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{{construction}}
{{construction}}
{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|image = Asaari.png
|image =  
|imagesize = 100px
|imagesize = 100px
|name = Tsani
|name = Kandi
|nativename = Atsáni tsuyi
|nativename = Kāndi tsūyi
|pronunciation = /t͡sán at͡sáːɣɪ/
|pronunciation = kaːndɪ t͡suβ̞ʝɪ
|region = [[w:North America|North America]]
|creator = User:Waahlis
|states = [[w:USA|United States of America]]
|setting = Unknown conworld
|speakers = 21,020
<!-- |region = West Africa
|date = 2012
|states = Sierra Leone, Burkina Faso -->
|familycolor = American
|speakers = 4 million
|fam1 = [[Tanisi languages|Tanisi]]
|date = 2015
|fam2 = [[Tanisi languages#Tsan languages|Tsan]]
|familycolor = Afro-Asiatic
|ancestor = [[Proto-Tanisi]]
|fam1 = Jasi-Jivan
|dia1 = Tsan standard
|fam2 = Tanisi
|dia2 = Virginian Tsan
|ancestor = Proto-Kandi
|dia3 = Carolinian Tsan
|clcr = qts
<!-- |map = Agartha.jpg -->
|script1       = Latn
<!-- |mapcaption    = Map picturing the Agartha region in Transcaucasia, crossing the borders of [[w:Armenia|Armenia]], [[w:Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]] and [[w:Georgia|Georgia]]. -->
|agency        = ''Aytšin Tatšūkkāndi''
|iso1 = as
|iso2 = aas
|iso3 = aas
|script       = [[w:Latin script|Latin]]
|agency        = [[Asaari#Tsárapi áyasáari|Tsárapi áyasáari]]
|notice = IPA
|notice = IPA
}}
}}
'''Kāndi''', or '''Tsan''' (''kāndi tsūyi'' or ''tsani tsūyi'') is a language spoken by the Tsan people. It belongs to the Tanisi language family and is thus distantly related to the [[Ris]] language. Kandi is a heavily [[w:agglutinative language|agglutinating]] with a complex verbal morphology. The language has repeatedly been analysed as lacking [[w:nouns|nouns]] and [[w:adjectives|adjectives]] altogether, in favour of [[w:verb|verb]]s.


'''Atsáni tsúyi''', or simply '''Tsani''' /t͡sáni/ is a language spoken in the eastern [[w:United States of America|United States of America]]. It is not known to be related to any extant language and is thus a language isolate. The name, '''Atsáni tsúyi''' /at͡saːni t͡suːji/ means "crafty speech".
Slightly dated versions of the language were featured in the [[Third Linguifex Relay/Tsan|third]] and [[Fourth Linguifex Relay|fourth Linguifex relay]]s. These are probably not a good source for the constructed language, but they do give the reader an impression of Kandi's evolution.
==Background==
The language was supposedly first documented scholarly by the Belgian linguists Émile d'Ivoire and his Scottish colleague John Glenn Crossing, both of which were experienced in the field of the related Jivan languages, including for example the [[Ris]]. They first encountered the Kandi people in the early 19<sup>th</sup> century south of the Caspian Sea, in what is now Northern Iran. The Kandis dwelled in small villages intentionally isolated from the rest of the country. Crossing recognised the language's syntactic pecularities and conjectured it could be related to the Jivan languages, a then rather unfounded speculation.


Atsani is a heavily [[w:agglutinative language|agglutinating]] with a complex verbal morphology. The language has repeatedly been analysed as lacking [[w:nouns|nouns]] and [[w:adjectives|adjectives]] altogether, in favour of [[w:verb|verb]]s. Asaari is a [[w:tonal|tonal]] language with a limited vowel inventory, and an extensive array of consonants.
The Kandi language, which the natives had not given a name, was eponymously named after the speakers themselves; '''''kāndi''''' meaning ''handy'' in the language. The word is most likely related to Jávva '''''gánne''''', Wok '''''khaṃ'''''  and Ris '''''san''''', and can be traced back to the hypothetical Proto-Jasi-Jivan form '''''*kʰãn'''''. The name soon stuck with the Kandi people, although quite a few still call the language '''''kitsūyiwīn''''', ''our language''. That name is hardly very catchy though.


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
The Tsani inventory has been documented and assessed repeatedly since the 19<sup>th</sup> century, the foremost people in the field being the Belgian linguist Émile d'Ivoire and the Scottish linguist John Glenn Crossing, an expert on Jivan languages.
The Kandi inventory has been documented and assessed repeatedly since the 19<sup>th</sup> century, the foremost scholar in the field being the Belgian linguist Émile d'Ivoire. This page uses a standard notation where C is a consonant, N a nasal consonant, and V is a vowel. Features are indicated by square brackets [ ] and plus or minus signs, ±. Phonemic sounds are marked with slash brackets / / and more deeply analysed sounds are marked with square brackets [ ].
===Consonants===
===Phonemic inventory of vowels and consonants===
The following is a Tsani inventory of consonants, according to Émile d'Ivoire, a model nowadays serving as standard when analysing the language. It mostly differs from others models in terms of orthography, but also in analysing the sequence {{sc|plosive}} + {{sc|labio-velar approximant}} as phonemic ejectives.
The following is the Kandi inventory of consonants, as analysed by d'Ivoire, a model nowadays serving as standard when analysing the language.  
{| class="" style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
|+'''d'Ivoire model'''
|+'''d'Ivoire model'''
|-
|-
Line 41: Line 40:
! colspan="1" rowspan="2"|Bilabial
! colspan="1" rowspan="2"|Bilabial
!Dental
!Dental
! colspan="2"|Alveolar
! colspan="3"|Alveolar
! rowspan="2"|Palatal
! rowspan="2"|Dorsal
! colspan="1" rowspan="2"|Uvular
 
! rowspan="2"|Glottal
! rowspan="2"|Glottal
|-
|-
!central
!<small>central</small>
!<small>central</small>
!<small>central</small>
!<small>lateral</small>
!<small>lateral</small>
!<small>palatal</small>
|-
|-
! rowspan="2"|Nasals
! rowspan="1" colspan="2" |Nasals
!<small>voiceless</small>
|'''mh''' /m̥/
| colspan="2" rowspan="1"|'''nh '''/n̥/
|
|
|
|
|-
!<small>voiced</small>
|'''m''' /m/
|'''m''' /m/
| colspan="2" rowspan="1"|'''n''' /n/
| colspan="2" rowspan="1"|'''n''' /n/
Line 67: Line 58:
|
|
|- align="center"
|- align="center"
! rowspan="2"|Stops
! rowspan="3"|Stops
!<small>ejective</small>
|'''pu ''' /pʼ/
| colspan="2"|'''tu '''/tʼ/
|
| colspan="2" | '''qu '''/cʼ ~ qʼ/
|
|-
|-
!<small>voiceless</small>
!<small>voiceless</small>
Line 79: Line 64:
| colspan="2"|'''t''' /t/
| colspan="2"|'''t''' /t/
|
|
| colspan="2" |'''q''' /c ~ q/
|
|''' h ''' /ʔ/
|'''k''' /k/
|
|-
|-
! rowspan="2"|Affricates
!<small>voiced</small>
!<small>ejective</small>
| '''b''' /b/
|
| colspan="2"| '''d''' /d/
|
|
|'''tsu''' /t͡sʼ/
|'''tlu '''/t&#620;'/
|'''tshu '''/t͡ɕʼ/
|
|
| '''g''' /g/
|
|
|-
|-
!<small>voiceless</small>
! rowspan="1" colspan="2"|Affricates
|
|
|
|
|'''ts''' /t͡s/
|'''ts''' /t͡s/
|'''tl '''/t͡ɬ/
|'''tl '''/t͡ɬ/
|'''tsh '''/t͡ɕ/
|'''tš '''/t͡ɕ/
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
! rowspan="1"|Fricatives
! colspan="2"|Fricatives
!<small>voiceless</small>
|
|'''ph''' /ɸ ~ pɸ/
|
|'''th '''/θ ~ tθ/
|'''s''' /s/
|'''s''' /s ~ ts/
|
|'''lh '''/&#620;/
|'''š '''/ɕ/ · '''y''' /ʝ/
|'''sh '''/ç ~ &#597;/
|'''x''' /x/
| colspan="2" |'''h''' /χ ~ h/
| '''h''' /h/
|-
|-
! colspan="2" style="background: ;"|Approximants
! colspan="2" style="background: ;"|Approximants
|
|'''w''' /β̞/
|
|
|
|
|'''l''' /l/
|'''l''' /l/
| '''y''' /j/
|  
|'''r''' /&#641; ~ &#640;/
|'''ǧ''' /ɰ/
|
|
|}
===Vowels===
D'Ivoire also re-analysed and standardised the phonemic inventory of vowels in the language.
Tsan has four main vowels, /a/, /i/, /u/ and /ɛ/. All vowels can be long, in which case they are written with an acute accent.
{| class="IPA" cellspacing="0px" cellpadding="0" style="text-align:center; background:none;"
|- style="text-align:center; font-size:smaller;"
|style="padding-bottom:3px;"| &nbsp;
| style="width: 60px;" | '''Front'''
| style="width: 60px; word-spacing: -.3em;" | '''Near- front'''
| style="width: 60px;" | '''Central'''
| style="width: 60px;word-spacing: -.3em;" | '''Near- back'''
| style="width: 60px;" | '''Back'''
|-
|-
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Close'''
! colspan="2" style="background: ;"|Trills
| style="height: 210px;" colspan=5 rowspan=7 | <div style="position: relative;">[[File:Blank vowel trapezoid.svg|300px|link=]]<div style="background:none; position:absolute; top:0; left:0;">
|  
{| style="position:relative; width:300px; height:210px; text-align:center; background:none;"
|colspan="5"|'''r''' /ʀ~r/
|-
|
| style="width:300px; height:210px; text-align:center; background:none; font-size:120%;"|
 
<!-- CLOSE VOWELS -->
<div style="position: absolute; left: 9%; width: 1em; top: 2%; background: white;">i</div>
<div style="position: absolute; left: 85%; width: 1.2em; top: 2%; background: white;">u</div>
 
<!-- NEAR-CLOSE VOWELS -->
 
<!-- CLOSE-MID VOWELS -->
<!-- <div style="position: absolute; left: 18%; width: 1.3em; top: 30%; background: white;">ø</div> -->
<!-- <div style="position: absolute; left: 84%; width: 2.7em; top: 30%; background: white;">ɤ · o</div> -->
 
<!-- MID VOWELS -->
 
<!-- OPEN-MID VOWELS -->
<div style="position: absolute; left: 30%; width: 2.5em; top: 58%; background: white;">ɛ</div>
 
<!-- NEAR-OPEN VOWELS -->
 
<!-- OPEN VOWELS -->
<div style="position: absolute; left: 66%; width: 1em; top: 86%; background: white;">a</div>
|}
|}
</div></div>
|-
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | &nbsp;&nbsp;'''Near-close'''
|-
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Close-mid'''
|-
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Mid'''
|-
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Open-mid'''
|-
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Near-open'''
|-
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Open'''
|}
<div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 1.25em; margin-bottom: 0.33em">''Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a rounded vowel.</div>




===Diphthongs===
D'Ivoire standardised the phonemic inventory of vowels in the language, as per his conclusion that there were three phonemic short vowels, /i/, /a/, /u/, and three phonemic "long" vowels. The quality of the long vowels is rarely realised as the same as their short counterparts however, but it is likely that they once only differed in quantity, making vowel length a truly distinctive feature.
There are eleven [[w:diphthongs|diphthongs]] according to most analyses. These are /aj/, /ɛj/, /uj/, /ja/, /jɛ/, /ju/, /aw/, /ɛw/, /wa/, /wi/ and /wɛ/.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 550px; text-align:center;"
 
|+ '''d'Ivoire model'''
{| class="IPA" cellspacing="0px" cellpadding="0" style="text-align:center; background:none;"
|- style="text-align:center; font-size:smaller;"
|style="padding-bottom:3px;"| &nbsp;
| style="width: 60px;" | '''Front'''
| style="width: 60px; word-spacing: -.3em;" | '''Near- front'''
| style="width: 60px;" | '''Central'''
| style="width: 60px;word-spacing: -.3em;" | '''Near- back'''
| style="width: 60px;" | '''Back'''
|-
|-
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Close'''
| style="height: 210px;" colspan=5 rowspan=7 | <div style="position: relative;">[[File:Diphthongs-Ts.png|300px|link=]]<div style="background:none; position:absolute; top:0; left:0;">
{| style="position:relative; width:300px; height:210px; text-align:center; background:none;"
|-
|-
| style="width:300px; height:210px; text-align:center; background:none; font-size:120%;"|
!style="width: 45px; "|
 
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
<!-- CLOSE VOWELS -->
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
<div style="position: absolute; left: 9%; width: 1em; top: 2%; background: white;">i</div>
<div style="position: absolute; left: 85%; width: 1.2em; top: 2%; background: white;">u</div>
 
<!-- NEAR-CLOSE VOWELS -->
 
<!-- CLOSE-MID VOWELS -->
<!-- <div style="position: absolute; left: 18%; width: 1.3em; top: 30%; background: white;">ø</div> -->
<!-- <div style="position: absolute; left: 84%; width: 2.7em; top: 30%; background: white;">ɤ · o</div> -->
 
<!-- MID VOWELS -->
 
<!-- OPEN-MID VOWELS -->
<div style="position: absolute; left: 30%; width: 2.5em; top: 58%; background: white;">ɛ</div>
 
<!-- NEAR-OPEN VOWELS -->
 
<!-- OPEN VOWELS -->
<div style="position: absolute; left: 66%; width: 1em; top: 86%; background: white;">a</div>
|}
</div></div>
|-
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | &nbsp;&nbsp;'''Near-close'''
|-
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Close-mid'''
|-
|-
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Mid'''
! style="" |Close front unrounded
| '''i''' /i/
| '''ī''' /iː/ [iː]
|-
|-
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Open-mid'''
! style="" |Open back unrounded
| '''a''' /a/
| '''ā''' /aː/ [ɔ]
|-
|-
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Near-open'''
! style="" |Close back rounded
|'''u''' /u/
|'''ū''' /uː/ [u͜β̞]
|-
|-
| style="height: 30px; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;" | '''Open'''
|}
|}
<div style="font-size: smaller; line-height: 1.25em; margin-bottom: 0.33em">''Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a rounded vowel.</div>


==Phonotactics==
The composition of Kandi words and syllables is restricted, and phonemes undergo a few morphophonemic changes when interacting across morpheme boundaries. Due to the the synthetic nature of the language, some enclitics and affixes may be obscured because of these changes. The morphophonology is highly dependent upon various assimilations, syncope and a few epenthetical vowels.


===Phonological processes===
===Syllable structure and morphophonology===
====Emphatic consonants====
The minimal Kandi syllable is simply V, and the maximal structure is CrVCC, where V may be either long or short. In case the following syllable begins with a consonant, the resulting cluster is simplified.
The term '''emphatic''' is a controversial one, introduced by Crossing, but refers to a certain form of assimilation in the Tsani language. Following long vowels, fricative consonants and /r/ change their pronunciation.


{| class="" style="width: 550px; text-align:center"
The Kandi consonant cluster VCCV is subject to a few rules.
|+'''Tsani emphatics and finals'''
*All nasal plosives N (C[stop][+nas]) voice both preceding and following stops P (C[stop][-nas]).  
|-
::NP[-voice] > NP[+voice]
! colspan="8"|Phonological changes
::P[-voice]N > P[+voice]N
|-
*
!
 
!ph
 
!th
 
!s
 
!lh
 
!sh
 
!h
 
!r
 
|-
! Plain
 
|/ɸ/
 
|/θ/
 
|/s/
 
|/ɬ/
 
|/ç/
 
|/ʔ/
 
|/r ~ ʁ ~ ʀ/
 
|-
!Emphatic
 
|[p͡ɸ]
 
|[t͡θ]
 
|[t͡s]
 
|[t͡ɬ]
 
|[ɕ]
 
|[χ]
 
|[ɣ]
 
|-
!Final
 
| -
 
| -
 
| -
 
| -
 
| -
 
|[h]
 
|[r]
|}
 
====Unreleased consonants====
When in coda position of a word, consonants are pronounced with [[w:no audible release|no audible release]]. This applies to all oral occlusives, or plosives. Ejective plosives are never found in final position and thus never unreleased. D'Ivoir observed a tendency for final occlusive consonants to be fricativised in certain dialects. He did not want to go as far as to call it phonemic, however.
 
 
{|  class="" style="width: 550px; text-align:center"
|+'''Tsani final occlusives'''
|-
! colspan="8"|Phonological changes
|-
!
!p
!t
!q
|-
! Plain
|/p/
|/t/
|/c ~ q/
|-
!Unreleased
|[p̚]
|[t̚]
|[c̚ ~ q̚]
|}
 
 
 
===Suprasegmentals===
====Stress====
Tsani does not phonemically distinguish words stress, similar to French. Some linguists have criticised d'Ivoire for this view, claiming it is francocentric. It does, according to d'Ivoir, have a sentence stress; a stress that almost unexclusively falls on the last syllable, just like in the [[w:French language|French language]]. It is not appropriate to call this stress, however; a more fitting description is a universal rise in tone.
{{Gloss/indexable
|phrase = Akénin tsúriyuya.
|IPA = /aceːnin t͡suːrijuja↗/
|morphemes = a-kéni-n tsúriyu-ya
|gloss = INTF-heat-REL cold-CAUS
|translation = Cold makes heat.
|index = ...
}}
 
==Grammar==
Tsan has a fairly complex grammar; it lacks the common definition of a noun. Instead, all nouns are so called "nominals" verbs conjugated in a certain pattern.
===Syntax===
====Nominals and verbals====
The language differentiates '''nominal''' and '''verbal''' constructs of finite verbs. A verbal verb acts like a normal verb. A nominal verb on the other hand, has affixes that makes it more similar to a noun or adjective.  
 
In the most basic form, there is no difference between the two. However, through simple personal endings and relativisers, the meaning is altered.
 
*The main pronominal prefixes, {{sc|mn.1/2/3}}, make verbs verbal, indicating a subject.
*The relativising affixes {{sc|1/2/3.rel}} mark a word as nominal. The third person neuter relativiser, '''-i''', is also used to form finite verbs from verbals.
 
=====Finite and non-finite verbs=====
In Tsan , all nouns are verbs, and all verbs are [[w:finite|finite]]. To create a construction similar to the English [[w:non finite verbs|non finite verbs]], a speaker uses the relativising suffix '''-i'''.
 
 
{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em;"
|+
<!-- Sentence -->
| colspan="4"|'''Árá gáari.'''
 
!
 
| colspan="5"| '''Árá ágáari.'''
 
!
 
| colspan="5"|'''Árá ságáari.'''
|-
<!-- Pronunciation-->
| colspan="4"|  /áɣa cáːɣɪ/
 
!
 
| colspan="5"| /áɣa acáːɣɪ/
 
!
 
| colspan="5"|/áɣa sacáːɣɪ/
|-
<!-- Morphemes-->
|á-
|rá
|gáar
| -i
!
 
|á-
|rá
|á-
|gáar
| -i
 
!
 
|á-
 
|rá
|sá-
|gáar
| -i
|-
<!-- Gloss-->
|{{sc|mn.pres.perf.1.m.sg.}}
|like
|read
|{{sc|.rel.3.n.sg}}
 
!
 
 
|{{sc|pres.perf.1.m.sg.}}
|like
|{{sc|pres.perf.1.m.sg.}}
|read
|{{sc|.rel}}
!
 
 
|{{sc|pres.perf.1.m.sg.}}
|like
|{{sc|pres.perf.2.m.sg.}}
|read
|{{sc|.rel}}
|-
<!-- Translations -->
| colspan="4"| ''I like the book.''
 
!
 
| colspan="5"| ''I like when I read.'' (''I like to read'')
 
!
 
| colspan="5"|''I like when you read.''
 
|}
 
 
====The topic marker====
In Tsan, no syntactic argument carries as much weight as the [[w:Topic-comment|topic]]. The topic is the argument of the sentence being talked about; the argument that can be inferred.
 
The topic marker is not compulsory, but a native speaker would probably be confused without it. The marker is a suffixed '''-s'''. The suffix is one of few very fusional suffixes, which often blend into preceeding suffix if it does not end in a vowel.
 
 
{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em;"
|+
<!-- Sentence -->
| colspan="5"|'''Árás gáari.'''
 
!
 
| colspan="5"| '''Árá gáaris.'''
 
!
 
| colspan="6"|'''Árátsa gáaris'''
|-
<!-- Pronunciation-->
| colspan="5"|  /áɣa cáːɣɪs/
 
!
 
| colspan="5"| /áɣas cáːɣɪ/
 
!
 
| colspan="6"|/áɣatsa cáːɣɪs/
|-
<!-- Morphemes-->
|á-
|rá
| -s
|gáar
| -i
!
 
|á-
|rá
|gáar
| -i-
| -s
 
!
 
|á-
|rá
| -tsa
|gáar
| -i
| -s
|-
<!-- Gloss-->
|{{sc|pres.perf.1.m.sg.}}
|like
|{{sc|topic}}
|read
|{{sc|.stat.rel.3.n.sg}}
 
!
 
 
|{{sc|pres.perf.1.m.sg.}}
|like
|read
|{{sc|.rel.3.n.sg}}
|{{sc|topic}}
!
 
 
|{{sc|pres.perf.1.m.sg.}}
|like
|{{sc|neg.}}
|read
|{{sc|.rel.3.n.sg}}
|{{sc|topic}}
 
|-
<!-- Translations -->
| colspan="5"| ''As for me, I like the book.''
 
!
 
| colspan="5"| ''I like the BOOK.''<sup>1</sup>
 
!
 
| colspan="6"|''I DON'T like the book.''
|}
 
# In English, one would stress the subject in the second sentence, I, but the book would still be the topic: "'''I''' don't like the book, but you do".
 
====The topic marker and passivisation====
The Tsan language lacks any distinction in [[w:grammatical voice|grammatical voice]]. To express passive phrases, one would use the topic marker on the object of the transitive verb.
 
 
{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em;"
|+
<!-- Sentence -->
| colspan="9"|'''Éshis yéenínayih thagátsan.'''
 
!
 
| colspan="8"| '''Éshi yéenínayis thagátsan.'''
 
|-
<!-- Pronunciation-->
| colspan="9"|/ɛ́ɕɪs jɛ́ːnɪ́najɪh θaqát͡san/
 
!
 
| colspan="8"|/ɛ́ɕɪ jɛ́ːnɪ́najɪs θaqát͡san/
 
!
 
|-
<!-- Morphemes-->
|esh
| -i-
| -s
|‹yée›
|nína
|‹yih›
|‹tha›
|gátsa
| ‹n›
 
!
 
|esh
| -i
|‹yée›
|nína
|‹yis›
|‹tha›
|gátsa
| ‹n›
 
!
|-
<!-- Gloss-->
|bark
|{{sc|.rel.3.n.sg}}
|{{sc|topic}}
|‹{{sc|.rel.3.f.s}}›
|be girly
|‹{{sc|.rel.3.f.s}}›
|‹{{sc|past.perf.3.n.s}}›
|bite
|‹{{sc|past.perf.3.n.s}}›
 
!
 
|bark
|{{sc|.rel.3.n.sg}}
|‹{{sc|.rel.3.f.s}}›
|be girly
|‹{{sc|.rel.3.f.s + topic}}›
|‹{{sc|past.perf.3.n.s}}›
|bite
|‹{{sc|past.perf.3.n.s}}›
 
!
 
|-
<!-- Translations -->
| colspan="9"| ''The DOG bit the girl.''
 
!
 
| colspan="8"| ''The dog bit the GIRL.'' or ''The GIRL was bitten by the dog''
|}
 
 
====The topic marker, passivisation and incorporation====
The passivisation with the topic marker makes it possible to omit the subject nominal, as long as the finite verb is conjugated according to the omitted subject.
 
Another possibility is to [[w:noun incorporation|incorporate]] the subject nominal into the verbal. This is not the most common solution, but still occurs rather frequently.
 
{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em;"
|+
<!-- Sentence -->
| colspan="9"|'''Yéenínayis tha'éshigátsan.'''
 
!
 
| colspan="6"| '''Yéenínayis thagátsan .'''
 
|-
<!-- Pronunciation-->
| colspan="9"|/jɛ́ːnɪ́najɪh θaʔɛ́ɕɪqát͡san/
 
!
 
| colspan="6"|/jɛ́ːnɪ́najɪs θaqát͡san/
 
!
 
|-
<!-- Morphemes-->
|‹tha›
| -'-
| -esh-
| -i-
|gátsa
| ‹n›
|‹yée›
|nína
|‹yis›
!
|‹tha›
|gátsa
| ‹n›
|‹yée›
|nína
|‹yis›
!
|-
<!-- Gloss-->
 
|‹{{sc|past.perf.3.n.s}}›
| {{sc|con}}
|bark
|{{sc|.rel.3.n.sg.con}}
|bite
|‹{{sc|past.perf.3.n.s}}›
|‹{{sc|.rel.3.f.s}}›
|be girly
|‹{{sc|.rel.3.f.s}}›
 
!
 
|‹{{sc|past.perf.3.n.s}}›
|bite
|‹{{sc|past.perf.3.n.s}}›
|‹{{sc|.rel.3.f.s}}›
|be girly
|‹{{sc|.rel.3.f.s + topic}}›
!
 
|-
<!-- Translations -->
| colspan="9"| ''The GIRL was dog-bitten.''
 
!
 
| colspan="6"| ''The GIRL was bitten.''
|}
 
 
====The topic marker and definiteness====
[[w:Definiteness|Definiteness]] normally goes unmarked in Tsan, and no official distinction exist. However, using the topic marker, nouns are most often implied to be definite. This also infers that only one argument may be definite in a clause.
 
{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em;"
|+
<!-- Sentence -->
| colspan="6"|'''Nar éshi yàyáhin.'''
 
!
 
| colspan="6"| '''Naas éshi yàyáhin.'''
 
|-
<!-- Pronunciation-->
| colspan="6"|/nar ɛ́ɕɪ jàjáʔɪn/
 
!
 
| colspan="6"|/naːs ɛ́ɕɪ jàjáʔɪn/
 
!
 
|-
<!-- Morphemes-->
|nar
| esh
| -i
| ‹yà›
| yáhi
| ‹n›
!
|naas
| esh
| -i
| ‹yà›
| yáhi
| ‹n›
!
|-
<!-- Gloss-->
|be manly.{{sc|pred.}}
|bark
|{{sc|.rel.3.n.sg}}
|‹{{sc|pres.perf.3.m.s}}›
|see
|‹{{sc|pres.perf.3.m.s}}›
 
!
 
|be manly.{{sc|pred. + topic}}
|bark
|{{sc|.rel.3.n.sg}}
|‹{{sc|pres.perf.3.m.s}}›
|see
|‹{{sc|pres.perf.3.m.s}}›
!
 
|-
<!-- Translations -->
| colspan="6"| ''Man sees dog.''
 
!
 
| colspan="6"| ''The man sees the dog.''
|}
 
 
====The topic marker, the relativiser and definiteness====
Both the topic marker and the relativiser indicate what would be definiteness in English. There is a slight difference in usage, however. The relativiser indicates a less important focus than the topic marker.
 
{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em;"
|+
<!-- Sentence -->
| colspan="6"|'''Tsúnanir yàtsúnan.'''
 
!
 
| colspan="6"| '''Tsúnasir yàtsúnan.'''
 
|-
<!-- Pronunciation-->
| colspan="6"|/t͡sʊ́nanɪr jat͡sʊ̀nan/
 
!
 
| colspan="6"|/t͡sʊ́nasɪr jat͡sʊ̀nan/
 
!
 
|-
<!-- Morphemes-->
|tsúna
| -n
| -ir
| ‹yà›
| tsúna
| ‹n›
!
|tsúna
| -s
| -ir
| ‹yà›
| tsúna
| ‹n›
!
|-
<!-- Gloss-->
|to run.{{sc|pred.}}
|{{sc|.rel.3.n.sg}}
|{{sc|.agent.mn}}
|‹{{sc|pres.perf.3.mn.s}}›
|run
|‹{{sc|pres.perf.3.mn.s}}›
 
!
|to run.{{sc|pred.}}
|{{sc|.topic}}
|{{sc|.agent.mn}}
|‹{{sc|pres.perf.3.mn.s}}›
|run
|‹{{sc|pres.perf.3.mn.s}}›
!
 
|-
<!-- Translations -->
| colspan="6"| ''The runner runs.'' [The runner has previously been mentioned]
 
!
 
| colspan="6"| ''The RUNNER runs.''
|}
 
 
{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em;"
|+
<!-- Sentence -->
| colspan="6"|'''Nína naas yàhúurayih.'''
 
!
 
| colspan="7"| '''Yéenínayih naas yàhúurayih.'''
 
|-
<!-- Pronunciation-->
| colspan="6"|/nína naːs jaʔʊ̀ːʀajɪh/
 
!
 
| colspan="7"|/jɛːnínajɪh naːs jaʔʊ̀ːʀajɪh/
 
!
 
|-
<!-- Morphemes-->
|nína
| naas
| ‹yà›
| húura
| ‹yih›
!
|‹jée›
|nína
| ‹yih›
| naas
| ‹yà›
| húura
| ‹yih›
!
|-
<!-- Gloss-->
|be girly.{{sc|pred.}}
|be manly.{{sc|pred.+topic}}
|‹{{sc|pres.perf.3.f.s}}›
|love
|‹{{sc|pres.perf.3.f.s}}›
 
!
|{{sc|.rel.3.f.sg}}
|be girly.{{sc|pred.}}
|{{sc|.rel.3.f.sg}}
|be manly.{{sc|pred.+topic}}
|‹{{sc|pres.perf.3.f.s}}›
|love
|‹{{sc|pres.perf.3.f.s}}›
!
 
|-
<!-- Translations -->
| colspan="6"| ''A girl loves the MAN.''
 
!
 
| colspan="7"| ''The girl loves the MAN''
|}
 
 
====The topic and reference====
The topic marker is used in [[w:anaphora|anaphoric]] and [[w:cataphora|cataphoric]] expression, and clears out reference.
 
{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em;"
|+
<!-- Sentence -->
| colspan="13"|'''Érigi Yúniyas thayàmétin, ni thayàranash.'''
!
|-
<!-- Pronunciation-->
| colspan="13"|/ɛ́ɣɪcɪ jʊ́nɪjas θajamɛ̀tɪn | nɪ θajàʁanaɕ/
!
|-
<!-- Morphemes-->
|Érigi
| Yún
| -i
| -ya-
| -s
| ‹thayà›
| méti
| ‹n›
| ni
| ‹thayà›
| ra
| ‹n›
| -ash
!
|-
<!-- Gloss-->
|Eric.{{sc|pred.}}
|John
| -{{sc|.rel.3.m.sg}}
|and.{{sc|co.conj.}}
|{{sc|topic}}
|‹{{sc|past.perf.3.mn.s}}›
|eat
|‹{{sc|past.perf.3.mn.s}}›
|but.{{sc|co.conj}}
|‹{{sc|past.perf.3.mn.s}}›
|like
|‹{{sc|past.perf.3.mn.s}}›
| -{{sc|obj.3.n.s}}
!
|-
<!-- Translations -->
| colspan="13"| ''Eric and John ate food, but he [John] didn't like it.''
|}
 
In spoken Tsan, a more common word order would be "'''Érigi thayàmétin Yúniyas, ni thayàranash.'''", because there is an aversion to stacking proper nouns next to eachother.
 
==Verbs==
===Number===
Tsan verbs are conjugated according to three different numbers; singular, dual, and plural.
 
====Singular====
The singular ({{sc|sg}}) number is the most basic form of most nouns, and marks individual nouns, counting "one". It is completely corresponding to the English equivalent. The singular third person perfective dynamic is the citation form of all words in the Asaari language. The singular inflects according to three genders: Masculine, feminine and neuter.
 
The singular is formed with prefixes and suffixes.
====Dual====
The dual ({{sc|du}}) number marks when there are two subjects of a verb, or two of a noun. It is a living number unlike many European equivalents as well as [[w:Arabic language|Arabic]]. It is not inflected according to any gender.
 
The dual is formed through prefixes.
====Plural====
The plural ({{sc|pl}}) number refers to any objects numbering more than two, that is "several". It corresponds well to the English plurals.
 
The plural formation differs from that of the other numbers; it uses full reduplication of the word. The reduplication is applied to the predicative form of the word.
 
*'''tsá'''.{{sc|sg}} - ''language'' > '''tsátsá'''.{{sc|pl}} - ''languages''
*'''tíra'''.{{sc|sg}} - ''letter'' > '''tíratíra'''.{{sc|pl}} - ''letters''
*'''yàatha'''.{{sc|sg}} - ''emergence'' > '''yàathayàatha'''.{{sc|pl}} - ''emergences''
If it ends in a consonant, an epenthic ‹u› is inserted, unless the second segment starts in a vowel.
*'''nar'''.{{sc|sg}} - ''man'' > '''narunar'''.{{sc|pl}} - ''men''
*'''gáar'''.{{sc|sg}} - ''book'' > '''gáarugáar'''.{{sc|pl}} - ''books''
*'''asáar'''.{{sc|sg}} - ''ocean'' > '''asáarasáar'''.{{sc|pl}} - ''oceans''
 
===Gender===
Unlike other Native American languages, there are three genders, the masculine ({{sc|m}}), feminine ({{sc|f}}) and neuter ({{sc|n}}). Gender plays important roles in  and verbal inflections, since Tsan verbs conjugate according to gender. It is important to note that while verbs agree according to gender, it is the subject's gender that congruates.
 
There is no gender distinction in the plural dynamic conjugations. In the singular dynamic conjugation, the masculine and neuter collapse into a common, {{sc|mn}}, gender.
 
===Statives===
Statives are an Tsan conjugation of verbs that function primarily as nouns and adjectives. A stative is most often defined as a [[w:Predicative expression|predicative verb]], nominal or adjective, but may also include other [[w:predicates|predicates]]. There are three different applicative forms and two copulative. The applicative in Asaari is parted in three; instrumental, benefactive, malefactive and oblique.
=====Predicative=====
The predicative construction of a nominal has a usage most often analogous to an English [[w:copula|copula]], used in a predicative expression.
*''It is a dog.'' - '''mées'''
*''Sara is a girl.'' - '''Sára''' ''lhináan''
*''The house is crushed.''- '''tláta''' ''quirásináayan''
 
=====Relative=====
The relative construction of an Asaari nominal is equivalent to a modifying [[w:relative clause|relative clause]]. In the language, this is used to create objects, subjects, and modifiers.
*''That which is a dog'' - '''méesi'''
*''The man who is angry kicks the tree.'' - ''nar'' '''yéeitsán''' ''háranilhèqa
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg collapsible collapsible" style="background: none repeat scroll ; text-align: center; width: 95%; height: 100%;"
! colspan="17"|Relative
|-
! rowspan="2"|<small>Mood </small>↓
! colspan="2"|<small>Number</small> →
 
! colspan="3"|Singular
 
! colspan="3"|Dual
 
! colspan="7" |Plural
|-
!<small>Gender</small> ↓
!<small>Person</small> →
!1<sup>st</sup>
 
!2<sup>nd</sup>
 
!3<sup>rd</sup>
 
!1<sup>st</sup>
 
!2<sup>nd</sup>
 
!3<sup>rd</sup>
 
!1<sup>st</sup>
 
!2<sup>nd</sup>
 
!3<sup>rd</sup>
|-
! rowspan="3" style="height: 3px;"|Indicative
! colspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|<small>masculine</small>
 
|''sí-''
 
|''shá-''
 
|''yée-i/n''
 
| rowspan="3" | ''tlí-''
 
| rowspan="3" | ''thá-''
 
| rowspan="3" | ''ti-''
 
| rowspan="3" | ''sísí-''
 
| rowspan="3" | ''sháshá-''
 
| rowspan ="3" | ''yéeyée-''
|-
! colspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|<small>feminine</small>
 
|''sí-yih''
 
|''shá-yih''
 
|''yée-yih''
|-
! colspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|<small>neuter</small>


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible"
! rowspan="2" | Initial Consonant
! colspan="20" | Final Consonant
|- 
! m
! n
! p
! t
! k
! b
! d
! g
! s
! š
! tl
! ts
! tš
! h
! x
! w
! ǧ
! y
! l
! r
|- 
! m
| mm
| mb
| mb
| nd
| ng
| mb
| nd
| ng
| ss
| šš
| ndr
| ns
| nš
| mm
| nǧ
| mm
| nǧ
| nn
|
| ndr
|- 
! n
| nd
| nn
| mb
| nd
| ng
| mb
| nd
| ng
| ss
| šš
| ndr
| ns
| nš
| nn
| nǧ
| mm
| nǧ
| nn
|
| ndr
|- 
! p
|mb
|mb
|pp
|pt
|
|bb
|pt
|
|ps
|pš
|
|
|
|pp
|pš
|ppuh
|bb
|pp
|
|
|- 
! t
|
|
|pt
|tt
|tš
|ttuh
|tt
|dd
|ts
|tš
|ttl
|tts
|ttš
|tt
|tš
|ttuh
|dd
|dd
|tl
|tr
|- 
! k
|ǧm
|ǧn
|
|št
|kk
|guh
|št
|gg
|ks
|kš
|
|ts
|tš
|x
|x
|kkuh
|gg
|gg
|
|
|- 
! b
|mm
|mm
|pp
|ud
|uǧ
|w
|ud
|uǧ
|
|
|
|
|
|bb
|ux
|w
|uǧ
|bb
|
|
|- 
! d
|
|
|pt
|tt
|kk
|duh
|dd
|gg
|ss
|šš
|ttl
|tts
|ttš
|dd
|ǧǧ
|duh
|ǧ
|dd
|tl
|tr
|- 
! g
|ǧm
|ǧn
|pp
|tt
|kk
|guh
|dd
|gg
|ks
|kš
|
|
|
|ǧ
|ǧ
|guh
|g
|ǧ
|
|
|- 
! s
|šm
|
|sp
|st
|ks
|suh
|st
|ks
|ss
|šš
|
|
|
|ss
|šš
|suh
|x
|š
|
|
|- 
! š
|šm
|
|šp
|št
|kš
|šuh
|št
|kš
|ss
|šš
|
|
|
|šš
|šš
|šuh
|x
|š
|
|
|- 
! tl
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|- 
! ts
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|- 
! tš
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| ''-i/n''
|}
=====Instrumental=====
The Instrumental form has the function to promote an [[w:oblique argument|oblique argument]] of a verb to the core object argument, and indicates the oblique role within the meaning of the verb. When the instrumental applicative is applied to a verb, its [[w:valency|valency]] may be increased by one.  The instrumental has mainly comitative and instrumental functions.
*''He writes a letter with a pen.'' - ''Tìyitlá'' '''apuéni''' ''ayítlisi''.
*''He fetches wood with his hands.'' - ''Tìhem'' '''arási''' ''tsáran''.
*''He fetches it with me.'' - ''Tìhemir'' '''asími'''.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg collapsible collapsible" style="background: none repeat scroll ; text-align: center; width: 95%; height: 100%;"
! colspan="17"|Applicative
|-
! rowspan="2"|<small>Mood </small>↓
! colspan="2"|<small>Number</small> →
! colspan="3"|Singular
! colspan="3"|Dual
! colspan="7" |Plural
|-
!<small>Gender</small> ↓
!<small>Person</small> →
!1<sup>st</sup>
!2<sup>nd</sup>
!3<sup>rd</sup>
!1<sup>st</sup>
!2<sup>nd</sup>
!3<sup>rd</sup>
!1<sup>st</sup>
!2<sup>nd</sup>
!3<sup>rd</sup>
|-
! rowspan="3" style="height: 3px;"|Indicative
! colspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|<small>masculine</small>
|''así-''
|''ashá-''
|''ayée-''
|''atlí-''
|''athá-''
|''ati-''
|''así--''
|''ashá--''
|''ayée--''
|-
! colspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|<small>feminine</small>
|''así-yih''
|''ashá-yih''
|''ayée-yih''
|''atlí-yih''
|''athá-yih''
|''ati-yih''
|''así--yih''
|''ashá--yih''
|''ayée--yih''
|-
! colspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|<small>neuter</small>
|
|
|
|
| ''a-i/n''
|
|
|
|
|''ati-i/n''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}
=====Benefactive=====
The benefactive form expresses that the referent of the noun it marks receives the benefit of the situation expressed by the clause. It is simply expressed to be done "for" someone, as a favor or with neutral or good intent.
*''He wrote a letter to me.'' - ''Tìyitlá'' '''símiyáa''' ''ayítlisi''.
*''He fetched wood for the fire.'' - ''Tìhem'' '''tináarayáan''' ''tsáran''.
{| class="bluetable lightblubg collapsible collapsible" style="background: none repeat scroll ; text-align: center; width: 95%; height: 100%;"
! colspan="17"|Benefactive
|-
! rowspan="2"|<small>Mood </small>↓
! colspan="2"|<small>Number</small> →
! colspan="3"|Singular
! colspan="3"|Dual
! colspan="7" |Plural
|-
!<small>Gender</small> ↓
!<small>Person</small> →
!1<sup>st</sup>
!2<sup>nd</sup>
!3<sup>rd</sup>
!1<sup>st</sup>
!2<sup>nd</sup>
!3<sup>rd</sup>
!1<sup>st</sup>
!2<sup>nd</sup>
!3<sup>rd</sup>
|-
! rowspan="3" style="height: 3px;"|Indicative
! colspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|<small>masculine</small>
|''sí-yáa''
|''shá-yáa''
|''yée-yáa''
|''tlí-yáa''
|''thá-yáa''
|''ti-yáa''
|''sí--yáa''
|''shá--yáa''
|''yée--yáa''
|-
! colspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|<small>feminine</small>
|''sí-yáayih''
|''shá-yáayih''
|''yée-yáayih''
|''tlí-yáayih''
|''thá-yáayih''
|''ti-yáayih''
|''sí--yáayih''
|''shá--yáayih''
|''yée--yáayih''
|-
! colspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|<small>neuter</small>
|
|
|
|
| ''-yáan''
|
|
|
|
 
|-
|''ti-yáan''
! h
 
|
|
|
|
 
|pp
|tt
|kk
|pp
|tt
|kk
|ss
|šš
|ttl
|tts
|ttš
|x
|x
|w
|ǧǧ
|yy
|ll
|rr
|- 
! x
|ǧm
|ǧn
|šp
|št
|x
|šp
|št
|kš
|ss
|šš
|
|
|}
=====Oblique=====
The oblique applicative often expressed when doing something "against" someone, as a hinder or with neutral or ill intent. It is often used in comparative clauses and as an object of a preposition. It does also have a locative function.
*''Don't spit on me!'' - ''Ritshápuáta'' '''tsamiyáa'''.
*''Please wait for me?'' - ''Tshásána'' '''tsasèhayáa'''.
*''It is in here''. - '''Itaniyáan'''.
{| class="bluetable lightblubg collapsible collapsible" style="background: none repeat scroll ; text-align: center; width: 95%; height: 100%;"
! colspan="17"|Oblique
|-
! rowspan="2"|<small>Mood </small>↓
! colspan="2"|<small>Number</small> →
! colspan="3"|Singular
! colspan="3"|Dual
! colspan="7" |Plural
|-
!<small>Gender</small> ↓
!<small>Person</small> →
!1<sup>st</sup>
!2<sup>nd</sup>
!3<sup>rd</sup>
!1<sup>st</sup>
!2<sup>nd</sup>
!3<sup>rd</sup>
!1<sup>st</sup>
!2<sup>nd</sup>
!3<sup>rd</sup>
|-
! rowspan="3" style="height: 3px;"|Indicative
! colspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|<small>masculine</small>
|''tsa-yáa''
|''tsah-yáa''
|''sha-yáa''
|''tlua-yáa''
|''tsua-yáa''
|''tui-yáa''
|''tsa--yáa''
|''tshá--yáa''
|''sha--yáa''
|-
! colspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|<small>feminine</small>
|''tsa-yáayih''
|''tsha-yáayih''
|''sha-yáayih''
|''tlua-yáayih''
|''tsua-yáayih''
|''tui-yáayih''
|''tsa--yáayih''
|''tsha--yáayih''
|''sha--yáayih''
|-
! colspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|<small>neuter</small>
|
|
|
|
 
|x
| ''i-yáan''
|x
 
|xuh
|ǧ
|x
|
|
|
|
 
|- 
|''ti-yáan''
! w
 
|mm
|mm
|bb
|ud
|uǧ
|bb
|ud
|uǧ
|us
|uš
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}
|w
 
|uǧ
==Dynamic==
|w
 
|uǧ
===Perfective===
|w
====Non-past and past====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="background: none repeat scroll ; text-align: center; width: 95%; height: 100%;"
|-
! colspan="17"|Perfective dynamic
|-
! colspan="17"|Non-Past
|-
! rowspan="2"|<small>Mood </small>↓
 
! colspan="2"|<small>Number</small> →
 
! colspan="3"|Singular
 
! colspan="3"|Dual
 
! colspan="7" |Plural
|-
!<small>Gender</small> ↓
 
!<small>Person</small> →
 
!1<sup>st</sup>
 
!2<sup>nd</sup>
 
!3<sup>rd</sup>
 
!1<sup>st</sup>
 
!2<sup>nd</sup>
 
!3<sup>rd</sup>
 
!1<sup>st</sup>
 
!2<sup>nd</sup>
 
!3<sup>rd</sup>
|-
! rowspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|Indicative
 
! colspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|<small>masculine/neuter</small>
 
|''á-''
 
|''sá-''
 
|''yà-i/n''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''láhá-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''lásá''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''láyà-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''áha-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''sásá-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''yàyà-''
|-
! colspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|<small>feminine</small>
 
|''á-yih''
 
|''sá-yih''
 
|''yà-yih''
|-
 
|-
! colspan="17"|Past
|-
! rowspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|Indicative
 
! colspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|<small>masculine</small>
 
|''thaá-''
 
|''thasá-''
 
|''thayà-i/n''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''tláhá-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''tlásá''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''tláyà-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''thaáha-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''tlásá-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''thayàyà-''
|-
! colspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|<small>feminine</small>
 
|''thaá-yih''
 
|''thasá-yih''
 
|''thayà-yih''
|-
|}
====Irrealis====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="background: none repeat scroll ; text-align: center; width: 95%; height: 100%;"
|-
! colspan="17"|Perfective dynamic
|-
! colspan="17"|Irrealis
|-
! rowspan="2"|<small>Mood </small>↓
 
! colspan="2"|<small>Number</small> →
 
! colspan="3"|Singular
 
! colspan="3"|Dual
 
! colspan="7" |Plural
|-
!<small>Gender</small> ↓
 
!<small>Person</small> →
 
!1<sup>st</sup>
 
!2<sup>nd</sup>
 
!3<sup>rd</sup>
 
!1<sup>st</sup>
 
!2<sup>nd</sup>
 
!3<sup>rd</sup>
 
!1<sup>st</sup>
 
!2<sup>nd</sup>
 
!3<sup>rd</sup>
|-
! rowspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|Indicative
 
! colspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|<small>masculine/neuter</small>
 
|''páa-''
 
|''gà-''
 
|''yì-i/n''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''lápáa-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''làgà-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''làyì-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''páapáa-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''gàgà-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''yìyì-''
|-
! colspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|<small>feminine</small>
 
|''páa-yih''
 
|''gà-yih''
 
|''yì-yih''
|}
 
===Habitual===
====Non-past and past====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="background: none repeat scroll ; text-align: center; width: 95%; height: 100%;"
|-
! colspan="17"|Habitual dynamic
 
|-
! colspan="17"|Non-Past
 
|-
! rowspan="2"|<small>Mood </small>↓
 
! colspan="2"|<small>Number</small> →
 
! colspan="3"|Singular
 
! colspan="3"|Dual
 
! colspan="7" |Plural
 
|-
!<small>Gender</small> ↓
 
!<small>Person</small> →
 
!1<sup>st</sup>
 
!2<sup>nd</sup>
 
!3<sup>rd</sup>
 
!1<sup>st</sup>
 
!2<sup>nd</sup>
 
!3<sup>rd</sup>
 
!1<sup>st</sup>
 
!2<sup>nd</sup>
 
!3<sup>rd</sup>
 
|-
! rowspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|Indicative
 
! colspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|<small>masculine/neuter</small>
 
|''tí-''
 
|''tsá-''
 
|''rí-i/n''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''látí-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''látsá-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''lárí-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''títí-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''tlátsá-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''rírí-''
 
|-
! colspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|<small>feminine</small>
 
|''tí-yih''
 
|''tsá-yih''
 
|''rí-yih''
 
|-
! colspan="17"|Past
 
|-
! rowspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|Indicative
 
! colspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|<small>masculine</small>
 
|''thatí-''
 
|''thatsá-''
 
|''tharí-i/n''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''tlátí-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''tlátsá''-
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''tlárí-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''thatítí-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''thatsátsá-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''tharírí-''
 
|-
! colspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|<small>feminine</small>
 
|''thatí-yih''
 
|''thatsá-yih''
 
|''tharí-yih''
 
|-
|}
====Irrealis====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="background: none repeat scroll ; text-align: center; width: 95%; height: 100%;"
|-
! colspan="17"|Habitual dynamic
|-
! colspan="17"|Irrealis
|-
! rowspan="2"|<small>Mood </small>↓
 
! colspan="2"|<small>Number</small> →
 
! colspan="3"|Singular
 
! colspan="3"|Dual
 
! colspan="7" |Plural
|-
!<small>Gender</small> ↓
 
!<small>Person</small> →
 
!1<sup>st</sup>
 
!2<sup>nd</sup>
 
!3<sup>rd</sup>
 
!1<sup>st</sup>
 
!2<sup>nd</sup>
 
!3<sup>rd</sup>
 
!1<sup>st</sup>
 
!2<sup>nd</sup>
 
!3<sup>rd</sup>
|-
! rowspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|Indicative
 
! colspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|<small>masculine/neuter</small>
 
|''táa-''
 
|''tà-''
 
|''tì-i/n''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''látáa-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''látà-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''látì-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''táatáa-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''tàtà-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''títí-''
|-
! colspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|<small>feminine</small>
 
|''táa-yih''
 
|''tà-yih''
 
|''tì-yih''
|}
 
===Retrospective===
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="background: none repeat scroll ; text-align: center; width: 95%; height: 100%;"
|-
! colspan="17"|Restrospective dynamic
 
|-
! colspan="17"|Non-past
 
|-
! rowspan="2"|<small>Mood </small>↓
 
! colspan="2"|<small>Number</small> →
 
! colspan="3"|Singular
 
! colspan="3"|Dual
 
! colspan="7" |Plural
 
|-
!<small>Gender</small> ↓
 
!<small>Person</small> →
 
!1<sup>st</sup>
 
!2<sup>nd</sup>
 
!3<sup>rd</sup>
 
!1<sup>st</sup>
 
!2<sup>nd</sup>
 
!3<sup>rd</sup>
 
!1<sup>st</sup>
 
!2<sup>nd</sup>
 
!3<sup>rd</sup>
 
|-
! rowspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|Indicative
 
! colspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|<small>masculine/neuter</small>
 
|''ràa-''
 
|''sàa-''
 
|''yáshi-i/n''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''láràa-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''lásàa-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''láyáshi-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''ràaràa-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''sàasàa-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''yáyáshi-''
 
|-
! colspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|<small>feminine</small>
 
|''ràa-yih''
 
|''sàa-yih''
 
|''yáshi-yih''
 
|-
! colspan="17"|Past
 
|-
! rowspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|Indicative
 
! colspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|<small>masculine</small>
 
|''tharàa-''
 
|''tshàa-''
 
|''thayáshi-i/n''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''tláràa-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''tlásàa''-
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''tláyáshi-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''tharàaràa-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''tshàasàa-''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''thayáyáshi-''
 
|-
! colspan="2" style="height: 3px;"|<small>feminine</small>
 
|''tharàa-yih''
 
|''tshàa-yih''
 
|''thayáshi-yih''
|}
 
===Blah blah===
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg collapsible collapsible" style="background: none repeat scroll ; text-align: center; width: 80%; height: 100%;"
|-
! colspan="12" |Verb
 
|-
| colspan="3" |''-''
 
| colspan="3" |/-/
 
| colspan="6" |...
 
|-
! colspan="12" |Participles
 
|-
! colspan="3" |Non-Past
 
| colspan="9"|''-áyyah''
 
|-
! colspan="3" |Past
 
| colspan="9"|''-áayan''
 
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="3" |Person
 
! colspan="7" |Singular
 
! colspan="7" |Plural
 
|-
! colspan="2" |1<sup>st</sup>
 
! colspan="2" |2<sup>nd</sup>
 
! colspan="3" |3<sup>rd</sup>
 
! rowspan="2" |1<sup>st</sup>
 
! rowspan="2" |2<sup>nd</sup>
 
! rowspan="2" |3<sup>rd</sup>
 
|-
! masculine
 
!feminine
 
!masculine
 
! feminine
 
!masculine
 
!feminine
 
!neuter
 
|-
! rowspan="10" |Indicative
 
! colspan="11" style="width: 12%;"|
 
|-
! style="width: 12%;"|<small>Object enclitics</small>
 
| style="width: 12%;"|''-yi''
 
| style="width: 12%;"|''-yiis''
 
| style="width: 12%;"|''-shi''
 
| style="width: 12%;"|''-shiis''
 
| style="width: 12%;"|''-ar''
 
| style="width: 12%;"|''-saár''
 
| style="width: 12%;"|''-íir''
 
| style="width: 12%;"|''-'in''
 
| style="width: 12%;"|''-'íih''
 
| style="width: 12%;"|''-'íir''
 
|-
! colspan="11" style="height: 3px;" |Past
 
|-
! style="height: 3px;"|Perfective
 
|
|
|
|
 
|- 
! y
|mm
|mm
|pp
|tt
|yy
|bb
|dd
|yy
|ss
|šš
|ttl
|tts
|ttš
|yy
|x
|w
|ǧǧ
|yy
|ll
|rr
|- 
! l
|
|
|
|
|
|
 
|tl
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="height: 3px;"|Imperfective
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
 
|ll
|
|
 
|luh
|
|
 
|ll
|ll
|
|
 
|- 
! r
|ndr
|ndr
|
|
 
|tr
|
|
|
|
|-
! style="height: 3px;"|Retrospective
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
 
|rr
|
|
 
|ruh
|
|
 
|rr
|rr
|
|
|}


|-
==Syllable structure and phonological processes==
! colspan="11" style="height: 3px;"|Non-Past


|-
==Grammar==
! style="height: 3px;"|Perfective
Kandi exhibits what’s called [[Tsan#Predicate/argument flexibility|predicate/argument flexibility]]; all content words equivalent to English verbs, nouns and adjectives, can fill the role as predicate or as argument of a clause. The flexibility is due to that the lemma form of all content words corresponds to a predicative expression. All content words have a subject, which in the default is the third person: For example, the word for "dog" is ''kshawí'', but it is also equivalent to "it is a dog".


|''á-''
In essence, the distinction between noun and verb is blurred. All content words may be conjugated and form verbal phrases, they may modify each other, and they all have one of three [[w:grammatical gender|grammatical gender]]s.


|''á-yih''
The Kandi grammar consists of a variety of grammatical prefixes and suffixes, all of which fit in a strict affixation template. The Tsan affixation template looks as follows:


|''là-''
:{{sc|genitive}}–{{sc|mood}}–{{sc|plural}}–[Content word]–{{sc|applicative}}–{{sc|case}}–[[Tsan#Grammatical gender|{{sc|gender}}]]–[[Tsan#Core affixes|{{sc|core}}]]–{{sc|specifier}}


|''là-yih''
===Core affixes===
The Kandi conjugation is rather a form of affixation of relevant arguments, aspects, cases, and moods. The core affixes are the main reason behind the Tsan predicate/argument flexibility, and they consist of a ''gender part'' and a ''stative'' or ''dynamic part''.


|''àra-''
The stative affixes convey a state of being, or function as a copula. The dynamic affixes transform a word into a more verb-like construction, and insinuates some sort of action. These two core affixes are mutually exclusive, and a word can only be affixed with one of them at a time.
 
|''àra-yih''
 
|''-''
 
|''na-''
 
|''ha-''
 
|''ya-''


What may make many linguists get the hiccups is the seemingly ignorant mixes of nominal and verbal categories. In Tsan, however, these are not important distinctions.
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible  mw-collapsible" style="width: 500px; text-align:center;"
|-
! colspan="7"|Stative and dynamic affixes
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2"|<small>person</small> →
! scope="col"|1
! scope="col"|2
! scope="col"|3.PROX (3)
! scope="col"|3.OBV (4)
! scope="col"|0
|-
| ''-w-''
| ''-k-''
| -
| ''-y-''
| ''-h-''
|-
! colspan="7"|Stative
|-
! scope="row"|<small>same</small>
| ''-á-''
| ''-wá''
| ''-ká''
| ''-í'' (''Vy'')
| ''-yá''
| ''-há''
|-
! scope="row"|<small>different</small>
| ''-í-''
| ''-wí''
| ''-kí''
| -
| ''-yi''
| ''-hí''
|-
! colspan="7"|Dynamic
|-
|-
! style="height: 3px;"|Imperfective
! scope="row"|<small>same</small>
 
| ''-u-''
|''tí-''
|''wu-''
 
|''ku-''
|''tí-yih''
|''u-''
 
|''yu-''
|''tlá-''
|''hu-''
 
|''tlá-''
 
''yih''
 
|''rì-''
 
|''rì-''
 
''yih''
 
|''é-''
 
|''tí-ʾi-''
 
|''tlá-ʾi-''
 
|''-ʾi-''
 
|-
|-
! style="height: 3px;"|Retrospective
! scope="row"|<small>different</small>
 
|''-a-''
|''ràa-''
|''wa-''
 
|''ka-''
|''ràa-yih''
|''a-''
 
|''ya-''
|''qà-''
|''ha-''
 
|''qà-yih''
 
|''yása-''
 
|''yása-yih''
 
|''àari-''
 
|''ràa--''
 
|''qà-''-
 
|''àari--''
 
|-
|-
! colspan="2" |Irrealis
|}


|''páa-''


|''páa-yih''
====Grammatical gender====
Kāndi has a peculiar system of grammatical gender. The genders are purely natural: Women are feminine {{sc|f}}, men and males are masculine {{sc|m}}, and everything else is neuter {{sc|n}}.


|''qáa-''
Do note, however, that the grammatical gender is not marked. Rather, there is a form of ''dual marking''. The gender of the subject of a content word is marked as either the "same" or "different" to that of the speaker. If the subject gender is the same as that of the speaker, it is marked as the ''same'' {{sc|sam}}, whereas if the subject gender is different to that of the speaker, it is marked as "different" {{sc|diff}}.


|''qáa-yih''
It is standard to assume a {{blue|male}} speaker in stories. A male speaker is assumed in all examples on the page unless otherwise stated.
{{gloss/indexable
|phrase = katsa
|IPA = [ˈkat͡sa]
| morphemes = katsa-{{red|∅}}
| gloss = songbird.N-3SG.{{red|DIFF}}
| translation = It is a songbird.
| index = 11
}}{{gloss/indexable
|phrase = agūrri{{blue|y}}
|IPA = [aˈɣu͜βɾɪj]
| morphemes = agūrri-{{blue|y}}
| gloss = boy.M-3SG.{{blue|SAM}}
| translation = It is a boy.
| index = 12
}}{{gloss/indexable
|phrase = tšanuk{{blue|ā}}n
|IPA = [t͡ʃanuˈkaːn]
| morphemes = tshanu-k-{{blue|ā}}-n
| gloss = horse.M-2-{{blue|SAM}}-PL
| translation = You are horses.
| index = 13
}}The system is sometimes more versatile than the English grammatical gender. In the last example (13), we are able to deduce that the speaker in this instance is a male, since he is of the same gender as the speaker.
{{gloss/indexable
|phrase = thūrrina
|IPA = [θu͜βrẽna]
| morphemes = thūrrina-{{red|∅}}
| gloss = women.F.IRREG-3.{{red|DIFF}}
| translation = She is a woman.
| index = 14
}}


|''yée-''
====Predicative complements====
=====Simple predicative expressions=====
In Kandi, the predicative complement of an expression is equivalent to the predicate itself. All content words are predicates in their own right, due to a copula suffix. This copula is a null suffix in the third person proximate, but it congruates with the subject. The subject does not need to be independent, and is only marked on the predicate.


|''yée-yih''
{{gloss/indexable
|phrase = katsa
|IPA = [ˈkat͡sa]
| morphemes = katsa-∅
| gloss = songbird.N-3SG.PROX.HO
| translation = It is a songbird.
| index = 1
}}{{gloss/indexable
|phrase = katsawí
|IPA = [ˈkat͡sajiɨ̯]
| morphemes = katsa-wí
| gloss = songbird.N-1SG.HE
| translation = I am a songbird.
| index = 2
}}{{gloss/indexable
|phrase = katsayín
|IPA = [ˈkat͡saʝẽː]
| morphemes = katsa-yín
| gloss = songbird.N-2PL.HE
| translation = You are songbirds.
| index = 3
}}


|''tháa-yih''
=====Predicative nominatives=====
If the subject of the expression is stated independently, it is marked with a specifier, (SPEC), which roughly translates as the English relative determiner ''that which'', or the construction ''it is […] that is […]''. The post-vocalic form is ''–n'' and the post-consonantal form is ''–i''.


|''páa--''


|''qáa--''
The predicative complement, or predicate, agrees with the topic. The topic, most often the subject, is marked with the third person singular homus suffix, as well as the specifier.


|''tháa--''
{{Scriptgloss/indexable
|script = ᎭᎱ ᎧᏊᏪ:
|phrase = yan katsawí
|IPA = [ʝʌ̃ʔ ˈkat͡sajiɨ̯]
| morphemes = ya-∅-n katsa-wí
| gloss = 1SG.M-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC songbird.N-1SG.HE
| translation = I am a songbird.
| index = 2.5
}}{{Scriptgloss/indexable
|script = Ꮡ:Ꮾ ᏡᎪᏕ:
|phrase = yóni tsháatlí
|IPA = [ˈʝɒ̃ʔi ˈt͡ɕaːt͡ɬiɨ̯]
| morphemes = yón-∅-i tsháatli-í
| gloss = 1SG.M-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC nice.N;3SG.PROX.HE
| translation = John is nice.
| index = 2.6
}}{{Scriptgloss/indexable
|script = Ꮡ:Ꮾ ᎪᏌᎪ
|phrase = yóni anda
|IPA = [ˈʝɒ̃ʔi ˈʌ̃tʼa]
| morphemes = yón-∅-i anda-∅
| gloss = 1SG.M-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC man.N-3SG.PROX.HO
| translation = John is a man.
| index = 2.7
}}


|-
=====Predicative accusatives=====
! colspan="2"|Imperative
Kandi has one copula, and one copula only.  In English you may find a variety of related verbs with similar function to the main copula ''to be''; for example ''to feel'', ''to seem'' and ''to become''. In Tsan, the semantics of these verbs are all conveyed by means of modifying the copula with evidentials, mood markers, applicatives and other constructions.


|''tsí-''
Typically, what may be percieved as an increase in valency is marked with the copula and an appropriate applicative-like affix. The former subject is always demoted to the object or patient.


|''tsí-yih''
{{Scriptgloss/indexable
|script = Ꮡ:Ꮾ Ꮝ:ᎪᎭᏌ:
|phrase = yóni sáayandá
|IPA = [ˈʝɒ̃ʔi saːˈʝʌ̃tʼaː]
| morphemes = yón-∅-i sáay-anda-∅
| gloss = John-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC 3PL.REP-man.N-3SG.PROX.HO
| translation = They call John a man.
| index = 2.8
}}{{Scriptgloss/indexable
|script =
|phrase = yóni wandátsu
|IPA = [ˈʝɒ̃ʔi β̞atʼaːt͡su]
| morphemes = yón-∅-i <wúu>-anda-∅<tsu>
| gloss = John-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC <1SG.CAUS>-man.N-3SG.PROX.HO-<1SG.CAUS>
| translation = I made John a man.
| index = 2.9
}}{{Scriptgloss/indexable
|script =
|phrase = sáayayómbá
|IPA = /saːʝaˈʝɒ̃pʼaː/
| morphemes = sáaya-yón-wá
| gloss = 3PL.REP-John-1SG.HO
| translation = They call me John.
| index = 2.10
}}


|''tshá-''
====Intransitive clauses====
When you accept that two content words in a predicative expression co-function as predicate and subject, it is not difficult to imagine other clauses with one core argument. The simplest are the corresponding English intransitive clauses. Tsan makes an important dichotomy between stative and dynamic content words.


|''tshá-yih''
=====Stative clauses=====
Stative predicates, such as ''to hang'', ''to lie'', ''to be on fire'', ''to taste like'' and ''to know'' are almost exclusively expressed by means of the copula suffix. See also [[Tsan#Predicative complements|predicative complements]], which is an equivalent interpretation.
{{Scriptgloss/indexable
|script =
|phrase = tátshuyi kákawiká
|IPA = [ˈta:t͡ɕʊʝi ka:ˈk͡xajika:]
| morphemes = tátshuy-∅-i kákawi-ká
| gloss = guard.N-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC fire.N-3SG.OBV.HO
| translation = The guard is burning [up].
| index = 3.11
}}{{Scriptgloss/indexable
|script =
|phrase = téndatshiwí...
|IPA = [tə̃ːtʼaˈt͡ɕijiː]
| morphemes = ténda-tshi-wí
| gloss = knowing.N-DUB-1SG.HE
| translation = I am not sure I know.
| index = 3.12
}}


|''shà-''
=====Dynamic clauses=====
Dynamic predicatives on the other hand, including '' to run'', ''to lay'', ''to put on fire'', ''to savour'',  and ''to learn'', are formed with a conjugating dynamic prefix, acting in the same manner as the copula.
{{Scriptgloss/indexable
|script =
|phrase = tátshuyi yáakákawi
|IPA = [ˈta:t͡ɕʊʝi ʝa:ˈka:k͡xaji]
| morphemes = tátshuy-∅-i yáa-kákawi
| gloss = guard.N-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC DYN.3SG.OBV.HO-fire.N
| translation = The guard is burning [something].
| index = 3.13
}}{{Scriptgloss/indexable
|script =
|phrase = wáaténdatshi...
|IPA = [ɰa:tə̃ːtʼaˈt͡ɕi]
| morphemes = wáa-ténda-tshi
| gloss = DYN.1SG.HE-knowing.N-DUB
| translation = I am not sure I learn [anything].
| index = 3.14
}}{{Scriptgloss/indexable
|script =
|phrase = yáanti katsan
|IPA = [ʝaːˈʔani ˈkat͡sʌ̃]
| morphemes = yáa-anti katsa-∅-n
| gloss = DYN.3SG.OBV.HO-walking.N songbird.N-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC
| translation = The songbird walks.
| index = 3.15
}}


|''shà-yih''
=====Flexibility of arguments and predicates=====
 
It is in these dynamic and static clauses that Tsan first exhibits its flexibility of arguments. By simply switching the prefixes of the content words, the meaning is reversed or changed drastically.
|'''í-''
{{Scriptgloss/indexable
 
|script =
|''t'í-''
|phrase = tátshuyá kákawin
 
|IPA = [ˈta:t͡ɕʊʝa: ˈka:k͡xajẽ]
|''tl'í-''
| morphemes = tátshuy-∅ kákawi-n
 
| gloss = guard.N-3SG.OBV.HO fire.N-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC
|''-'í''
| translation = The fire is a guard.
|}
| index = 3.16
}}{{Scriptgloss/indexable
|script =
|phrase = yáatátshuy kákawin
|IPA = [ʝa:ˈta:t͡ɕʊʝ ˈka:k͡xajẽ]
| morphemes = yáa-tátshuy kákawi-n
| gloss = DYN.3SG.OBV.HO-guard.N fire.N-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC
| translation = The fire is a guard.
| index = 3.17
}}{{Scriptgloss/indexable
|script =
|phrase = yáakatsa antin
|IPA = [ʝaːˈk͡xat͡sa ˈʔanẽ ]
| morphemes = yáah-katsa anti-∅-n
| gloss = DYN.3SG.OBV.HO-songbird.N walking.N-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC
| translation = *The walk songbirds.
| index = 3.18
}}


==See also==
==See also==


{{Asaari}}
{{Seealso/qts}}
[[Category:Languages]][[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:A priori]][[Category:Tsan]][[Category:User:Waahlis]]
[[Category:Languages]][[Category:A priori]][[Category:Tsan]][[Category:User:Waahlis]][[Category:Jasi-Jivan languages]]

Latest revision as of 21:33, 4 July 2021

Kandi
Kāndi tsūyi
Pronunciation[kaːndɪ t͡suβ̞ʝɪ]
Created byWaahlis
SettingUnknown conworld
Native speakers4 million (2015)
Jasi-Jivan
  • Tanisi
    • Kandi
Early form
Proto-Kandi
Official status
Regulated byAytšin Tatšūkkāndi
Language codes
CLCRqts
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Kāndi, or Tsan (kāndi tsūyi or tsani tsūyi) is a language spoken by the Tsan people. It belongs to the Tanisi language family and is thus distantly related to the Ris language. Kandi is a heavily agglutinating with a complex verbal morphology. The language has repeatedly been analysed as lacking nouns and adjectives altogether, in favour of verbs.

Slightly dated versions of the language were featured in the third and fourth Linguifex relays. These are probably not a good source for the constructed language, but they do give the reader an impression of Kandi's evolution.

Background

The language was supposedly first documented scholarly by the Belgian linguists Émile d'Ivoire and his Scottish colleague John Glenn Crossing, both of which were experienced in the field of the related Jivan languages, including for example the Ris. They first encountered the Kandi people in the early 19th century south of the Caspian Sea, in what is now Northern Iran. The Kandis dwelled in small villages intentionally isolated from the rest of the country. Crossing recognised the language's syntactic pecularities and conjectured it could be related to the Jivan languages, a then rather unfounded speculation.

The Kandi language, which the natives had not given a name, was eponymously named after the speakers themselves; kāndi meaning handy in the language. The word is most likely related to Jávva gánne, Wok khaṃ and Ris san, and can be traced back to the hypothetical Proto-Jasi-Jivan form *kʰãn. The name soon stuck with the Kandi people, although quite a few still call the language kitsūyiwīn, our language. That name is hardly very catchy though.

Phonology

The Kandi inventory has been documented and assessed repeatedly since the 19th century, the foremost scholar in the field being the Belgian linguist Émile d'Ivoire. This page uses a standard notation where C is a consonant, N a nasal consonant, and V is a vowel. Features are indicated by square brackets [ ] and plus or minus signs, ±. Phonemic sounds are marked with slash brackets / / and more deeply analysed sounds are marked with square brackets [ ].

Phonemic inventory of vowels and consonants

The following is the Kandi inventory of consonants, as analysed by d'Ivoire, a model nowadays serving as standard when analysing the language.

d'Ivoire model
Bilabial Dental Alveolar Dorsal Glottal
central central lateral palatal
Nasals m /m/ n /n/
Stops
voiceless p /p/ t /t/ k /k/
voiced b /b/ d /d/ g /g/
Affricates ts /t͡s/ tl /t͡ɬ/ tš /t͡ɕ/
Fricatives s /s/ š /ɕ/ · y /ʝ/ x /x/ h /h/
Approximants w /β̞/ l /l/ ǧ /ɰ/
Trills r /ʀ~r/


D'Ivoire standardised the phonemic inventory of vowels in the language, as per his conclusion that there were three phonemic short vowels, /i/, /a/, /u/, and three phonemic "long" vowels. The quality of the long vowels is rarely realised as the same as their short counterparts however, but it is likely that they once only differed in quantity, making vowel length a truly distinctive feature.

d'Ivoire model
short long
Close front unrounded i /i/ ī /iː/ [iː]
Open back unrounded a /a/ ā /aː/ [ɔ]
Close back rounded u /u/ ū /uː/ [u͜β̞]

Phonotactics

The composition of Kandi words and syllables is restricted, and phonemes undergo a few morphophonemic changes when interacting across morpheme boundaries. Due to the the synthetic nature of the language, some enclitics and affixes may be obscured because of these changes. The morphophonology is highly dependent upon various assimilations, syncope and a few epenthetical vowels.

Syllable structure and morphophonology

The minimal Kandi syllable is simply V, and the maximal structure is CrVCC, where V may be either long or short. In case the following syllable begins with a consonant, the resulting cluster is simplified.

The Kandi consonant cluster VCCV is subject to a few rules.

  • All nasal plosives N (C[stop][+nas]) voice both preceding and following stops P (C[stop][-nas]).
NP[-voice] > NP[+voice]
P[-voice]N > P[+voice]N
Initial Consonant Final Consonant
m n p t k b d g s š tl ts tš h x w ǧ y l r
m mm mb mb nd ng mb nd ng ss šš ndr ns nš mm nǧ mm nǧ nn ndr
n nd nn mb nd ng mb nd ng ss šš ndr ns nš nn nǧ mm nǧ nn ndr
p mb mb pp pt bb pt ps pš pp pš ppuh bb pp
t pt tt tš ttuh tt dd ts tš ttl tts ttš tt tš ttuh dd dd tl tr
k ǧm ǧn št kk guh št gg ks kš ts tš x x kkuh gg gg
b mm mm pp ud uǧ w ud uǧ bb ux w uǧ bb
d pt tt kk duh dd gg ss šš ttl tts ttš dd ǧǧ duh ǧ dd tl tr
g ǧm ǧn pp tt kk guh dd gg ks kš ǧ ǧ guh g ǧ
s šm sp st ks suh st ks ss šš ss šš suh x š
š šm šp št kš šuh št kš ss šš šš šš šuh x š
tl
ts
tš
h pp tt kk pp tt kk ss šš ttl tts ttš x x w ǧǧ yy ll rr
x ǧm ǧn šp št x šp št kš ss šš x x xuh ǧ x
w mm mm bb ud uǧ bb ud uǧ us uš w uǧ w uǧ w
y mm mm pp tt yy bb dd yy ss šš ttl tts ttš yy x w ǧǧ yy ll rr
l tl ll luh ll ll
r ndr ndr tr rr ruh rr rr

Syllable structure and phonological processes

Grammar

Kandi exhibits what’s called predicate/argument flexibility; all content words equivalent to English verbs, nouns and adjectives, can fill the role as predicate or as argument of a clause. The flexibility is due to that the lemma form of all content words corresponds to a predicative expression. All content words have a subject, which in the default is the third person: For example, the word for "dog" is kshawí, but it is also equivalent to "it is a dog".

In essence, the distinction between noun and verb is blurred. All content words may be conjugated and form verbal phrases, they may modify each other, and they all have one of three grammatical genders.

The Kandi grammar consists of a variety of grammatical prefixes and suffixes, all of which fit in a strict affixation template. The Tsan affixation template looks as follows:

genitive–mood–plural–[Content word]–applicative–case–gender–core–specifier

Core affixes

The Kandi conjugation is rather a form of affixation of relevant arguments, aspects, cases, and moods. The core affixes are the main reason behind the Tsan predicate/argument flexibility, and they consist of a gender part and a stative or dynamic part.

The stative affixes convey a state of being, or function as a copula. The dynamic affixes transform a word into a more verb-like construction, and insinuates some sort of action. These two core affixes are mutually exclusive, and a word can only be affixed with one of them at a time.

What may make many linguists get the hiccups is the seemingly ignorant mixes of nominal and verbal categories. In Tsan, however, these are not important distinctions.

Stative and dynamic affixes
person → 1 2 3.PROX (3) 3.OBV (4) 0
-w- -k- - -y- -h-
Stative
same -á- -wá -ká -í (Vy) -yá -há
different -í- -wí -kí - -yi -hí
Dynamic
same -u- wu- ku- u- yu- hu-
different -a- wa- ka- a- ya- ha-


Grammatical gender

Kāndi has a peculiar system of grammatical gender. The genders are purely natural: Women are feminine f, men and males are masculine m, and everything else is neuter n.

Do note, however, that the grammatical gender is not marked. Rather, there is a form of dual marking. The gender of the subject of a content word is marked as either the "same" or "different" to that of the speaker. If the subject gender is the same as that of the speaker, it is marked as the same sam, whereas if the subject gender is different to that of the speaker, it is marked as "different" diff.

It is standard to assume a male speaker in stories. A male speaker is assumed in all examples on the page unless otherwise stated.

katsa
[ˈkat͡sa]
katsa-∅
songbird.N-3SG.DIFF
It is a songbird.

(11)

agūrriy
[aˈɣu͜βɾɪj]
agūrri-y
boy.M-3SG.SAM
It is a boy.

(12)

tšanukān
[t͡ʃanuˈkaːn]
tshanu-k-ā-n
horse.M-2-SAM-PL
You are horses.

(13)

The system is sometimes more versatile than the English grammatical gender. In the last example (13), we are able to deduce that the speaker in this instance is a male, since he is of the same gender as the speaker.

thūrrina
[θu͜βrẽna]
thūrrina-∅
women.F.IRREG-3.DIFF
She is a woman.

(14)


Predicative complements

Simple predicative expressions

In Kandi, the predicative complement of an expression is equivalent to the predicate itself. All content words are predicates in their own right, due to a copula suffix. This copula is a null suffix in the third person proximate, but it congruates with the subject. The subject does not need to be independent, and is only marked on the predicate.


katsa
[ˈkat͡sa]
katsa-∅
songbird.N-3SG.PROX.HO
It is a songbird.

(1)

katsawí
[ˈkat͡sajiɨ̯]
katsa-wí
songbird.N-1SG.HE
I am a songbird.

(2)

katsayín
[ˈkat͡saʝẽː]
katsa-yín
songbird.N-2PL.HE
You are songbirds.

(3)


Predicative nominatives

If the subject of the expression is stated independently, it is marked with a specifier, (SPEC), which roughly translates as the English relative determiner that which, or the construction it is […] that is […]. The post-vocalic form is –n and the post-consonantal form is –i.


The predicative complement, or predicate, agrees with the topic. The topic, most often the subject, is marked with the third person singular homus suffix, as well as the specifier.


  • ᎭᎱ ᎧᏊᏪ:
    yan katsawí
    [ʝʌ̃ʔ ˈkat͡sajiɨ̯]
    ya-∅-n katsa-wí
    1SG.M-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC songbird.N-1SG.HE
    I am a songbird.

(2.5)


  • Ꮡ:Ꮾ ᏡᎪᏕ:
    yóni tsháatlí
    [ˈʝɒ̃ʔi ˈt͡ɕaːt͡ɬiɨ̯]
    yón-∅-i tsháatli-í
    1SG.M-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC nice.N;3SG.PROX.HE
    John is nice.

(2.6)


  • Ꮡ:Ꮾ ᎪᏌᎪ
    yóni anda
    [ˈʝɒ̃ʔi ˈʌ̃tʼa]
    yón-∅-i anda-∅
    1SG.M-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC man.N-3SG.PROX.HO
    John is a man.

(2.7)


Predicative accusatives

Kandi has one copula, and one copula only. In English you may find a variety of related verbs with similar function to the main copula to be; for example to feel, to seem and to become. In Tsan, the semantics of these verbs are all conveyed by means of modifying the copula with evidentials, mood markers, applicatives and other constructions.

Typically, what may be percieved as an increase in valency is marked with the copula and an appropriate applicative-like affix. The former subject is always demoted to the object or patient.


  • Ꮡ:Ꮾ Ꮝ:ᎪᎭᏌ:
    yóni sáayandá
    [ˈʝɒ̃ʔi saːˈʝʌ̃tʼaː]
    yón-∅-i sáay-anda-∅
    John-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC 3PL.REP-man.N-3SG.PROX.HO
    They call John a man.

(2.8)


  • yóni wandátsu
    [ˈʝɒ̃ʔi β̞atʼaːt͡su]
    yón-∅-i <wúu>-anda-∅<tsu>
    John-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC <1SG.CAUS>-man.N-3SG.PROX.HO-<1SG.CAUS>
    I made John a man.

(2.9)


  • sáayayómbá
    /saːʝaˈʝɒ̃pʼaː/
    sáaya-yón-wá
    3PL.REP-John-1SG.HO
    They call me John.

(2.10)


Intransitive clauses

When you accept that two content words in a predicative expression co-function as predicate and subject, it is not difficult to imagine other clauses with one core argument. The simplest are the corresponding English intransitive clauses. Tsan makes an important dichotomy between stative and dynamic content words.

Stative clauses

Stative predicates, such as to hang, to lie, to be on fire, to taste like and to know are almost exclusively expressed by means of the copula suffix. See also predicative complements, which is an equivalent interpretation.

  • tátshuyi kákawiká
    [ˈta:t͡ɕʊʝi ka:ˈk͡xajika:]
    tátshuy-∅-i kákawi-ká
    guard.N-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC fire.N-3SG.OBV.HO
    The guard is burning [up].

(3.11)


  • téndatshiwí...
    [tə̃ːtʼaˈt͡ɕijiː]
    ténda-tshi-wí
    knowing.N-DUB-1SG.HE
    I am not sure I know.

(3.12)


Dynamic clauses

Dynamic predicatives on the other hand, including to run, to lay, to put on fire, to savour, and to learn, are formed with a conjugating dynamic prefix, acting in the same manner as the copula.

  • tátshuyi yáakákawi
    [ˈta:t͡ɕʊʝi ʝa:ˈka:k͡xaji]
    tátshuy-∅-i yáa-kákawi
    guard.N-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC DYN.3SG.OBV.HO-fire.N
    The guard is burning [something].

(3.13)


  • wáaténdatshi...
    [ɰa:tə̃ːtʼaˈt͡ɕi]
    wáa-ténda-tshi
    DYN.1SG.HE-knowing.N-DUB
    I am not sure I learn [anything].

(3.14)


  • yáanti katsan
    [ʝaːˈʔani ˈkat͡sʌ̃]
    yáa-anti katsa-∅-n
    DYN.3SG.OBV.HO-walking.N songbird.N-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC
    The songbird walks.

(3.15)


Flexibility of arguments and predicates

It is in these dynamic and static clauses that Tsan first exhibits its flexibility of arguments. By simply switching the prefixes of the content words, the meaning is reversed or changed drastically.

  • tátshuyá kákawin
    [ˈta:t͡ɕʊʝa: ˈka:k͡xajẽ]
    tátshuy-∅ kákawi-n
    guard.N-3SG.OBV.HO fire.N-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC
    The fire is a guard.

(3.16)


  • yáatátshuy kákawin
    [ʝa:ˈta:t͡ɕʊʝ ˈka:k͡xajẽ]
    yáa-tátshuy kákawi-n
    DYN.3SG.OBV.HO-guard.N fire.N-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC
    The fire is a guard.

(3.17)


  • yáakatsa antin
    [ʝaːˈk͡xat͡sa ˈʔanẽ ]
    yáah-katsa anti-∅-n
    DYN.3SG.OBV.HO-songbird.N walking.N-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC
    *The walk songbirds.

(3.18)


See also

Tsani language
Orthography Cree syllabary
Phonology IPA for Tsan • Phonology
Grammar Grammar • Arguments • Syntax
Vocabulary Basic vocabulary • Swadesh list
Numerals
Example texts The Lord's Prayer • The North Wind and the Sun • The Tower of Babel • The Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Geneaology Tanisi languages • Proto-Tanisi
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