh-'') "to prepare"<ref>More commonly used in the prefixed form ''ni-sākh-'' "to build, create, make".</ref>.
The majority of roots belongs to either the 0 class, or to classes II to IV. Other classes are much rarer, with V and especially VIII being the least common overall. Many class I roots have a sonorant such as '''l''', '''m''' or '''n''' (rarely other nasals), continuing formations parallel to class IV in reconstructed Pre-Dundulanyä.
 
Class I roots may, due to their shape, be further simplified in the zero-grade; see ''haf-'', zero-grade ''iṣf-'' "to insert, fill" or ''rañj-'', zero-grade ''ṛj-'' "to name, identify"; some others have a short vowel in the zero-grade and a long vowel in the (identical) middle- and higher-grade forms, as with ''sākh-'' (zero-grade ''sakh-'', higher-grade ''sākh-'') "to prepare"<ref>More commonly used in the prefixed form ''ni-sākh-'' "to build, create, make", but cf. set phrases such as ''vaidhopta sākha'' "to catalogue" - literally "to prepare a catalogue" - where however ''vaidhopta nisākha'' "to build a catalogue" is also found.</ref>. Due to regular saṃdhi, class I roots with ''ya'' or ''va'' have ''i'' or ''u'' respectively in the zero-grade, see e.g. ''yam-'' "to eat", zero-grade ''im-''.


Some class VI and VII roots may have consonant changes caused by saṃdhi; furthermore, there are a few irregular class II and III roots which have a long vowel in the zero grade form even if they are not of CV shape; see e.g. ''lobh-'' "to write" with the long zero grade ''lūbh-''. Class III roots with the ''-vo-'' sequence in the middle grade (citation form) reduce it to ''-ū-'' in any case in the zero grade, as in ''tvorg-'' "to fear" with the zero grade ''tūrg-''.
Some class VI and VII roots may have consonant changes caused by saṃdhi; furthermore, there are a few irregular class II and III roots which have a long vowel in the zero grade form even if they are not of CV shape; see e.g. ''lobh-'' "to write" with the long zero grade ''lūbh-''. Class III roots with the ''-vo-'' sequence in the middle grade (citation form) reduce it to ''-ū-'' in any case in the zero grade, as in ''tvorg-'' "to fear" with the zero grade ''tūrg-''.
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In the name of the language, ''dundulanyä ḫamfafa'', for example, ''dundulanyä'' is a bound form that however has the same form as the direct, due to the noun having a stem ending in a vowel. Some more examples of bound forms:
In the name of the language, ''dundulanyä ḫamfafa'', for example, ''dundulanyä'' is a bound form that however has the same form as the direct, due to the noun having a stem ending in a vowel. Some more examples of bound forms:


* ''imut naviṣyaɂe'' "the teacher's book", ''imut'' being the bound form of ''imute'' "teacher", and ''naviṣya'' "book" being marked with the 3SG possessive ''ɂe''.  
* ''līdad naviṣyaɂe'' "the teacher's book", ''līdad'' being the bound form of ''līdade'' "teacher", and ''naviṣya'' "book" being marked with the 3SG possessive ''ɂe''.  
* ''nūrī dvārmaɂe'' "the child's room", ''nūrī'' being the bound form of ''nūrya'' "child".
* ''nūrī dvārmaɂe'' "the child's room", ''nūrī'' being the bound form of ''nūrya'' "child".
* ''līv yude'' "3SG stands in the flat", where the positional verb ''yu-de-'' "to stand inside" requires its argument ''līve'' to be in the bound form ''līv''.
* ''līv yude'' "3SG stands in the flat", where the positional verb ''yu-de-'' "to stand inside" requires its argument ''līve'' to be in the bound form ''līv''.
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|+Non-ablauting consonant stem 1st declension
|+Non-ablauting consonant stem 1st declension
|-
|-
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''imut-''<br/>"teacher"
! rowspan=2 | !! colspan=3 | ''śiv-''<br/>"image, representation, photo"
|-
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! <small>Direct</small>
! <small>Direct</small>
| '''imute''' || rowspan=2 | imutive || rowspan=2 | imuti
| '''śive''' || rowspan=2 | śivive || rowspan=2 | śivi
|-
|-
! <small>Vocative</small>
! <small>Vocative</small>
| imut
| śiv
|-
|-
! <small>Ergative</small>
! <small>Ergative</small>
| imutē || imutīyat || imutām
| śivē || śivīyat || śivām
|-
|-
! <small>Accusative</small>
! <small>Accusative</small>
| imutat || imutītha || imutaih
| śivat || śivītha || śivaih
|-
|-
! <small>Dative</small>
! <small>Dative</small>
| imutak || imutīma || imutumi
| śivak || śivīma || śivumi
|-
|-
! <small>Ablative</small>
! <small>Ablative</small>
| imutū || imuteṣu || imutenī
| śivū || śiveṣu || śivenī
|-
|-
! <small>Locative</small>
! <small>Locative</small>
| imutā || rowspan=2 | imutehe || imutän
| śivā || rowspan=2 | śivehe || śivän
|-
|-
! <small>Essive</small>
! <small>Essive</small>
| rowspan=2 | imutī || imutoṭu
| rowspan=2 | śivī || śivoṭu
|-
|-
! <small>Instrumental</small>
! <small>Instrumental</small>
| imutāl || imutenīka
| śivāl || śivenīka
|-
|-
! <small>Bound form</small>
! <small>Bound form</small>
| imut || imutiv || imutī
| śiv || śiviv || śivī
|}
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-break}}
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: ''naviṣyayäh hiyome ga padacyūse'''bu'''.'' "This is my favourite book." (lit.: "among books, this is my favourite")
: ''naviṣyayäh hiyome ga padacyūse'''bu'''.'' "This is my favourite book." (lit.: "among books, this is my favourite")
An explicit possessor is marked used the bound form (typically together with third person clitics, but not exclusively):
An explicit possessor is marked used the bound form (typically together with third person clitics, but not exclusively):
: ''imut nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''''' "the teacher's bike"
: ''līdad nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''''' "the teacher's bike"
: ''buneyev pūnuḍu'''hin''''' "the two older sisters' jobs"
: ''buneyev pūnuḍu'''hin''''' "the two older sisters' jobs"
: ''dundulanyä ḫamfa'''fa''''' "the Dundulanyä language" (lit.: "the language of us, the Dundulanyä")
: ''dundulanyä ḫamfa'''fa''''' "the Dundulanyä language" (lit.: "the language of us, the Dundulanyä")
Bound forms can also be marked with possessive clitics on their own:
Bound forms can also be marked with possessive clitics on their own:
: ''imut'''rān''' nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''''' "their teacher's bike"
: ''līdad'''rān''' nādaśrūṣe'''ɂe''''' "their teacher's bike"
: ''buneyev'''bu''' pūnuḍu'''hin''''' "my two older sisters' jobs"
: ''buneyev'''bu''' pūnuḍu'''hin''''' "my two older sisters' jobs"


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The cislocative prefix marks an action towards the deictic center (generally the speaker), marked as divergent from the default state which is action from the deictic center: see e.g. ''loni'' (lon-i) "you go (walk)" vs. cislocative ''saloni'' (sa-lon-i) "you come (on foot)" for an example without a positional prefix; however it can also be used together with such prefix as in e.g. ''gāloni'' (gā-lon-i) "you walk in" vs. ''gāsloni'' (gā-s(a)-lon-i) "you come in (on foot)".
The cislocative prefix marks an action towards the deictic center (generally the speaker), marked as divergent from the default state which is action from the deictic center: see e.g. ''loni'' (lon-i) "you go (walk)" vs. cislocative ''saloni'' (sa-lon-i) "you come (on foot)" for an example without a positional prefix; however it can also be used together with such prefix as in e.g. ''gāloni'' (gā-lon-i) "you walk in" vs. ''gāsloni'' (gā-s(a)-lon-i) "you come in (on foot)".


The ablative motion marker (which forces zero-grade ablaut on the present stem), on the other hand, inverts the direction marked by the positional/directional prefix, which is allative by default (i.e. ''to'' a place), making it ablative (i.e. ''from'' a place): ''gāmeśūh'' (gā-meś-ū-h) "I look inside" vs. ''gāmiśyūh'' (gā-miś-y-ū-h) "I look from the inside". The ablative marker is, due to how positional and motion verbs work in Dundulanyä, most commonly used and useful with transitive verbs, e.g. ''kuṇḍombhūsa'' (kuḍ-dombh-ū-sa) "you two bring outside" vs. ''kuṇḍumbhyūsa'' (kuḍ-dumbh-y-ū-sa) "you two bring from outside".
The ablative motion marker (which forces zero-grade ablaut on the present stem), on the other hand, inverts the direction marked by the positional/directional prefix, which is allative by default (i.e. ''to'' a place), making it ablative (i.e. ''from'' a place): ''gāmeśūh'' (gā-meś-ū-h) "I look inside" vs. ''gāmiśyūh'' (gā-miś-y-ū-h) "I look from the inside". The ablative marker is, due to how positional and motion verbs work in Dundulanyä, most commonly used and useful with transitive verbs, e.g. ''kuḍḍombhūsa'' (kuḍ-dombh-ū-sa) "you two bring outside" vs. ''kuḍḍumbhyūsa'' (kuḍ-dumbh-y-ū-sa) "you two bring from outside".


The cislocative and the ablative marker can, in fact, be used together, in forms such as ''kujadumbhyūsa'' (kuḍ-sa-dumbh-y-ū-sa) "you two bring [us] from outside", ''gāslunyi'' "you come (on foot) from the inside". See also the following sentences, using the ablative motion marker, and the distinctions implied by the presence or absence of the cislocative prefix:
The cislocative and the ablative marker can, in fact, be used together, in forms such as ''kujadumbhyūsa'' (kuḍ-sa-dumbh-y-ū-sa) "you two bring [us] from outside", ''gāslunyi'' "you come (on foot) from the inside". See also the following sentences, using the ablative motion marker, and the distinctions implied by the presence or absence of the cislocative prefix:
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|}
|}


# In Classical Dundulanyä, subjunctive 2nd person terminations ''-ās'' (singular) and ''-aus'' (plural) are found in many texts; in the early and mid Classical period, the distribution is clearly dialectal: the dialects of coastal Mandabuda and the course of the Hundhura downstream from the confluence of the Lāmbera, the Lātlaka region to the southeast, as well as the majority of the Yuṣṇiya valley (western Mandabuda) and North Shore colonies of these territories use the ''-ās/-aus'' forms, with the rest of Mandabuda, nearly all of Śubhāla (which underwent Dundulanyä-ization during the Classical period) as well as - forming a linguistic island - the Śola peninsula (far northern Mandabuda, between two of the Inland Seas) using the ''-āt/-aut'' forms. By the late Classical period, ''-āt/-aut'' forms became predominant because of both sound changes (especially in the North Shore) and greater cultural and political dominance of some ''-āt/-aut'' cities such as Nallalitle (along the Lāmbera), Mūmäfumbe and Līlekhaite (in Śubhāla), Udunna (in Śola), and Ṭäleneśāma (on the North Shore)<ref>While the broader political and cultural center of the Dundulanyä world remained the plains of Mandabuda, Śola, Śubhāla and the North Shore, at the borders of the Classical Dundulanyä world, would later become the centers of expansion of Dundulanyä culture respectively towards the western Inland Seas, the East (the Toyubeshian realms and then Jūhma), and Northern Lusaṃrīte.</ref>, although sometimes even the same authors used both forms, in a few cases even in the same text. In the post-Classical period, ''-āt/-aut'' became the standard forms, although local languages in ''-ās/-aus'' areas developed from the original ones.
# In Classical Dundulanyä, subjunctive 2nd person terminations ''-ās'' (singular) and ''-aus'' (plural) are found in many texts; in the early and mid Classical period, the distribution is clearly dialectal: the dialects of coastal Taktapṣikha and the course of the Hundhura downstream from the confluence of the Lāmbera, the Lātlaka region to the southeast, as well as the majority of the Yuṣṇiya valley (western Taktapṣikha) and North Shore colonies of these territories use the ''-ās/-aus'' forms, with the rest of Taktapṣikha, nearly all of Śubhāla (which underwent Dundulanyä-ization during the Classical period) as well as - forming a linguistic island - the Śola peninsula (far northern Taktapṣikha, between two of the Inland Seas) using the ''-āt/-aut'' forms. By the late Classical period, ''-āt/-aut'' forms became predominant because of both sound changes (especially in the North Shore) and greater cultural and political dominance of some ''-āt/-aut'' cities such as Nallalitle (along the Lāmbera), Mūmäfumbe and Līlekhaite (in Śubhāla), Udunna (in Śola), and Ṭäleneśāma (on the North Shore)<ref>While the broader political and cultural center of the Dundulanyä world remained the plains of Taktapṣikha, Śola, Śubhāla and the North Shore, at the borders of the Classical Dundulanyä world, would later become the centers of expansion of Dundulanyä culture respectively towards the western Inland Seas, the East (the Toyubeshian realms and then Jūhma), and Northern Lusaṃrīte.</ref>, although sometimes even the same authors used both forms, in a few cases even in the same text. In the post-Classical period, ''-āt/-aut'' became the standard forms, although local languages in ''-ās/-aus'' areas developed from the original ones.


The forms with vowel in the present are used after a consonant; the 3SG form is therefore a zero-marker in many common forms such as after the agent trigger (cf. ''teṇa'' "3SG is fed" and ''teṇū'' "3SG feeds").
The forms with vowel in the present are used after a consonant; the 3SG form is therefore a zero-marker in many common forms such as after the agent trigger (cf. ''teṇa'' "3SG is fed" and ''teṇū'' "3SG feeds").
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: ''lalāruṇai fanēyai kuka '''ga''' irāḍai.'' "Lalāruṇai<ref>Giant domestic lizards endemic to central Lusaṃrīte: in Dundulanyä culture and history they have a role similar to horses.</ref> and capybaras are animals."
: ''lalāruṇai fanēyai kuka '''ga''' irāḍai.'' "Lalāruṇai<ref>Giant domestic lizards endemic to central Lusaṃrīte: in Dundulanyä culture and history they have a role similar to horses.</ref> and capybaras are animals."
In any role outside of the direct knowledge indicative present, the copula is replaced by the (regular) verb ''jall-'':
In any role outside of the direct knowledge indicative present, the copula is replaced by the (regular) verb ''jall-'':
: ''kālomīye dariśah '''jallī'''.'' "Kālomīye was a dancer."
: ''kālomīye nindade '''jallī'''.'' "Kālomīye was a/the guide."
: ''kālomīye dariśah '''jalliṣya'''.'' "Kālomīye will be a dancer."
: ''kālomīye nindade '''jalliṣya'''.'' "Kālomīye will be a/the guide."
However, whenever temporal adverbs that imply a non-present tense are found, '''ga''' is used instead:
However, whenever temporal adverbs that imply a non-present tense are found, '''ga''' is used instead:
: ''prānilau kālomīye '''ga''' dariśah.'' "Tomorrow, Kālomīye will be a dancer."
: ''prānilau nindade '''ga''' dariśah.'' "Tomorrow, Kālomīye will be a/the guide."
The same particle '''ga''' doubles as an adpositive particle, joining nouns together in noun phrases:
The same particle '''ga''' doubles as an adpositive particle, joining nouns together in noun phrases:
: ''līlasuṃghāṇa '''ga''' marta'' "city of Līlasuṃghāṇa"
: ''līlasuṃghāṇa '''ga''' marta'' "city of Līlasuṃghāṇa"
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: ''hine saṃhāram '''idu''' ṣurlāke.'' "This boy is not Ṣurlāke."
: ''hine saṃhāram '''idu''' ṣurlāke.'' "This boy is not Ṣurlāke."
: ''kālomīye '''idu''' ñältahbu.'' "Kālomīye is not my sister."
: ''kālomīye '''idu''' ñältahbu.'' "Kālomīye is not my sister."
: ''prānilau kālomīye '''idu''' dariśah.'' "Tomorrow, Kālomīye will not be a dancer."
: ''prānilau kālomīye '''idu''' nindade.'' "Tomorrow, Kālomīye will not be a/the guide."
: ''kālomīye dariśah '''jalliṣiga va'''.'' "Kālomīye will not be a dancer."
: ''kālomīye nindade '''jalliṣiga va'''.'' "Kālomīye will not be a/the guide."


First- and second-person pronouns have synthetic (fused) copular forms:
First- and second-person pronouns have synthetic (fused) copular forms:
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: ''āna lila '''umūm'''.'' "That person is good."
: ''āna lila '''umūm'''.'' "That person is good."
: ''hiyome '''idu cami'''.'' "This is not important."
: ''hiyome '''idu cami'''.'' "This is not important."
The word ''didya'' "more" is either a copular adjective on its own, or part of a copular adjective phrase, therefore not considered a form of the copula:
: ''śārepai '''didya'''.'' "The dogs are more/in a greater number/There are more dogs."
: ''maihasin '''didya lalla'''.'' "Your daughter is taller."
: ''p̃aiṣubin '''idu didya lalla'''.'' "Our son is not taller."


===Numerals (''dhujāvāmi'')===
===Numerals (''dhujāvāmi'')===
Dundulanyä is one of the few human Eventoan languages - together with the other ancient languages grouped as East Mandabudi languages, a few other languages scattered in southern Lusaṃrīte, and a handful of others around the world, as well as those which have had considerable influence by Dundulanyä itself - with a pure duodecimal numeral system.
Dundulanyä is one of the few human Eventoan languages - together with the other ancient languages grouped as East Taktapṣaikhulu languages, a few other languages scattered in southern Lusaṃrīte, and a handful of others around the world, as well as those which have had considerable influence by Dundulanyä itself - with a pure duodecimal numeral system.


Numbers (sg. ''dhujāvam'', pl. ''dhujāvāmi'') have six different forms: cardinal, ordinal, collective, distributive, adverbial/multiplicative, and fractionary. The numbers from 1 to 4 have separate adverbial multiplicative forms, while all other ones have an invariable form used both as adverbial and "adjectival" multiplicatives. Cardinals from 1 to Ɛ and their compounds decline for case (see below); collectives, multiplicatives, and fractionaries always decline, while ordinals are only declined if used as substantives, i.e. without an accompanying noun. Distributives do not decline.
Numbers (sg. ''dhujāvam'', pl. ''dhujāvāmi'') have six different forms: cardinal, ordinal, collective, distributive, adverbial/multiplicative, and fractionary. The numbers from 1 to 4 have separate adverbial multiplicative forms, while all other ones have an invariable form used both as adverbial and "adjectival" multiplicatives. Cardinals from 1 to Ɛ and their compounds decline for case (see below); collectives, multiplicatives, and fractionaries always decline, while ordinals are only declined if used as substantives, i.e. without an accompanying noun. Distributives do not decline.
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| 24 || '''hälimūmai''' || hälimūmaisi || hälimūmetām || hälimūmekoma || hälimūmāyuśila || hälimūmaisyāṭ
| 24 || '''hälimūmai''' || hälimūmaisi || hälimūmetām || hälimūmekoma || hälimūmāyuśila || hälimūmaisyāṭ
|}
|}
As for the two forms for the numeral "one", ''emi'' is used in disjunctive counting (count-ins or countdowns), while ''emibe'' is used elsewhere. Compounds always have the full form, i.e. forms such as *hälimūmāyemi do not exist, only ''hälimūmāyemibe''. <!-- <br/>Some compound words, especially technical and scientific ones, use UNDEFINED-WEST-MANDABUDI-LANGUAGE morphemes for the quantities from 1 to ᘔ (though from 5 onwards they're rarer): ''mån-''&nbsp;1, ''yūn-''&nbsp;2, ''lyāš-''&nbsp;3, ''alan-''&nbsp;4, ''tamb-''&nbsp;5, ''jiruṇ-'' or ''ciruṇ-''&nbsp;6, ''tulyæn-''&nbsp;7, ''neim-''&nbsp;8, ''šid-''&nbsp;9, ''abar-''&nbsp;ᘔ. -->
As for the two forms for the numeral "one", ''emi'' is used in disjunctive counting (count-ins or countdowns), while ''emibe'' is used elsewhere. Compounds always have the full form, i.e. forms such as *hälimūmāyemi do not exist, only ''hälimūmāyemibe''.<br/>Some compound words, especially technical and scientific ones, use Lannä morphemes for the quantities from 1 to ᘔ (though from 5 onwards they're rarer): ''khyu-''&nbsp;1, ''nap̃a-''&nbsp;2, ''dläku-''&nbsp;3, ''käht-''&nbsp;4, ''jändä-''&nbsp;5, ''m̃uk-''&nbsp;6, ''häṣeth-''&nbsp;7, ''ṣäṣän-''&nbsp;8, ''thävaku-''&nbsp;9, ''yaitlu-''&nbsp;ᘔ.


Numbers from 20<sub>12</sub> above are simply made by compounding teens and units with the appropriate saṃdhi changes, like 21<sub>12</sub> <small>(25<sub>10</sub>)</small> ''hälimūmāyemibe'', and then ''hälimūmairirä'', ''hälimūmaikiṅka'', and so on.<br/>
Numbers from 20<sub>12</sub> above are simply made by compounding teens and units with the appropriate saṃdhi changes, like 21<sub>12</sub> <small>(25<sub>10</sub>)</small> ''hälimūmāyemibe'', and then ''hälimūmairirä'', ''hälimūmaikiṅka'', and so on.<br/>
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|-
|-
! <small>Bound forms and ''-t'' clitic</small>
! <small>Bound forms and ''-t'' clitic</small>
| between; from ... until || '''emibe-lairet rirä-lairet selakat''' between Weekday1 and Weekday2
| between; from ... until || '''emibe-lairat rirä-lairat selakat''' between Weekday1 and Weekday2
|-
|-
! <small>Imperfective subjunctive</small>
! <small>Imperfective subjunctive</small>
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* ''rañj-'' (to name, identify, mark) → ''rañjiḫe'' (name; noun)
* ''rañj-'' (to name, identify, mark) → ''rañjiḫe'' (name; noun)
* ''tuḫ-'' (to beat) → ''tuḫḫe'' (heart)
* ''tuḫ-'' (to beat) → ''tuḫḫe'' (heart)
* ''bhel-'' (to eat) → ''bheliḫe'' (meal)
* ''yam-'' (to eat) → ''yamiḫe'' (meal)


'''-ta''' has a similar meaning (or unpredictablity) as ''-(i)ḫ-e'', but often implies a sense of collectiveness, or an abstract state. Used with the middle-grade (''būcūya'') root.
'''-ta''' has a similar meaning (or unpredictablity) as ''-(i)ḫ-e'', but often implies a sense of collectiveness, or an abstract state. Used with the middle-grade (''būcūya'') root.
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* ''brom-'' (to blow, wipe) → ''brūmam'' (wind; gale)
* ''brom-'' (to blow, wipe) → ''brūmam'' (wind; gale)


'''-ar''' (ṛ-stem non ablauting, with lemma form in '''-ah''') with middle grade ablaut and '''-i-''' infixed before the last consonant forms agent (often occupational) nouns:
'''-ar''' (ṛ-stem non ablauting, with lemma form in '''-ah''') with middle grade ablaut and '''-i-''' infixed before the last consonant forms agent (often occupational) nouns. While rarer, it can also be used with roots with a single consonant after the vowel (see fourth example).
* ''helk-'' (to dye) → ''helikah'' (dyer)
* ''helk-'' (to dye) → ''helikah'' (dyer)
* ''darś-'' (to dance) → ''dariśah'' (dancer)
* ''darś-'' (to dance) → ''dariśah'' (dancer)
* ''nart-'' (to dream) → ''naritah'' (dreamer)
* ''nart-'' (to dream) → ''naritah'' (dreamer)
* ''tad-yāḍh-'' (to judge) → ''tadyaiḍhah'' (judge)


'''-oba''' with zero grade ablaut and '''-nū-''' before the last consonant sequence of the root also forms agent nouns. It is never used with class I, VI, VII and VIII roots.
'''-oba''' with zero grade ablaut and '''-nū-''' before the last consonant sequence of the root also forms agent nouns. It is never used with class I, VI, VII and VIII roots.
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* ''Mūmäfumbe'' → ''mūmäfaumbulu''
* ''Mūmäfumbe'' → ''mūmäfaumbulu''
* ''Lāltaṣveya'' → ''lāltaṣvājñulu'' (with regular saṃdhi from the underlying form *lāltaṣvaiyulu)
* ''Lāltaṣveya'' → ''lāltaṣvājñulu'' (with regular saṃdhi from the underlying form *lāltaṣvaiyulu)
In older stages of the language, vṛddhi derivations were also formed with the suffix '''-a'''; this remains as a fossilized suffix in certain words, cf. given names in ''-faula'' from ''fulah'' "hearth", or the majority of the names of the months of the Dundulanyä calendar, vṛddhi derivations from constellation names (e.g. ''gurūṣikhe'' → ''gurūṣaikha''; ''m̃ālasiṣama'' → ''m̃ālasaiṣama'').
In older stages of the language, vṛddhi derivations were also formed with the suffix '''-a'''; this remains as a fossilized suffix in certain words, cf. given names in ''-faula'' from ''fulah'' "hearth", or the majority of the names of the months of the Dundulanyä calendar, vṛddhi derivations from constellation names (e.g. ''gurūṣikhe'' → ''gurūṣaikha''; ''m̃ālasiṣama'' → ''m̃ālasaiṣama''). This fossilized suffix is also very common in miscellaneous words denoting products:
* ''kindu'' (an oily palm fruit) → ''kaindva'' (oil)
* ''mūḍa'' (a yucca-like plant) → ''mauḍa'' (fruit of the ''mūḍa'' plant, similar to breadfruit)
* ''mäḍhe'' (rubber tree) → ''mēḍha'' (rubber, natural rubber)


'''-(y)ek-e''', fronting velars to palatals if possible, (or '''-ik-e''' after palatals themselves), '''-īcen-e''', also palatalizing velars, and '''-iccha''' are productive diminutive suffixes. Of the three, ''-īcen-e'' often implies endearment, coziness, especially when contrasted to the other two or explicitely used after the same noun modified with one of the other two suffixes.
'''-(y)ek-e''', fronting velars to palatals if possible, (or '''-ik-e''' after palatals themselves), '''-īcen-e''', also palatalizing velars, and '''-iccha''' are productive diminutive suffixes. Of the three, ''-īcen-e'' often implies endearment, coziness, especially when contrasted to the other two or explicitely used after the same noun modified with one of the other two suffixes.
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Note that temporal complements may, in certain circumstances, act as if they were explicit topics, but not marked with ''ba''. In that case, the structure followed is, in fact, the same as for sentences with explicit topics, i.e. with the direct argument immediately preceding the verb.
Note that temporal complements may, in certain circumstances, act as if they were explicit topics, but not marked with ''ba''. In that case, the structure followed is, in fact, the same as for sentences with explicit topics, i.e. with the direct argument immediately preceding the verb.
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = buneya länta yuna ba lalla jūlafīrä maihādhūv räl himai kurūṣarthak udhiśūsililūva nindade nadajäthāḍūva.
| phrase = buneya länta yuna ba lalla jūlafīrä maihādhūv räl himai kurūṣarthak udhiśūsililūva nindade nañjäthiṣyūva.
| morphemes = buneya länta yuna ba lalla jūlafīrä maihādhu-:v räl himai kurūṣartha-k udhiśūs<ı>lil-∅-ū-a nindad-e nad-a-jäth-āḍ-∅-ū-a
| morphemes = buneya länta yuna ba lalla jūlafīrä maihādhu-:v räl himai kurūṣartha-k udhiśūs<ı>lil-∅-ū-a nindad-e nad-jäth-iṣy-∅-ū-a
| gloss = female's_older_sister.<small>BOUND.SG</small>. together_with. <small>1SG.DIR</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. next. "week".<small>LOC.SG</small>. parents-<small>BOUND.DU</small>. <small>BENEF</small>. canoe.<small>INSTR.SG</small>. Kurūṣartha-<small>DAT</small>. experience.<small>PERF-EXP-AG-3.IND</small>. guide-<small>DIR.SG.</small>. lead-<small>PERF_STEM_MARKER</small>-float_on_water-<small>FUTINT-EXP-AG-3.IND</small>.
| gloss = female's_older_sister.<small>BOUND.SG</small>. together_with. <small>1SG.DIR</small>. <small>TOPIC</small>. next. "week".<small>LOC.SG</small>. parents-<small>BOUND.DU</small>. <small>BENEF</small>. canoe.<small>INSTR.SG</small>. Kurūṣartha-<small>DAT</small>. experience.<small>PERF-EXP-AG-3.IND</small>. guide-<small>DIR.SG.</small>. lead-float_on_water-<small>FUT-EXP-AG-3.IND</small>.
| translation = My older sister and I, next week, as for our parents' will, will be escorted by an experienced guide on our canoe trip to Kurūṣartha.
| translation = My older sister and I, next week, as for our parents' will, will be escorted by an experienced guide on our canoe trip to Kurūṣartha.
}}
}}
Line 1,961: Line 2,016:
|-
|-
! Contained liquids
! Contained liquids
| (uśuma) || ''√śom-'' <small>(III)</small> || rowspan=2 | ''√pse-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=2 | ''√lon-'' <small>(III)</small> || rowspan=2 | ''√so-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√klem-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=2 | -
| (uśuma) || ''√śom-'' <small>(III)</small> || rowspan=2 | ''√pse-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=2 | ''√lon-'' <small>(III)</small> || rowspan=4 | ''√so-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√klem-'' <small>(II)</small> || rowspan=2 | -
|-
|-
! Contained masses of homogeneous solids
! Contained masses of homogeneous solids
Line 1,967: Line 2,022:
|-
|-
! Contained masses of heterogeneous solids<br/>Mixed bundles
! Contained masses of heterogeneous solids<br/>Mixed bundles
| (utyuva) || ''√tyu-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√yup-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√ilm-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√so-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√klem-'' <small>(II)</small> || ''√śro-'' <small>(III)</small>
| (utyuva) || ''√tyu-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√yup-'' <small>(0)</small> || rowspan=2 | ''√ilm-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√klem-'' <small>(II)</small> || ''√śro-'' <small>(III)</small>
|-
|-
! Sheets, paper sheets<br/>Slabs, rocks
! Sheets, paper sheets<br/>Slabs, rocks
| (ahāsa) || ''√hās-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''ta-√hās-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√ilm-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√so-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√khol-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√yug-'' <small>(0)</small>
| (ahāsa) || ''√hās-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''ta-√hās-'' <small>(0)</small> || ''√khol-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√yug-'' <small>(0)</small>
|-
|-
! Large objects that cannot be carried<br/>Wild animals
! Large objects that cannot be carried<br/>Wild animals
| (-edīya) || (utūṣa) || (achāsa) || ''-√de-'' <small>(II)</small> || ''√tvoṣ-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√chās-'' <small>(0)</small> || - || - || - || ''√khol-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√khol-'' <small>(III)</small> || -  
| (-edīya) || (utūṣa) || (achāsa) || ''-√de-'' <small>(II)</small> || ''√tvoṣ-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√chās-'' <small>(0)</small> || - || - || - || ''√khol-'' <small>(III)</small> || ''√khol-'' <small>(III)</small> || -  
|}
|}
=====To wear, put on, take off=====
Dundulanyä does not have a single verb for "to wear", "to put on", or "to take off" when related to clothing: instead, there is a subset of positional-classificatory verbs dependent on the part of the body the piece of clothing is worn on.
Unlike other positional-classificatory verbs, most of these verbs are not root verbs, but are formed with otherwise no longer productive denominal derivations (''-ā-'' or a chroneme).
These verbs are completely regular and built in a logical way and are always used with a specific positional prefix (see, however, the "long sleeves" and "blanket" verbs, which have the same root but a different prefix).
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Clothing type/body part !! To wear/to put on !! To take off !! Related root
|-
| Any clothing bandaged around the body, plus most things worn around the trunk<br/><small>(Most generic verb, but does not cover all other meanings)</small> || kamidrāh<br/>kamyadrām<br/>(kami-dr-ā-) || kamidrāyah<br/>(kami-dr-ā-y-) || ''udra'' "trunk"
|-
| Shoes, socks, anything else on the feet and/or ankles || kamijunāyāh<br/>kamyujunāyām<br/>(kami-junai-ā-) || kamijunēyah<br/>(kami-junai-ā-y-<ref>Irregular saṃdhi, a contraction of *kami-junāyāyah.</ref>) || ''junai'' "foot"
|-
| Head and neck <small>(hats, caps, tiaras, necklaces...)</small> || nibumbīh<br/>nyubumbīm<br/>(ni-bumbi-:-) || nibumbīyah<br/>(ni-bumbi-:-y-) || ''bumbi'' "head"
|-
| Hands, wrists <small>(gloves, bracelets...)</small> || kamihäɂlīh<br/>kamyahäɂlīm<br/>(kami-häɂli-:-) || kamihäɂlīyah<br/>(kami-häɂli-:-y-) || ''häɂli'' "hand"
|-
| Legs (except bandaged-around clothing that also covers the trunk)<br/>Trousers, pants || gānādɂāh<br/>gānādɂām<br/>(gā-nādɂ-ā-) || gānādɂāyah<br/>(gā-nādɂ-ā-y-) || ''nādah'' "leg"
|-
| Something with (long) sleeves || nisnīghah<br/>nīsnīgham<br/>(ni-snīgh-) || nisnīghyah<br/>(ni-snīgh-y-) || rowspan=2 | itself a root √''snīgh''- (0) "to cover"
|-
| Blankets (not worn) || snīghah (isnīgham)<br/>kamisnīghah (kamīsnīgham)<br/>(kami-snīgh-) || kamisnīghyah<br/>(kami-snīgh-y-)
|}
"To wear" and "to be wearing" may be expressed most commonly with the perfect form, but sometimes the patient-trigger forms are interpreted this way; the frequentative is always used with this meaning. "To put on" is commonly emphasized by using the agent trigger; as shown above, "to put off" is expressed by using the ablative motion marker ''-y-''.


====Telicity in perception verbs====
====Telicity in perception verbs====
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===Time===
===Time===
'''TBA:''' native terms for most such subdivisions.
The Dundulanyä calendar counts the 418-day Eventoan solar year (''naṃśāla''), divided into 14 months (''asānai'', sg. ''asāna'') of varying length (30 days on average), as well as a concurrent (not numbered) shorter cycle, called ''juñśätanä'' (from Lannä ''zunosä tanäy'' "count of days") of 216 days, which forms the basis of the "week" system, dividing that number of days into 18 "weeks" of 12 days each.
The Dundulanyä calendar counts the 418-day Eventoan solar year (''naṃśāla''), divided into 14 months (''asānai'', sg. ''asāna'') of varying length (30 days on average), as well as a concurrent (not numbered) shorter cycle, called ''juñśätanä'' (from Lannä ''zunosä tanäy'' "count of days") of 216 days, which forms the basis of the "week" system, dividing that number of days into 18 "weeks" of 12 days each.


The solar year is not exactly 418 days long (the exact amount being roughly 418.1668 days), so that each sixth calendar year is a 419-day long leap year, adding one day at the end of the last month. The 418- or 419-day year and 216-day ''juñśätanä'' are grouped together into 78-year cycles (151 ''juñśätanä''), where the 78th year is a leap year (the thirteenth in such a cycle) and the 151st ''juñśätanä'' also adds a single day (hence having a length of 217 days), so that both counts end on the same day (the 32,617th of the cycle) at the end of the 78th solar year / 151st ''juñśätanä''.
The solar year is not exactly 418 days long (the exact amount being roughly 418.1668 days), so that each sixth calendar year is a 419-day long leap year, adding one day at the end of the last month. The 418- or 419-day year and 216-day ''juñśätanä'' are grouped together into 78-year cycles (151 ''juñśätanä''), where the 78th year is a leap year (the thirteenth in such a cycle) and the 151st ''juñśätanä'' also adds a single day (hence having a length of 217 days), so that both counts end on the same day (the 32,617th of the cycle) at the end of the 78th solar year / 151st ''juñśätanä''.


The start of the calendar year is on the Southern hemisphere fall equinox, while days start at dawn. Months are grouped according to astronomical seasons of the Southern hemisphere, but it is the same nevertheless in the few areas of the Dundulanyä world north of the Equator; these are not immediately related to climatical seasons, as the Dundulanyä heartlands of Mandabuda have a monsonic climate with two distinct seasons and most of the Dundulanyä live in areas with tropical or equatorial climates.
The start of the calendar year is on the Southern hemisphere fall equinox, while days start at dawn. Months are grouped according to astronomical seasons of the Southern hemisphere, but it is the same nevertheless in the few areas of the Dundulanyä world north of the Equator; these are not immediately related to climatical seasons, as the Dundulanyä heartlands of Taktapṣikha have a monsonic climate with two distinct seasons and most of the Dundulanyä live in areas with tropical or equatorial climates.


Eleven out of the fourteen month names are related to constellations transited through during that month; two of them (the eighth and eleventh months) are related to religion and one (the last month of the year) is related to climatical conditions of Mandabuda.
Eleven out of the fourteen month names are related to constellations transited through during that month; two of them (the eighth and eleventh months) are related to religion and one (the last month of the year) is related to climatical conditions of Taktapṣikha.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
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|}
|}


The Eventoan day is about 34.8 Earth hours long, and there is no uniform standard to divide it among the various parts of the planet. The Dundulanyä divide the day into 48 (40<sub>12</sub>) subdivisions called ''garaṇai'' (singular ''garaṇa''), each one about 43.5 Earth minutes long. The day is, for timekeeping and time expressions, divided into eight periods, called TBD, of six ''garaṇai'' each.
The Eventoan day is about 34.8 Earth hours long, and there is no uniform standard to divide it among the various parts of the planet. The Dundulanyä divide the day into 48 (40<sub>12</sub>) subdivisions called ''garaṇai'' (singular ''garaṇa''), each one about 43.5 Earth minutes long. The day is, for timekeeping and time expressions, divided starting at sunrise into seven periods, called ''gūsai'' (literally "cuts", sg. ''gūsa''), the first six of six ''garaṇai'' each and the last one of twelve ''garaṇai''.
 
All seven ''gūsai'' are named, and the last hour of each one has a special name<ref>Hour names are used for the entire hour, i.e. ''sonda'' from 6r.0.00 to 6r.3.25.</ref>:
# '''raṇivu''' ('''r''') "morning"; the sixth hour (6r.0.00) is ''sonda tūnuḍu'' or ''sonda'' (literally "early call");
# '''mīmṛdauna''' ('''m''') "midday"; the sixth hour, noon (6m.0.00) is ''lalla dāvan'' "highest sun";
# '''saṃlallai''' ('''s'''), pl. tantum, "afternoon"; the sixth hour (6s.0.00) is ''ṭheba tūnuḍu'' or ''ṭheba'' "late call";
# '''anuśamvīrä''' ('''n'''), pl. tantum, "late afternoon" (before-sunset); the sixth hour (6n.0.00) is ''śanu'' "sunset"
# '''śusva''' ('''ś''') "evening"; the sixth hour (6ś.0.00) is ''prācikha'' "last offering", i.e. closure of dinner;
# '''okṣṇi lalēni''' or '''okṣṇīrä''' ('''k''') "growing night"; the sixth hour (6k.0.00) is ''tiḫa'' "midnight";
# '''lalēni''' ('''l''') "night"; the twelfth hour (10l.0.00) is ''hāreṇe'' (e-stem) "dawn".
Other hours are simply named using ordinal numbers and the locative of the ''gūsa'', e.g. ''raṇibbā lumpyä'' "first in the morning", ''mīmṛdaunā hälinaika'' "second in the midday", ''anuśamvīrän śulkesi'' "fifth in the late afternoon".


Each ''garaṇa'' is divided into four timeframes called ''railai'' (singular ''raila'') - about 10.8 Earth minutes - further divided into 30 (26<sub>12</sub>) units known as ''nartī'' (singular ''narti'') - a little less than 22 Earth seconds each.<br/>
Each ''garaṇa'' is divided into four timeframes called ''railai'' (singular ''raila'') - about 10.8 Earth minutes - further divided into 30 (26<sub>12</sub>) units known as ''nartī'' (singular ''narti'') - a little less than 22 Earth seconds each.<br/>
Line 2,225: Line 2,315:
: brif, braf tati lumpyä epenē nīnī.
: brif, braf tati lumpyä epenē nīnī.
: braf, brof tati hälinaikē nīnī – epeneve cai thiɂlikai gālora.
: braf, brof tati hälinaikē nīnī – epeneve cai thiɂlikai gālora.
: hälinaika mirābā bhāvaṭā samprātrat meṣra geṇṭha ṭarghe takūnī yiyūnīṅ itta pāmyūva śucislam geṇṭha, meṣṛga va gorcaga sā va, huline raudī.
: hälinaika mirābā bhāvaṭā samprātrat meṣra geṇṭha ṭarghe takūnī yiyūnīṅ itta pāmyūva śucislam meṣṛga va gorcaga tabon geṇṭha huline raudī.
: āqna ī āna epeneve omulṣäḍa tati hulinē nīnī.
: āqna ī āna epeneve omulṣäḍa tati hulinē nīnī.
: meṣra ṭarghe sā prānīgūvī va:
: meṣra ṭarghe sā prānīgūvī va:
: «śāṃgh va.»
: «śāṃgūh va.»
: «epenev vainayanūhin uśudam tati niṣigūvī va itta īśa niṣyūvī?»
: «epenev vainayanūhin uśudam tati niṣigūvī va itta īśa niṣyūvī?»
: «yaivū itta uśudam. laire ī lītana tati lumpyä epenē nīnī. prānilau didya didya lītaniṣya tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.»
: «yaivū itta uśudam. laire ī lītana tati lumpyä epenē nīnī. prānilau didya didya lītaniṣya tati hälinaikē pānīnīṅ.»
Line 2,303: Line 2,393:
}}
}}
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = hälinaika mirābā bhāvaṭā samprātrat meṣra geṇṭha ṭarghe takūnī yiyūnīṅ itta pāmyūva śucislam geṇṭha, meṣṛga va gorcaga sā va, huline raudī.
| phrase = hälinaika mirābā bhāvaṭā samprātrat meṣra geṇṭha ṭarghe takūnī yiyūnīṅ itta pāmyūva śucislam meṣṛga va gorcaga tabon geṇṭha huline raudī.
| morphemes = hälinaika mirāb-ā bhāvaṭ-ā samprātra-t meṣr-∅-∅-a geṇṭh-∅-∅-a ṭarghe ta-kū-∅-∅-(n)ī yiy-∅-ū-(n)ī=ṅ itta pā-myū-∅-∅-a śucisl0m-∅ geṇṭh-∅-∅a, meṣr-∅-g-∅-a va gorc-∅-g-∅-a sā va, huline rau-di-∅-∅-ī.
| morphemes = hälinaika mirāb-ā bhāvaṭ-ā samprātra-t meṣr-∅-∅-a geṇṭh-∅-∅-a ṭarghe ta-kū-∅-∅-(n)ī yiy-∅-ū-(n)ī=ṅ itta pā-myū-∅-∅-a śucisl0m-∅ meṣr-∅-g-∅-a va gorc-∅-g-∅-a tabon geṇṭh-∅-∅-a huline rau-di-∅-∅-ī.
| gloss = second. floor-<small>LOC.SG</small>. balcony-<small>LOC.SG</small>. newspaper-<small>ACC.SG</small>. kind-<small>EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND</small>. old-<small>EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND</small>. man.<small>DIR.SG</small>. <small>PLACE</small>-sit-<small>EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND</small>. read-<small>EXP-AG-PAST.3SG.IND</small>=and. meanwhile. opposite-be.<small>GENERIC_MASSES-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND</small>. window-<small>BOUND.SG</small>. old-<small>EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND</small>. kind-<small>EXP-IRR-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND</small>. <small>NEG</small>. mean-<small>EXP-IRR-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND</small>. <small>NEG</small>. woman.<small>DIR.SG</small>. protruding-stay-<small>EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND</small>.
| gloss = second. floor-<small>LOC.SG</small>. balcony-<small>LOC.SG</small>. newspaper-<small>ACC.SG</small>. kind-<small>EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND</small>. old-<small>EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND</small>. man.<small>DIR.SG</small>. <small>PLACE</small>-sit-<small>EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND</small>. read-<small>EXP-AG-PAST.3SG.IND</small>=and. meanwhile. opposite-be.<small>GENERIC_MASSES-EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND</small>. window-<small>BOUND.SG</small>. kind-<small>EXP-IRR-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND</small>. <small>NEG</small>. mean-<small>EXP-IRR-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND</small>. neither. old-<small>EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND</small>. woman.<small>DIR.SG</small>. protruding-stay-<small>EXP-PAT-PAST.3SG.IND</small>.
| translation = On the second-floor balcony was a kind old man reading his newspaper, and looking down from the opposite window was an old woman who was neither good nor bad.
| translation = On the second-floor balcony was a kind old man reading his newspaper, and looking down from the opposite window was an old woman who was neither good nor bad.
}}
}}
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}}
}}
{{Gloss
{{Gloss
| phrase = meṣra ṭarghe sā prānīgūnī va: «śāṃgh va».
| phrase = meṣra ṭarghe sā prānīgūnī va: «śāṃgūh va».
| morphemes = meṣr-∅-∅-a ṭarghe sā prānī-∅-g-ū-(n)ī va: «śām-∅-g-∅-h va».
| morphemes = meṣr-∅-∅-a ṭarghe sā prānī-∅-g-ū-(n)ī va: «śām-∅-g-ū-h va».
| gloss = kind-<small>EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND</small>. man.<small>DIR.SG</small>. but.<small>EMPH</small>. agree-<small>EXP-IRR-AG-PAST.3SG.IND</small>. <small>NEG</small>. think-<small>EXP-IRR-PAT-PRES.1SG.IND</small>. <small>NEG</small>.
| gloss = kind-<small>EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND</small>. man.<small>DIR.SG</small>. but.<small>EMPH</small>. agree-<small>EXP-IRR-AG-PAST.3SG.IND</small>. <small>NEG</small>. think-<small>EXP-IRR-AG-PRES.1SG.IND</small>. <small>NEG</small>.
| translation = But the good man disagreed: “I don’t think so.”
| translation = But the good man disagreed: “I don’t think so.”
}}
}}
Line 2,353: Line 2,443:
| phrase = didya kamīne – yaivū uśudam tati naigū va tati idatvaḫa geṇṭha hulinē niqirblī.
| phrase = didya kamīne – yaivū uśudam tati naigū va tati idatvaḫa geṇṭha hulinē niqirblī.
| morphemes = didya kamīne – yaiv-ū uśud-∅-∅-m tati nai-g-ū-∅ va tati id<a>tvaḫ-∅-∅-a geṇṭh-∅-∅-a hulin-ē niqirbl-∅-∅-ī
| morphemes = didya kamīne – yaiv-ū uśud-∅-∅-m tati nai-g-ū-∅ va tati id<a>tvaḫ-∅-∅-a geṇṭh-∅-∅-a hulin-ē niqirbl-∅-∅-ī
| gloss = all-<small>ABL</small>. understand.<small>PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND</small>. <small>QUOT</small>. say.<small>IMP-IRR-AG-3</small>. <small>NEG</small>. <small>QUOT</small>. offend.<small>PERF-EXP-PAT-3.IND</small>. old-<small>EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND</small>. woman-<small>ERG.SG</small>. exclaim-<small>EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND</small>.
| gloss = more. now. all-<small>ABL</small>. understand.<small>PERF-EXP-PAT-1SG.IND</small>. <small>QUOT</small>. say.<small>IMP-IRR-AG-3</small>. <small>NEG</small>. <small>QUOT</small>. offend.<small>PERF-EXP-PAT-3.IND</small>. old-<small>EXP-PAT-PRES.3SG.IND</small>. woman-<small>ERG.SG</small>. exclaim-<small>EXP.PAT-PAST.3SG.IND</small>.
| translation = “Don’t tell me that you understood them this time,” exclaimed the woman crossly.
| translation = “Don’t tell me that you understood them this time,” exclaimed the woman crossly.
}}
}}
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