Bźatga: Difference between revisions

'''Bźatga''' (/ˈbʒatgɐ/) is an Indo-European language spoken by the tribes of the ''Enśi Bźata'' "The Bźatan Islands", a small archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean. According to the people of these islands, the language came with their ancestors from a land called ''Creńa'' along with a knowledge of metalworking and the sacred horse.

Bźatga is written with the following 18 letters of the Latin alphabet:<br />

''a b c d e g i j l m n o r s t u v z''

In addition to these base forms, called '''primary''' or '''unmarked''' letters, diacritics are used to create '''secondary''' and '''tertiary''' forms, which are collectively called the '''marked''' letters. In the case of vowels, secondary forms represent pretonic and therefore unstressed variants and are marked with a breve, e.g. ''răveŭsemi'' "I have seen" (see Phonetic Processes for special use of ''ŭ''). Secondary forms of consonants are '''iotised''' variants of the primary sounds and are marked with an acute accent (note that the graph ''ł'' is used for secondary ''l''), e.g. ''craśu'' "drier". The tertiary forms of both vowels and consonants are marked with the caret and only the letters ''ê, ô, ŝ'' and ''ẑ'' occur. They are not derived from the primary forms.

! " colspan="5;"| Stops

| align="center"| ''ł''

|

Additionally, two purely orthographic conventions are used:

* The letters ''î'' and ''û'' occur in diphthongs deriving from ''vi, *ji'' and ''*vu''; e.g. ''doû, doî'' "black" from **''dovu, **dovi''

* The hook is used with any vowel or diphthong to show the absence of a following nasal, in Class 4 Nominals; e.g. ''camvǫ'' "foster son", pl. ''camvone''.

''a ă ą b c ć d e ĕ ê ę g ǵ i ĭ î į j l ł m n ń o ŏ ô ǫ r ŕ s ś ŝ t u ŭ û ų v z ź ẑ

| &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; b

*most consonants change to their secondary form, e.g. ''łasa'' "clear, blue", cpv. ''łaśu'' "bluer".

*''b'' and ''m'' are simply followed by the letter ''j'', e.g. ''caba'' "crooked", cpv. ''cabju'' "more crooked".

*''v'' becomes ''j'', e.g. ''dova'' "black", cpv. ''doju'' "blacker".

Palatalisation is an allophonic process whereby certain consonants are affected by a following ''i''. This mainly affects the sonorants ''l'', ''n'' and ''r'', which are altered to their secondary form, and the letters ''d'' and ''t'' which become ''ẑ'' and ''ŝ'' respectively. For example, ''dana'' "gift", pl. ''dańi'', ''cata'' "pool", pl. ''caŝi''.

! " colspan="5;"| Stops

| style="width: 35px; " align="center" | ''m''

| align="center"| ''ł''

| align="center"| ''ł''

As stated above, there are six dipthongs in Bźatga: ''ai, ei, oi'' and ''au, eu, ou''. These are only permitted to occur before a consonant or at the end of a word. When any of these comes to occur before a vowel, the second element becomes ''j'' or ''v'' respectively, e.g. ''saide'' "(he) seeks" but ''saja'' "seek!". The same is true in reverse, so ''dova'' "black" becomes ''doudra'' "blackness".  

Because of this alternation, only ''a, e'' and ''o'' can usually occur before ''j'' and ''v''. In a few rare cases the combination ''iv'' occurs, which becomes ''jû'' before a consonant, e.g. ''łiva'' "colour" becomes ''łûleda'' "colourful, coloured".  

Whenever the combinations ''**ji'' and ''*vu'' would occur as a result of inflexion or derivation, the consonant is lost and the remaining ''i'' or ''u'' forms a diphthong with the preceding vowel. The same occurs to the combination ''*ovi'', which becomes ''oî''. The second element of a diphthong formed in this way is marked by a caret, not to show a difference in pronunciation from the unmarked form, but to show the absence of the consonant. This process can clearly be seen in the declension of the adjective ''dova'' "black": ''dova'' (NAsg), ''doû'' (Osg, < *''dovu''), ''doî'' (Pl, < *''dovi''). Note also the change of ''*iji'' > ''î'' and ''*ivu, *iju'' > ''jû'' (e.g. ''bźija'' "power, status", Osg. ''bźû'', pl. ''bźî'').

====Alternation of ''l/ŭ''====

The letter ''l'' may only stand in pre-vocalic position, whether word initially or medially. When the sound comes to stand before a consonant it alternates to ''ŭ'', e.g. ''velą'' "seeing" but ''veŭdoja'' "visible".

Nouns have no grammatical gender but are marked for case and number. There are two cases in the singular: the '''Nominative-Accusative''' (NA) which is used for the subject and direct object of verbs; and the '''Oblique''' (O) which is used following prepositions and in some other constructions. Case is not marked in the plural.  

Nouns belong to one of four declensions based on the NASg. Indef:

* 1st and 2nd declension end in a vowel (''-a'' or ''-e'')

* 3rd declension end in a consonant

* 4th declension have a stem in -n but a NASg in a vowel marked with a hook (e.g. ''aų'').

! rowspan="2;" style="width: 150px;"  align="center" | Plural

! style="width: 150px; " align="center"| Oblique

| align="center"| ''sule''

| align="center"| ''sule''

| align="center"| ''sułi''

! align="center" | 4

| align="center"| ''aų''

| align="center"| ''auna''

* a group of 4th declension nouns has an NASg. in -C''ų'' (where C represents any consonant) but a stem in -C''on-'', e.g. ''camvų'' "whelp, lad", pl. ''camvone''.  

! style="width: 150px; " align="center"| Oblique

Bźatga has a definite article, ''-zda'', which is suffixed to the inflected form of the noun. The article itself must agree in case and number with the noun: NASg. ''-zda'', OSg. ''-zdu'' and Pl. ''-ẑi''.

* ''verazda'' "the man"

* ''ca aunazdu'' "to the river"

Adjectives follow the noun they qualify and agree with that noun in number and case. Adjectives belong to one of two declensions much like those of nouns, according to the sound at the end of the word. There are no definite forms of adjectives.

{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" text-align:center;"

! rowspan="2;" style="width: 150px;"  align="center" | Plural

! style="width: 150px; " align="center"| Oblique

| align="center"| ''made''

| align="center"| ''made''

The '''comparative''' adjective is formed by adding ''–ju'' to the stem, which undergoes iotisation where possible, e.g. ''maŕu'' "greater" < ''mara'', ''seńu'' "older" < ''sena'', ''doju'' "blacker" < ''dova''. Comparative adjectives are not inflected for case or number.

The '''superlative''' adjective is made with the suffix ''-va'', which also causes iotisation to the preceding consonant, e.g. ''maŕva'' "greatest", ''seńva'' "oldest", ''doiva'' "blackest". Superlatives function like normal adjectives and agree with their noun in number and case.

* ''dava'' "good", ''vela'' "better", ''vełva'' "best"

The cardinal numbers occur before '''singular''' forms of nouns. Only ''ôna'' "one" is inflected for case.  

* 1-10:  ''ôna, da, ći, ceudre, ćace, seś, seća, oću, nava, dega''

* 11-19:  ''ônzega, dazga, ćizga, ceǵzega, ćiaczega, seźega, sećzega, oćzega, nauzega''

The decades from 20 to 100 are: ''vegŝi, ćigot, ceǵgot, ćacot, seśgot, sećcot, oćcot, naucot, cata''.

These are nouns which stand in the NASg. before a NASg. noun. ''Vegŝi'' is indeclinable and ''cata'' is a 1st declension noun; the others are all 3rd declension.  

Numbers like "26" or "69" are formed with the unit followed by the decade in the OSg., e.g. ''seś vegŝi'' "26", ''nava seśgota'' "69". Nouns may be placed between the two numerals in the NASg., e.g. ''seś vera vegŝi'' "26 men", ''nava teja seśgota'' "69 houses".

Ordinal numbers are adjectives of the 1st declension, which behave like any other. They ordinals from 1-10 are: ''ćata, ała, ćića, ceuǵa, ćacda, seśda, sećveda, oćveda, naveda, degveda''.

Personal pronouns distinguish three persons in the singular and plural. Unlike some other languages, Bźatga does not distinguish gender in the third person singular, so ''e'' means "he, she, it". Both singular and plural have Nominative-Accusative and Oblique forms as well as a genitive used as a possessive adjective.  

! style="width: 120px; " align="center"| Oblique

! style="width: 120px; " align="center"| Gentitive

! style="width: 120px; " align="center"| Oblique

The NA pronouns are used as subject and direct object of the verb. As subject, they are really suffixes which attach to the verb directly. The 3rd person ''e'' is not added to verbs, which generally end in a vowel, so for example, ''carde'' implicitly means "he/she/it loves" unless another subject is stated. As direct object, the pronouns precede the verb directly, e.g. ''e cardemi'' "I love him", ''Małgų tu veŭse'' "Małgų saw you".

The Oblique forms are used following prepositions, e.g. ''cate ju'' "with him/her/it", ''a zna'' "from us".

! rowspan="2;" style="width: 120px;"  align="center" | Plural

! style="width: 120px; " align="center"| Oblique

* as pronouns proper, standing alone as the subject or object of a verb etc., e.g. ''seu ałdemi'' "I want that"

* as adjectives preceding a definite noun, e.g. ''soda verazda'' "this man''.

The interrogative pronouns are ''će'' "who", used for humans, deities and sometimes animals, and ''cêt'' "what", used for inanimates and abstracts. These are not declined for case or number. When the pronoun is the object of the sentence, the verb must be in the passive and the subject follows in the oblique e.g. ''cêt zlaźsore Vervosu'' "what did Vervosa kill?" (lit. "what was killed by Vervosa?"), but ''će Citvena veŭsa?'' "who saw Citvena?".  

* ''cane'' "when"

* ''care'' "why"

* ''cede'' "how many, how much"

* ''ćeta'' "how"

* ''cauga'' "everyone, everything"

* ''neuga'' "someone, something, anyone, anything"

* ''ołazda'' "all"

All these decline like first declension nouns. The first two may be used adjectivally, preceding a noun with which they agree in case and number, e.g. ''ca caugu veru'' "to every man". The adjectival form of ''ołazda'' is ''oła'' "all, every, whole" which must precede a definite noun (unless abstract), e.g. ''ołi eugiẑi'' "all the horses".

* '''Position 2''' must be filled with one of the tense-marking suffixes ''d'' for the non-past or ''s'' for the past (e.g. ''veŭd-'' "sees", ''veŭs-'' "saw"). In imperative verbs the position is held by the imperative suffix ''a'' (e.g. ''vela'' "see!").  

* '''Position 3''' denotes voice and is empty when the verb is active, but contains ''or'' when passive (e.g. ''veŭd-'' "sees", ''veŭdor-'' "is seen").

* '''Position 4''' is usually empty, but is filled by ''ja'' when the verb is relative (''veŭśa'' "who saw" < ''vel-s-ja'').  

* '''Position 5''' is always theoretically filled by a suffix denoting person. In most cases these are identical to the NA pronouns, with an epenthetic ''e'' following consonants (e.g. ''veŭdemi'' "I see", ''veŭsoreśi'' "you were seen"). When the subject is a noun or a 3sg pronoun, the ending is ''-e'', but this disappears following relative ''ja'' (e.g. ''veŭde'' "he/she/it sees", ''veŭģa'' "whom he etc. sees" < ''vel-d-ja''). Only the 2nd person pronouns may be used with the imperative (e.g. ''velatu'' "see!").

** ''ră'' functions somewhat like a subjunctive or modal particle, introducing a sense of uncertainty to the verb. It can be translated as 'may' or 'would' (e.g. ''răveŭseje'' "they may have seen", ''răveŭdeśńi'' "we may see"). It cannot be used with the imperative. The negative form is ''răn'' (e.g. ''rǎnveŭdeje'' "they may not see").  

** ''nă'' is the negative, which may be used with any of the suffixes (e.g. ''năveŭsemi'' "I did not see", ''năveŭģaśi'' "whom you did not see").

** ''mă'' is the conditional, used with the past or non-past to mean "if ..." (e.g. ''măveŭdetu'' "if you see", ''măveŭsoremi'' "if I were seen"). The conditional cannot be used with the relative suffix, but combines with the negative as ''măn'' (e.g. ''mănveŭdetu'' "if you don't see").  

The verbal noun is formed by adding ''-ą'' to the stem and is declined like a 4th declension noun. It functions as an abstract noun denoting the action of the verb, e.g. ''velą'' "seeing, vision, sight". The direct object of the verbal noun follows it directly in the NA case, e.g. ''zlaźą e'' "killing him", ''velą Noį'' "seeing Noį"

* The '''Present Participle''' is formed by adding the prefix ''ĕ-'' to the verbal noun when it begins with a consonant or ''ĕn-'' when it begins with a vowel, e.g. ''ĕvelą'' "seeing", ''ĕnezą'' "eating".

* The '''Past Passive Participle''' is formed with the suffix ''-da'' added to the verb stem, e.g. ''veŭda'' "seen", ''ezda'' "eaten".

* The '''Participle of Necessity''', equivalent to English adjectives in "-able", "-ible" and "-worthy", is formed with the suffix ''-doja'' added to the verb stem, e.g. ''veŭdoja'' "visible", ''zlaźdoja'' "killable".  

| align="center" | ''veŭde''

| align="center" | ''veŭģa''

| align="center" | ''veŭdore''

| align="center" | ''veŭdoŕa''

| align="center" | ''năveŭde''

| align="center" | ''năveŭģa''

| align="center" | ''năveŭdore''

| align="center" | ''năveŭdoŕa''

| align="center" | ''răveŭde''

| align="center" | ''răveŭģa''

| align="center" | ''răveŭdore''

| align="center" | ''răveŭdoŕa''

| align="center" | ''rănveŭde''

| align="center" | ''rănveŭģa''

| align="center" | ''rănveŭdore''

| align="center" | ''rănveŭdoŕa''

| align="center" | ''măveŭde''

| align="center" | ''măveŭdore''

| align="center" | ''mănveŭde''

| align="center" | ''mănveŭdore''

| align="center" | ''veŭse''

| align="center" | ''veŭśa''

| align="center" | ''veŭsore''

| align="center" | ''veŭsoŕa''

| align="center" | ''năveŭse''

| align="center" | ''năveŭśa''

| align="center" | ''năveŭsore''

| align="center" | ''năveŭsoŕa''

| align="center" | ''răveŭse''

| align="center" | ''răveŭśa''

| align="center" | ''răveŭsore''

| align="center" | ''răveŭsoŕa''

| align="center" | ''rănveŭse''

| align="center" | ''rănveŭśa''

| align="center" | ''rănveŭsore''

| align="center" | ''rănveŭsoŕa''

| align="center" | ''măveŭse''

| align="center" | ''măveŭsore''

| align="center" | ''mănveŭse''

| align="center" | ''mănveŭsore''

| align="center" colspan="2;" | ''veŭda''

| align="center" colspan="2;" | ''veŭdoja''

There is no verbal noun and no verbal adjectives. Neither ''es'' nor ''jat'' take take the usual final ''-e'' unless to represent the 3rd person singular pronoun, e.g. ''berća ese'' "she is beautiful" but ''źińida berća es'' "the queen is beautiful".  

The substantive verb denotes existence and may be used alone (e.g. ''abrazdemi ćese bidemi'' "I think therefore I am") or to join a subject with an adverbial predicate (e.g. ''boveźńi e teîda'' "we were in the house"). The forms are:

These are the main prepositions in Bźatga. They are invariably followed by the Oblique of nouns and pronouns.

* ''abe'' "around, about, concerning"

* ''are'' "before, beside"

* ''cate'' "with, by" (instrumental)

* ''ca'' "to"

* ''eća'' "out, outside"

* ''jatra'' "between"

* ''seugu'' "without"

* ''vjezu'' "with" (comitative)

* ''vona'' "under, below, beneath"

* ''vor'' "on, over, above"

* ''vret'' "against"

Note the distinction between ''cate'', used in phrases such as ''ezsemi cate łeju'' "I ate with a spoon", ''zlaźsoreje cate vjalu'' "they were killed by a wolf"; and ''vjezu'', used in phrases like ''ezsemi vjezu braģi mi'' "I ate with my brother".

* ''veŕida meńida carde'' "the man loves the woman"

* ''Małgų edra veŭse'' "Małgų saw a bird"

* ''baẑida ģigseje'' "they climbed the mountain"

* ''aģi mi sevą vrăcanse da mô'' "my father taught me to hunt" (hunting to me)

* ''ca teîdu ańanu ausetu'' "you went to the wrong house"

* ''cų mara'' "a large dog"

* ''euga vêda'' "a white horse"

* ''veŕida carģa mi'' "the man who loves me"

* ''eugida teugśa'' "the horse which ran away"

* ''teîda daisoŕa ca laŕidu'' "the house which burnt down"

* ''cuńida magdoŕa cate mô'' "the dog which I feed" (i.e. "which is fed by me")

Agent nouns and instruments are formed from verbs with the suffixes ''-jde'' or ''-(a)dra'' (e.g. (e.g. ''ģiģde'' "climber" < ''ģig-'', ''łaźdra'' "spade" < ''łaź-''). Agents can be formed from verbs or nouns with ''-jų'' (e.g. ''gańų'' "killer" < ''gan-'') and this can be added to adjectives to describe a person or thing bearing that quality (e.g. ''dajų'' "good person" < ''dava''). ''-vera'' is added to nouns, verbs or occasionally adjectives meaning "person associated with" (e.g. ''vezvera'' "woodsman" < ''veza''). The ending ''-jajų'' is added to nouns to mean "seeker of" or "lover of" (e.g. ''gałajų'' "megalomaniac" < ''gala'').

Diminutives can be formed from nouns with ''-ńa'' (e.g. ''meńa'' "little woman" < ''mena'') and from adjectives with ''-ga'' or ''-ca'' (e.g. ''douga/douca'' "little black one" < ''dova''); ''-ca'' tends to have more negative overtones.

Abstracts are formed from nouns and occasionally adjectives with ''-ća'', creating states or actions (e.g. ''ģeuća'' "divinity" < ''ģeva''), or ''-reda'' (e.g. ''brêćreda'' "confusion, disorder"), and from nouns alone by ''-sa'' (e.g. ''źisa'' "kingdom" < ''źi''). ''-dra'', ''-ja'' and ''-dud'' form abstracts from adjectives (e.g. ''daudra'' "goodness" < ''dava'', ''vêła'' "honesty" < ''vêla'', ''joucdud'' "youth" < ''jouca''). ''-da'' and ''-t'' are used to form abstracts from verbs (e.g. ''carda'' "love", ''cart'' "beloved").

|all              = ołida

|other            = ała

|blood            = voła

|ear              = łôsa

|knee              = łuna

|liver            = seła

|hear              = łô-

|smell            =  

|fear              =  

|sleep            =  

|live              =  

|die              =  

|kill              =  

|fight            =  

|hunt              =  

|hit              =  

|cut              =  

|split            =  

|stab              =  

|scratch          =  

|dig              =  

|swim              =  

|fly              =  

|walk              =  

|come              =  

|lie              =  

|sit              =  

|stand            =  

|turn              =  

|fall              =  

|give              =  

|hold              =  

|squeeze          =  

|rub              =  

|wash              =  

|wipe              =  

|pull              =  

|push              =  

|throw            =  

|tie              =  

|sew              =  

|count            =  

|say              =  

|sing              =  

|play              =  

|float            =  

|flow              =  

|freeze            =  

|swell            =  

|sun              =  

|moon              =  

|star              =  

|water            =  

|rain              =  

|river            =  

|lake              =  

|sea              =  

|salt              =  

|stone            =  

|sand              =  

|dust              =  

|earth            =  

|cloud            =  

|fog              =  

|sky              =  

|wind              =  

|snow              =  

|ice              =  

|smoke            =  

|fire              =  

|ash              =  

|burn              =  

|road              =  

|mountain          =  

|red              =  

|green            =  

|yellow            =  

|white            =  

|black            =  

|night            =  

|day              =  

|year              =  

|warm              =  

|cold              =  

|full              =  

|new              =  

|old              =  

|good              =  

|bad              =  

|rotten            =  

|dirty            =  

|straight          =  

|round            =  

|sharp            =  

|dull              =  

|left              = łeja

| ''Bleźa'' "wolf" <br> ''Braca'' "horse" <br> ''Crava'' "stag" <br> ''Cų,  Côn-'' "hound" <br> ''Euga'' "horse" <br>  ''Mada'' "horse" <br> ''Rata'' "bear" || ''Blada'' "flower" <br> ''Douna'' "world" <br> ''Dreta'' "strength" <br> ''Eja'' "type of tree"  <br> ''Eura'' "type of tree" <br> ''More'' "sea" <br> ''Rauta'' "silver" <br> ''Veza'' "tree" <br> ''Vrena'' "type of tree"  || ''Aźa'' "freeborn" <br> ''Mała'' "prince" <br> ''Mava'' "servant" <br> ''Teźna'' "lord" <br> ''Źi'' "sovereign" || ''Dava'' "good" <br> ''Cita'' "first" <br> ''Mara'' "great" <br> ''Viga'' "handsome, beautiful" <br> ''Vida'' "white, pure" || ''-ga'' "like" | ''-ńa'' diminutive <br> ''-ńava'' "knowing" <br> ''-vala'' "power (of)" <br> ''-vena'' "born (of)"

All forenames are unisex and words such as ''mała'' "prince" or ''teźna'' "lord" are considered equally applicable to males and females.

* physical characteristics, referring to hair or skin colour (''dova'' "black, dark", ''vida'' "white", ''łeda'' "grey", ''dôna'' "brown"), defects (''ćaga'' "purblind, having one eye, glee-eyed", ''caba'' "crooked"), or other notable features (''baŭmara'' "big penis", ''drônga'' "big hands").  

Family names are formed from the name of a prominent ancestor by adding the suffix ''-eńa'' or ''-jana'', e.g. ''Ratvaleńa'' "descendants of ''Radvala''", ''Craviģana'' "descendants of ''Craviga''". In some cases they may be formed from a person's epithet, e.g. ''Cabgeńa'' "descendants of ''Cabga''", ''Baŭmaźana'' "descendants of ''Baŭmara''".

[[Category:Conlangs]]