Kandi: Difference between revisions

From Linguifex
Jump to navigation Jump to search
mNo edit summary
No edit summary
 
(43 intermediate revisions by 4 users not shown)
Line 3: Line 3:
|image =  
|image =  
|imagesize = 100px
|imagesize = 100px
|name = Tsan
|name = Kandi
|nativename = ''Kándini tsúyi''
|nativename = Kāndi tsūyi
|pronunciation = [kaŋtʼẽʔi t͡suβ̞ʝɪ]
|pronunciation = kaːndɪ t͡suβ̞ʝɪ
|region = West Africa
|creator = User:Waahlis
|states = Sierra Leone, Burkina Faso
|setting = Unknown conworld
<!-- |region = West Africa
|states = Sierra Leone, Burkina Faso -->
|speakers = 4 million
|speakers = 4 million
|date = 2014
|date = 2015
|familycolor = Afro-Asiatic
|familycolor = Afro-Asiatic
|fam1 = Jasi-Jivan
|fam1 = Jasi-Jivan
|fam2 = Tanisi
|fam2 = Tanisi
|ancestor = Proto-Tanisi
|ancestor = Proto-Kandi
|dia1 = Western Tsan
|clcr = qts
|dia2 = Eastern Tsan
|script1       = Latn
|dia3 = Kanni
|agency        = ''Aytšin Tatšūkkāndi''
|iso1 = ts
|iso2 = ts
|iso3 = qts
|script       = [[w:Latin script|Latin]]
|agency        = ''Aytshin Sasháatsandi''
|notice = IPA
|notice = IPA
}}
}}
'''Kāndi''', or '''Tsan''' (''kāndi tsūyi'' or ''tsani tsūyi'') is a language spoken by the Tsan people. It belongs to the Tanisi language family and is thus distantly related to the [[Ris]] language. Kandi is a heavily [[w:agglutinative language|agglutinating]] with a complex verbal morphology. The language has repeatedly been analysed as lacking [[w:nouns|nouns]] and [[w:adjectives|adjectives]] altogether, in favour of [[w:verb|verb]]s.
Slightly dated versions of the language were featured in the [[Third Linguifex Relay/Tsan|third]] and [[Fourth Linguifex Relay|fourth Linguifex relay]]s. These are probably not a good source for the constructed language, but they do give the reader an impression of Kandi's evolution.
==Background==
The language was supposedly first documented scholarly by the Belgian linguists Émile d'Ivoire and his Scottish colleague John Glenn Crossing, both of which were experienced in the field of the related Jivan languages, including for example the [[Ris]]. They first encountered the Kandi people in the early 19<sup>th</sup> century south of the Caspian Sea, in what is now Northern Iran. The Kandis dwelled in small villages intentionally isolated from the rest of the country. Crossing recognised the language's syntactic pecularities and conjectured it could be related to the Jivan languages, a then rather unfounded speculation.
The Kandi language, which the natives had not given a name, was eponymously named after the speakers themselves; '''''kāndi''''' meaning ''handy'' in the language. The word is most likely related to Jávva '''''gánne''''', Wok '''''khaṃ'''''  and Ris '''''san''''', and can be traced back to the hypothetical Proto-Jasi-Jivan form '''''*kʰãn'''''. The name soon stuck with the Kandi people, although quite a few still call the language '''''kitsūyiwīn''''', ''our language''. That name is hardly very catchy though.


'''Tsan''' (''kándini tsúyi'' or ''tsani tsúyi'') is a language spoken by the Tsan people in Western Africa. It belongs to the Tanisi language family and is thus distantly related to the [[Ris]] language. Tsani is a heavily [[w:agglutinative language|agglutinating]] with a complex verbal morphology. The language has repeatedly been analysed as lacking [[w:nouns|nouns]] and [[w:adjectives|adjectives]] altogether, in favour of [[w:verb|verb]]s. Phonologically it exhibits [[w:ejective consonants|ejective consonants]], which are also realised as  voiced stops in some dialects.
==Phonology==
==Phonology==
The Tsani inventory has been documented and assessed repeatedly since the 19<sup>th</sup> century, the foremost people in the field being the Belgian linguist Émile d'Ivoire and the Scottish linguist John Glenn Crossing, an expert on Jivan languages. This page uses a standard notation where C is a consonant, N a nasal consonant, and V is a vowel. Features are indicated by square brackets [ ] and plus or minus signs, ±.
The Kandi inventory has been documented and assessed repeatedly since the 19<sup>th</sup> century, the foremost scholar in the field being the Belgian linguist Émile d'Ivoire. This page uses a standard notation where C is a consonant, N a nasal consonant, and V is a vowel. Features are indicated by square brackets [ ] and plus or minus signs, ±. Phonemic sounds are marked with slash brackets / / and more deeply analysed sounds are marked with square brackets [ ].
===Phonemic inventory of vowels and consonants===
===Phonemic inventory of vowels and consonants===
The following is a Tsani inventory of consonants, according to Émile d'Ivoire, a model nowadays serving as standard when analysing the language. Émile analyses the Tsani inventory as unusual in that it has [[w:ejective consonants|ejective consonants]], as well as an ill-defined [[w:dorsal consonants|dorsal consonant]]. The consonantal phonology is fairly symmetrical.
The following is the Kandi inventory of consonants, as analysed by d'Ivoire, a model nowadays serving as standard when analysing the language.  


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
Line 65: Line 68:
|
|
|-
|-
!<small>ejective</small>
!<small>voiced</small>
| '''b''' //
| '''b''' /b/
| colspan="2"| '''d''' //
| colspan="2"| '''d''' /d/
|
|
|
| '''g''' /g/
|
|
| '''g''' /kʼ/
|[ʔ]
|-
|-
! rowspan="1" colspan="2"|Affricates
! rowspan="1" colspan="2"|Affricates
Line 78: Line 81:
|'''ts''' /t͡s/
|'''ts''' /t͡s/
|'''tl '''/t͡ɬ/
|'''tl '''/t͡ɬ/
|'''tsh '''/t͡ɕ/
|''''''/t͡ɕ/
|
|
|
|
Line 84: Line 87:
! colspan="2"|Fricatives
! colspan="2"|Fricatives
|
|
|'''th '''/θ/
|
|'''s''' /s/
|'''s''' /s/
|
|
|'''sh '''/ɕ/ · '''y''' /ʝ/
|'''š '''/ɕ/ · '''y''' /ʝ/
|'''kh''' /x/
|'''x''' /x/
| '''h''' /h/
| '''h''' /h/
|-
|-
! colspan="2" style="background: ;"|Approximants
! colspan="2" style="background: ;"|Approximants
| [β̞]
|'''w''' /β̞/
|
|
|
|
|
|'''l''' /l/
|  
|  
| '''w''' /ɰ/ [w]
|'''ǧ''' /ɰ/
|
|
|-
|-
! colspan="2" style="background: ;"|Trills
! colspan="2" style="background: ;"|Trills
|  
|  
|colspan="5"|'''r''' /ʀ ~ r/
|colspan="5"|'''r''' /ʀ~r/
|
|
|}
|}




D'Ivoire standardised the phonemic inventory of vowels in the language. He divided the four primary vowels into four categories by length; granting ''short'', ''long'', ''diphthong'' and ''long diphthong'' vowels. It is important to note that in the modern language, the so called diphthongs are not realised as diphthongs at all, but rather a closed VC syllable.  
D'Ivoire standardised the phonemic inventory of vowels in the language, as per his conclusion that there were three phonemic short vowels, /i/, /a/, /u/, and three phonemic "long" vowels. The quality of the long vowels is rarely realised as the same as their short counterparts however, but it is likely that they once only differed in quantity, making vowel length a truly distinctive feature.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 550px; text-align:center;"
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 550px; text-align:center;"
|+ '''D'Ivoire model'''
|+ '''d'Ivoire model'''
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" style="width: 90px; "|
! colspan="4" style="width: 90px; " |Oral
|-
|-
!style="width: 45px; "|
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short diphthong</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long diphthong</small>
|-
|-
! style="" |Close front unrounded
! style="" |Close front unrounded
| '''i''' /i/
| '''i''' /i/
| '''ii''' /i:/
| '''ī''' // [iː]
| '''í''' /iɰ/
| -
|-
|-
! style="" |Open back unrounded
! style="" |Open back unrounded
| '''a''' /a/  
| '''a''' /a/  
| '''aa''' /aː/  
| '''ā''' /aː/ [ɔ]
| '''á''' /aɰ/
| '''áa''' /aːɰ/
|-
|-
! style="" |Close back rounded
! style="" |Close back rounded
|'''u''' /u/
|'''u''' /u/
|'''uu''' /uː/
|'''ū''' /uː/ [u͜β̞]
|'''ú''' /uɰ/
|'''úu''' /uːɰ/
|-
! style="" |Mid back rounded
| '''o''' [o̞]
| '''oo''' [o̞ː]
| '''ó''' [o̞ɰ]
| '''óo''' [o̞ːɰ]
|-
|-
|}
|}


==Phonotactics==
The composition of Kandi words and syllables is restricted, and phonemes undergo a few morphophonemic changes when interacting across morpheme boundaries. Due to the the synthetic nature of the language, some enclitics and affixes may be obscured because of these changes. The morphophonology is highly dependent upon various assimilations, syncope and a few epenthetical vowels.


====Debuccalisation of nasal stops====
===Syllable structure and morphophonology===
::''In the old language, vowels preceding nasals were mandatorily nasalised, which influencing their modern articulation in manners close to what occurs in French.''
The minimal Kandi syllable is simply V, and the maximal structure is CrVCC, where V may be either long or short. In case the following syllable begins with a consonant, the resulting cluster is simplified.


::''An unprecedented change in the language is the apparent debuccalisation of the nasal stops, that is, «m» /m/ and «n» /n/. In the language, these phonemes have been completely lost in all but the word initial positions. The nasal stops are debuccalised into a ''coup de glotte'', [ʔ] intervocalically. The glottal stop is deleted in word final and pre-consonantal positions.''
The Kandi consonant cluster VCCV is subject to a few rules.
*All nasal plosives N (C[stop][+nas]) voice both preceding and following stops P (C[stop][-nas]).  
::NP[-voice] > NP[+voice]
::P[-voice]N > P[+voice]N
*


Émile does not represent the nasalisation and debuccalisation in his transcription of the language. Other linguists prefer to analyse the process as a nasalisation of the preceding vowels, after which the nasals are lost. They claim the glottal stop is a consequence of diaeresis. D'Ivoire defends his assertion by pointing out the widespread glottalisation of intervocalic stops.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible"
! rowspan="2" | Initial Consonant
! colspan="20" | Final Consonant
|- 
! m
! n
! p
! t
! k
! b
! d
! g
! s
! š
! tl
! ts
! tš
! h
! x
! w
! ǧ
! y
! l
! r
|- 
! m
| mm
| mb
| mb
| nd
| ng
| mb
| nd
| ng
| ss
| šš
| ndr
| ns
| nš
| mm
| nǧ
| mm
| nǧ
| nn
|
| ndr
|- 
! n
| nd
| nn
| mb
| nd
| ng
| mb
| nd
| ng
| ss
| šš
| ndr
| ns
| nš
| nn
| nǧ
| mm
| nǧ
| nn
|
| ndr
|- 
! p
|mb
|mb
|pp
|pt
|
|bb
|pt
|
|ps
|pš
|
|
|
|pp
|pš
|ppuh
|bb
|pp
|
|
|- 
! t
|
|
|pt
|tt
|tš
|ttuh
|tt
|dd
|ts
|tš
|ttl
|tts
|ttš
|tt
|tš
|ttuh
|dd
|dd
|tl
|tr
|- 
! k
|ǧm
|ǧn
|
|št
|kk
|guh
|št
|gg
|ks
|kš
|
|ts
|tš
|x
|x
|kkuh
|gg
|gg
|
|
|- 
! b
|mm
|mm
|pp
|ud
|uǧ
|w
|ud
|uǧ
|
|
|
|
|
|bb
|ux
|w
|uǧ
|bb
|
|
|- 
! d
|
|
|pt
|tt
|kk
|duh
|dd
|gg
|ss
|šš
|ttl
|tts
|ttš
|dd
|ǧǧ
|duh
|dd
|tl
|tr
|- 
! g
|ǧm
|ǧn
|pp
|tt
|kk
|guh
|dd
|gg
|ks
|kš
|
|
|
|guh
|g
|
|
|- 
! s
|šm
|
|sp
|st
|ks
|suh
|st
|ks
|ss
|šš
|
|
|
|ss
|šš
|suh
|x
|
|
|- 
! š
|šm
|
|šp
|št
|kš
|šuh
|št
|kš
|ss
|šš
|
|
|
|šš
|šš
|šuh
|x
|
|
|- 
! tl
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|- 
! ts
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|- 
! tš
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|- 
! h
|
|
|pp
|tt
|kk
|pp
|tt
|kk
|ss
|šš
|ttl
|tts
|ttš
|x
|x
|w
|ǧǧ
|yy
|ll
|rr
|- 
! x
|ǧm
|ǧn
|šp
|št
|x
|šp
|št
|kš
|ss
|šš
|
|
|
|x
|x
|xuh
|x
|
|
|- 
! w
|mm
|mm
|bb
|ud
|uǧ
|bb
|ud
|uǧ
|us
|uš
|
|
|
|w
|uǧ
|w
|uǧ
|w
|
|
|- 
! y
|mm
|mm
|pp
|tt
|yy
|bb
|dd
|yy
|ss
|šš
|ttl
|tts
|ttš
|yy
|x
|w
|ǧǧ
|yy
|ll
|rr
|- 
! l
|
|
|
|tl
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|ll
|
|luh
|
|ll
|ll
|
|- 
! r
|ndr
|ndr
|
|tr
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|rr
|
|ruh
|
|rr
|rr
|
|}


There is also notable discussion concerning Émile's terminology, since ''debuccalisation'' is a term reserved for oral stops. Some consider the process a denasalisation, followed by a debuccalisation. This is however, no record of any intermediary stages.
==Syllable structure and phonological processes==
{{gloss/indexable
|phrase = kshin
|IPA = /kɕin/ → [kɕẽ]
| morphemes = kshin-∅
| gloss = long.N-3SG.PROX.HO
| translation = It is long.
| index = 1
}}{{gloss/indexable
|phrase = transhi
|IPA = /tranɕi/ → [tʀɑ̃ɕi]
| morphemes = transhi-∅
| gloss = mouth.N-3SG.PROX.HO
| translation = It is a mouth.
| index = 2
}}{{gloss/indexable
|phrase = ksuma
|IPA = /ksuma/ → [ksũʔa]
| morphemes = ksuma-∅
| gloss = belly.N-3SG.PROX.HO
| translation = It is a belly.
| index = 3
}}


====Allophony of the velar approximant====
==Grammar==
The velar approximant '''w''' /ɰ/ is a particularly elusive phoneme, and is subject to a great deal of allophony. Émile d'Ivoire describes this phoneme as highly variable in the language.  
Kandi exhibits what’s called [[Tsan#Predicate/argument flexibility|predicate/argument flexibility]]; all content words equivalent to English verbs, nouns and adjectives, can fill the role as predicate or as argument of a clause. The flexibility is due to that the lemma form of all content words corresponds to a predicative expression. All content words have a subject, which in the default is the third person: For example, the word for "dog" is ''kshawí'', but it is also equivalent to "it is a dog".


:''The semi-consonant commonly analysed as a velar approximant, is a true ''caméléon'' and has an impressive four different allophones, depending on the following vowel. Whilst historically analysed as purely velar, my research finds that it is variously labialised into [w], bilabialised as [β̞], and palatalised into [j]. The pure velar approximant [ɰ] also occurs.''
In essence, the distinction between noun and verb is blurred. All content words may be conjugated and form verbal phrases, they may modify each other, and they all have one of three [[w:grammatical gender|grammatical gender]]s.  


He goes on to describe the environments triggering the allophony.
The Kandi grammar consists of a variety of grammatical prefixes and suffixes, all of which fit in a strict affixation template. The Tsan affixation template looks as follows:


:''The labialised velar [w] occurs when adjacent to the mid back rounded vowel '''o''' /o̞/, the bilabial approximant [β̞] is produced near the close back rounded vowel '''u''' /u/, and the palatal approximant '''y''' [j] is produced when adjacent to the close front unrounded vowel '''i''' /j/. Finally [ɰ] is used with the open back unrounded vowel '''a''' /a/.''
:{{sc|genitive}}–{{sc|mood}}–{{sc|plural}}–[Content word]–{{sc|applicative}}–{{sc|case}}–[[Tsan#Grammatical gender|{{sc|gender}}]]–[[Tsan#Core affixes|{{sc|core}}]]–{{sc|specifier}}


The conditions are the following:
===Core affixes===
*ɰ > {w, β̞, j, ɰ} / _ {o̞, u, i a}C
The Kandi conjugation is rather a form of affixation of relevant arguments, aspects, cases, and moods. The core affixes are the main reason behind the Tsan predicate/argument flexibility, and they consist of a ''gender part'' and a ''stative'' or ''dynamic part''.
*ɰ > {w, β̞, j, ɰ} /  {o̞, u, i a}_C


Additionally, [w, β̞, ɰ] occur in the so called diphthongs and long diphthongs, namely '''á''', '''áa''', '''ú''', '''úu''', '''ó''' and '''óo''', with their associated vowels. When a diphthong precedes a nasal, the nasal is lost.
The stative affixes convey a state of being, or function as a copula. The dynamic affixes transform a word into a more verb-like construction, and insinuates some sort of action. These two core affixes are mutually exclusive, and a word can only be affixed with one of them at a time.  
{{gloss/indexable
|phrase = wínda
|IPA = /ɰiːntʼa/ → [jiːntʼa]
| morphemes = wínda-∅
| gloss = hearing.N-3SG.PROX.HO
| translation = It is an ear. (''arch.'')
| index = 4
}}{{gloss/indexable
|phrase = wawukí
|IPA = /ɰaɰukiː/ → [ɰaβ̞ukiɨ̯]
| morphemes = w-a-wu-k-í
| gloss = 1.DYN-HE-seeing-2.STAT-HE
| translation = I see you.
| index = 5
}}{{gloss/indexable
|phrase = thúri
|IPA = /θuːri/ → [θuβ̞ʀi]
| morphemes = thúri-∅
| gloss = woman.F-3SG.PROX.HO
| translation = It is woman. (''arch.'')
| index = 6
}}{{gloss/indexable
|phrase = kúusi
|IPA = /kuːːsi/ → [kuːβ̞si]
| morphemes = kúusi-∅
| gloss = sadness.N-3SG.PROX.HO
| translation = It is sadness.
| index = 7
}}


====Allophony of vowels====
What may make many linguists get the hiccups is the seemingly ignorant mixes of nominal and verbal categories. In Tsan, however, these are not important distinctions.
D'Ivoire did indeed standardise the phonemic inventory of vowels in the language, but he did also supply a more detailed transcription of how the velar approximant and the debuccalisation of nasal stops affected the articulation of vowels. He divided the four primary vowels into another two categories, ''nasal'' and ''oral''.
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible  mw-collapsible" style="width: 500px; text-align:center;"
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 850px; text-align:center;"
|+ '''D'Ivoire model'''
! colspan="9" | Orthography and vowels
|-
|-
! colspan="4" style="width: 90px; " |Oral
! colspan="7"|Stative and dynamic affixes
! colspan="4" style="width: 90px; " |Nasal
|-
|-
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
! colspan="2" rowspan="2"|<small>person</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
! scope="col"|1
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short diphthong</small>
! scope="col"|2
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long diphthong</small>
! scope="col"|3.PROX (3)
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
! scope="col"|3.OBV (4)
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
! scope="col"|0
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short diphthong</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long diphthong</small>
|-
|-
| '''i''' [i]
| ''-w-''
| '''ii''' [i:]
| ''-k-''
| '''í''' [iɨ̯]
| -
| -
| '''in''' · '''im''' [ẽ]
| ''-y-''
| '''iin''' · '''iim''' [ẽ:]
| ''-h-''
| '''ín''' · '''ím''' [iːn]
|-
! colspan="7"|Stative
|-
! scope="row"|<small>same</small>
| ''-á-''
| ''-wá''
| ''-ká''
| ''-í'' (''Vy'')
| ''-yá''
| ''-há''
|-
! scope="row"|<small>different</small>
| ''-í-''
| ''-wí''
| ''-kí''
| -
| -
| ''-yi''
| ''-hí''
|-
|-
| '''a''' [a]
! colspan="7"|Dynamic
| '''aa''' [aː]
| '''á''' [aɰ]
| '''áa''' [aːɰ]
| '''an''' · '''am''' [ɑ̃]
| '''aan''' · '''aam'''[ɑ̃]
| '''án''' · '''ám''' [aŋ]
| '''áan''' · '''áam''' [aːŋ]
|-
|-
|'''u''' [u]
! scope="row"|<small>same</small>
|'''uu''' [uː]
| ''-u-''
|'''ú''' [uβ̞]
|''wu-''
|'''úu''' [uːβ̞]
|''ku-''
|'''un''' · '''um''' [ũ]
|''u-''
|'''uun''' · '''uum''' [ũː]
|''yu-''
|'''ún''' · '''úm''' [um]
|''hu-''
|'''úun''' · '''úum''' [uːm]
|-
|-
| '''o''' [o̞]
! scope="row"|<small>different</small>
| '''oo''' [o̞ː]
|''-a-''
| '''ó''' [o̞ɰʷ]
|''wa-''
| '''óo''' [o̞ːɰʷ]
|''ka-''
| '''on''' · '''om''' [õ̞]
|''a-''
| '''oon''' · '''oon''' [õ̞ː]
|''ya-''
| '''ón''' · '''ón''' [o̞ːŋ͡m]
|''ha-''
| '''óon''' · '''óom''' [o̞ːŋ͡m]
|-
|-
|}
|}


==Grammar==
Tsan exhibits what’s called [[Tsan#Predicate/argument flexibility|predicate/argument flexibility]], meaning that all content words equivalent to English verbs, nouns and adjectives, can fill the role as predicate or as argument. This is achieved through that the basic form of the content word always corresponds with a predicative expression. The language’s [[w:word order|word order]] is as such very free.


In essence, this feature makes the language seem to lack nouns or verbs, or rather lexical categories. Nevertheless, all content words may be conjugated and form verbal phrases, just like they may modify each other and all have one of three [[w:grammatical gender|grammatical gender]]s; ''masculine'' ({{sc|M}}), ''feminine'' ({{sc|F}}) or ''neuter'' ({{sc|N}}).
====Grammatical gender====
The genders are not marked, but rather a form of natural gender: women are feminine, men and males are masculine, and everything else is neuter. The marking on the content words congruate with the gender of the topic, and is simply marked as the same as, ''homus'' ({{sc|HO}}), or different to, ''heterus''  ({{sc|HE}}), the subject.
Kāndi has a peculiar system of grammatical gender. The genders are purely natural: Women are feminine {{sc|f}}, men and males are masculine {{sc|m}}, and everything else is neuter {{sc|n}}.  


===Terminology===
Do note, however, that the grammatical gender is not marked. Rather, there is a form of ''dual marking''. The gender of the subject of a content word is marked as either the "same" or "different" to that of the speaker. If the subject gender is the same as that of the speaker, it is marked as the ''same'' {{sc|sam}}, whereas if the subject gender is different to that of the speaker, it is marked as "different" {{sc|diff}}.
*'''Predicate''' – the part of a sentence or a clause containing, in the English translation, a verb and stating something about the subject. For example ''went home'', in ''John went home''.
*'''Argument''' – any of the nouns or noun phrases directly related to the predicate.
:*'''Subject''' – a noun or noun phrase that is the element about which the rest of a clause is predicated. For example ''John'' in ''John went home''.
:*'''Object''' – a noun or noun phrase that is the element governed by an active transitive verb or by a preposition. For example ''home'' in ''John went home''.
*'''Dependent argument''' – a dependent argument is marked on the predicate in the language, as an affix, similar to conjugation. For example ''–ó'' in ''Cambió pasaporte''.
*'''Independent argument''' – an independent argument is not marked on the predicate, such as ''él'', in ''él cambió pasaporte''.
*'''Content word''' – equivalent to a verb or a noun in Tsan linguistic terminology.


It is standard to assume a {{blue|male}} speaker in stories. A male speaker is assumed in all examples on the page unless otherwise stated.
{{gloss/indexable
|phrase = katsa
|IPA = [ˈkat͡sa]
| morphemes = katsa-{{red|∅}}
| gloss = songbird.N-3SG.{{red|DIFF}}
| translation = It is a songbird.
| index = 11
}}{{gloss/indexable
|phrase = agūrri{{blue|y}}
|IPA = [aˈɣu͜βɾɪj]
| morphemes = agūrri-{{blue|y}}
| gloss = boy.M-3SG.{{blue|SAM}}
| translation = It is a boy.
| index = 12
}}{{gloss/indexable
|phrase = tšanuk{{blue|ā}}n
|IPA = [t͡ʃanuˈkaːn]
| morphemes = tshanu-k-{{blue|ā}}-n
| gloss = horse.M-2-{{blue|SAM}}-PL
| translation = You are horses.
| index = 13
}}The system is sometimes more versatile than the English grammatical gender. In the last example (13), we are able to deduce that the speaker in this instance is a male, since he is of the same gender as the speaker.
{{gloss/indexable
|phrase = thūrrina
|IPA = [θu͜βrẽna]
| morphemes = thūrrina-{{red|∅}}
| gloss = women.F.IRREG-3.{{red|DIFF}}
| translation = She is a woman.
| index = 14
}}


===Predicative complements===
====Predicative complements====
====Simple predicative expressions====
=====Simple predicative expressions=====
In Tsan, the predicative complement of an expression is equivalent to the predicate itself. All content words are predicates in their own right, due to a copula suffix. This copula is a null suffix in the third person proximate, but it congruates with the subject. The subject does not need to be independent, and is only marked on the predicate.
In Kandi, the predicative complement of an expression is equivalent to the predicate itself. All content words are predicates in their own right, due to a copula suffix. This copula is a null suffix in the third person proximate, but it congruates with the subject. The subject does not need to be independent, and is only marked on the predicate.


{{gloss/indexable
{{gloss/indexable
Line 321: Line 726:
}}
}}


====Predicative nominatives====
=====Predicative nominatives=====
If the subject of the expression is stated independently, it is marked with a specifier, (SPEC), which roughly translates as the English relative determiner ''that which'', or the construction ''it is […] that is […]''. The post-vocalic form is ''–n'' and the post-consonantal form is ''–i''.  
If the subject of the expression is stated independently, it is marked with a specifier, (SPEC), which roughly translates as the English relative determiner ''that which'', or the construction ''it is […] that is […]''. The post-vocalic form is ''–n'' and the post-consonantal form is ''–i''.  


Line 353: Line 758:
}}
}}


====Predicative accusatives====
=====Predicative accusatives=====
Tsan has one copula, and one copula only.  In English you may find a variety of related verbs with similar function to the main copula ''to be''; for example ''to feel'', ''to seem'' and ''to become''. In Tsan, the semantics of these verbs are all conveyed by means of modifying the copula with evidentials, mood markers, applicatives and other constructions.  
Kandi has one copula, and one copula only.  In English you may find a variety of related verbs with similar function to the main copula ''to be''; for example ''to feel'', ''to seem'' and ''to become''. In Tsan, the semantics of these verbs are all conveyed by means of modifying the copula with evidentials, mood markers, applicatives and other constructions.  


Typically, what may be percieved as an increase in valency is marked with the copula and an appropriate applicative-like affix. The former subject is always demoted to the object or patient.
Typically, what may be percieved as an increase in valency is marked with the copula and an appropriate applicative-like affix. The former subject is always demoted to the object or patient.
Line 363: Line 768:
|IPA = [ˈʝɒ̃ʔi saːˈʝʌ̃tʼaː]
|IPA = [ˈʝɒ̃ʔi saːˈʝʌ̃tʼaː]
| morphemes = yón-∅-i sáay-anda-∅
| morphemes = yón-∅-i sáay-anda-∅
| gloss = 1SG.M-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC 3PL.REP-man.N-3SG.PROX.HO
| gloss = John-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC 3PL.REP-man.N-3SG.PROX.HO
| translation = They call John a man.
| translation = They call John a man.
| index = 2.8
| index = 2.8
Line 371: Line 776:
|IPA = [ˈʝɒ̃ʔi β̞atʼaːt͡su]
|IPA = [ˈʝɒ̃ʔi β̞atʼaːt͡su]
| morphemes = yón-∅-i <wúu>-anda-∅<tsu>
| morphemes = yón-∅-i <wúu>-anda-∅<tsu>
| gloss = 1SG.M-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC <1SG.CAUS>-man.N-3SG.PROX.HO-<1SG.CAUS>
| gloss = John-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC <1SG.CAUS>-man.N-3SG.PROX.HO-<1SG.CAUS>
| translation = I made John a man.
| translation = I made John a man.
| index = 2.9
| index = 2.9
Line 379: Line 784:
|IPA = /saːʝaˈʝɒ̃pʼaː/
|IPA = /saːʝaˈʝɒ̃pʼaː/
| morphemes = sáaya-yón-wá
| morphemes = sáaya-yón-wá
| gloss = 3PL.REP-man.N-1SG.HO
| gloss = 3PL.REP-John-1SG.HO
| translation = They call me a man.
| translation = They call me John.
| index = 2.10
| index = 2.10
}}
}}
===Intransitive clauses===
 
====Intransitive clauses====
When you accept that two content words in a predicative expression co-function as predicate and subject, it is not difficult to imagine other clauses with one core argument. The simplest are the corresponding English intransitive clauses. Tsan makes an important dichotomy between stative and dynamic content words.
When you accept that two content words in a predicative expression co-function as predicate and subject, it is not difficult to imagine other clauses with one core argument. The simplest are the corresponding English intransitive clauses. Tsan makes an important dichotomy between stative and dynamic content words.


====Stative clauses====
=====Stative clauses=====
Stative predicates, such as ''to hang'', ''to lie'', ''to be on fire'', ''to taste like'' and ''to know'' are almost exclusively expressed by means of the copula suffix. See also [[Tsan#Predicative complements|predicative complements]], which is an equivalent interpretation.
Stative predicates, such as ''to hang'', ''to lie'', ''to be on fire'', ''to taste like'' and ''to know'' are almost exclusively expressed by means of the copula suffix. See also [[Tsan#Predicative complements|predicative complements]], which is an equivalent interpretation.
{{Scriptgloss/indexable
{{Scriptgloss/indexable
Line 406: Line 812:
}}
}}


====Dynamic clauses====
=====Dynamic clauses=====
Dynamic predicatives on the other hand, including '' to run'', ''to lay'', ''to put on fire'', ''to savour'',  and ''to learn'', are formed with a conjugating dynamic prefix, acting in the same manner as the copula.
Dynamic predicatives on the other hand, including '' to run'', ''to lay'', ''to put on fire'', ''to savour'',  and ''to learn'', are formed with a conjugating dynamic prefix, acting in the same manner as the copula.
{{Scriptgloss/indexable
{{Scriptgloss/indexable
Line 434: Line 840:
}}
}}


====Flexibility of arguments and predicates====
=====Flexibility of arguments and predicates=====
It is in these dynamic and static clauses that Tsan first exhibits its flexibility of arguments. By simply switching the prefixes of the content words, the meaning is reversed or changed drastically.
It is in these dynamic and static clauses that Tsan first exhibits its flexibility of arguments. By simply switching the prefixes of the content words, the meaning is reversed or changed drastically.
{{Scriptgloss/indexable
{{Scriptgloss/indexable
Line 465: Line 871:


{{Seealso/qts}}
{{Seealso/qts}}
[[Category:Languages]][[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:A priori]][[Category:Tsan]][[Category:User:Waahlis]]
[[Category:Languages]][[Category:A priori]][[Category:Tsan]][[Category:User:Waahlis]][[Category:Jasi-Jivan languages]]

Latest revision as of 21:33, 4 July 2021

Kandi
Kāndi tsūyi
Pronunciation[kaːndɪ t͡suβ̞ʝɪ]
Created byWaahlis
SettingUnknown conworld
Native speakers4 million (2015)
Jasi-Jivan
  • Tanisi
    • Kandi
Early form
Proto-Kandi
Official status
Regulated byAytšin Tatšūkkāndi
Language codes
CLCRqts
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Kāndi, or Tsan (kāndi tsūyi or tsani tsūyi) is a language spoken by the Tsan people. It belongs to the Tanisi language family and is thus distantly related to the Ris language. Kandi is a heavily agglutinating with a complex verbal morphology. The language has repeatedly been analysed as lacking nouns and adjectives altogether, in favour of verbs.

Slightly dated versions of the language were featured in the third and fourth Linguifex relays. These are probably not a good source for the constructed language, but they do give the reader an impression of Kandi's evolution.

Background

The language was supposedly first documented scholarly by the Belgian linguists Émile d'Ivoire and his Scottish colleague John Glenn Crossing, both of which were experienced in the field of the related Jivan languages, including for example the Ris. They first encountered the Kandi people in the early 19th century south of the Caspian Sea, in what is now Northern Iran. The Kandis dwelled in small villages intentionally isolated from the rest of the country. Crossing recognised the language's syntactic pecularities and conjectured it could be related to the Jivan languages, a then rather unfounded speculation.

The Kandi language, which the natives had not given a name, was eponymously named after the speakers themselves; kāndi meaning handy in the language. The word is most likely related to Jávva gánne, Wok khaṃ and Ris san, and can be traced back to the hypothetical Proto-Jasi-Jivan form *kʰãn. The name soon stuck with the Kandi people, although quite a few still call the language kitsūyiwīn, our language. That name is hardly very catchy though.

Phonology

The Kandi inventory has been documented and assessed repeatedly since the 19th century, the foremost scholar in the field being the Belgian linguist Émile d'Ivoire. This page uses a standard notation where C is a consonant, N a nasal consonant, and V is a vowel. Features are indicated by square brackets [ ] and plus or minus signs, ±. Phonemic sounds are marked with slash brackets / / and more deeply analysed sounds are marked with square brackets [ ].

Phonemic inventory of vowels and consonants

The following is the Kandi inventory of consonants, as analysed by d'Ivoire, a model nowadays serving as standard when analysing the language.

d'Ivoire model
Bilabial Dental Alveolar Dorsal Glottal
central central lateral palatal
Nasals m /m/ n /n/
Stops
voiceless p /p/ t /t/ k /k/
voiced b /b/ d /d/ g /g/
Affricates ts /t͡s/ tl /t͡ɬ/ /t͡ɕ/
Fricatives s /s/ š /ɕ/ · y /ʝ/ x /x/ h /h/
Approximants w /β̞/ l /l/ ǧ /ɰ/
Trills r /ʀ~r/


D'Ivoire standardised the phonemic inventory of vowels in the language, as per his conclusion that there were three phonemic short vowels, /i/, /a/, /u/, and three phonemic "long" vowels. The quality of the long vowels is rarely realised as the same as their short counterparts however, but it is likely that they once only differed in quantity, making vowel length a truly distinctive feature.

d'Ivoire model
short long
Close front unrounded i /i/ ī /iː/ [iː]
Open back unrounded a /a/ ā /aː/ [ɔ]
Close back rounded u /u/ ū /uː/ [u͜β̞]

Phonotactics

The composition of Kandi words and syllables is restricted, and phonemes undergo a few morphophonemic changes when interacting across morpheme boundaries. Due to the the synthetic nature of the language, some enclitics and affixes may be obscured because of these changes. The morphophonology is highly dependent upon various assimilations, syncope and a few epenthetical vowels.

Syllable structure and morphophonology

The minimal Kandi syllable is simply V, and the maximal structure is CrVCC, where V may be either long or short. In case the following syllable begins with a consonant, the resulting cluster is simplified.

The Kandi consonant cluster VCCV is subject to a few rules.

  • All nasal plosives N (C[stop][+nas]) voice both preceding and following stops P (C[stop][-nas]).
NP[-voice] > NP[+voice]
P[-voice]N > P[+voice]N
Initial Consonant Final Consonant
m n p t k b d g s š tl ts h x w ǧ y l r
m mm mb mb nd ng mb nd ng ss šš ndr ns mm mm nn ndr
n nd nn mb nd ng mb nd ng ss šš ndr ns nn mm nn ndr
p mb mb pp pt bb pt ps pp ppuh bb pp
t pt tt ttuh tt dd ts ttl tts ttš tt ttuh dd dd tl tr
k ǧm ǧn št kk guh št gg ks ts x x kkuh gg gg
b mm mm pp ud w ud bb ux w bb
d pt tt kk duh dd gg ss šš ttl tts ttš dd ǧǧ duh ǧ dd tl tr
g ǧm ǧn pp tt kk guh dd gg ks ǧ ǧ guh g ǧ
s šm sp st ks suh st ks ss šš ss šš suh x š
š šm šp št šuh št ss šš šš šš šuh x š
tl
ts
h pp tt kk pp tt kk ss šš ttl tts ttš x x w ǧǧ yy ll rr
x ǧm ǧn šp št x šp št ss šš x x xuh ǧ x
w mm mm bb ud bb ud us w w w
y mm mm pp tt yy bb dd yy ss šš ttl tts ttš yy x w ǧǧ yy ll rr
l tl ll luh ll ll
r ndr ndr tr rr ruh rr rr

Syllable structure and phonological processes

Grammar

Kandi exhibits what’s called predicate/argument flexibility; all content words equivalent to English verbs, nouns and adjectives, can fill the role as predicate or as argument of a clause. The flexibility is due to that the lemma form of all content words corresponds to a predicative expression. All content words have a subject, which in the default is the third person: For example, the word for "dog" is kshawí, but it is also equivalent to "it is a dog".

In essence, the distinction between noun and verb is blurred. All content words may be conjugated and form verbal phrases, they may modify each other, and they all have one of three grammatical genders.

The Kandi grammar consists of a variety of grammatical prefixes and suffixes, all of which fit in a strict affixation template. The Tsan affixation template looks as follows:

genitivemoodplural–[Content word]–applicativecasegendercorespecifier

Core affixes

The Kandi conjugation is rather a form of affixation of relevant arguments, aspects, cases, and moods. The core affixes are the main reason behind the Tsan predicate/argument flexibility, and they consist of a gender part and a stative or dynamic part.

The stative affixes convey a state of being, or function as a copula. The dynamic affixes transform a word into a more verb-like construction, and insinuates some sort of action. These two core affixes are mutually exclusive, and a word can only be affixed with one of them at a time.

What may make many linguists get the hiccups is the seemingly ignorant mixes of nominal and verbal categories. In Tsan, however, these are not important distinctions.

Stative and dynamic affixes
person 1 2 3.PROX (3) 3.OBV (4) 0
-w- -k- - -y- -h-
Stative
same -á- -wá -ká (Vy) -yá -há
different -í- -wí -kí - -yi -hí
Dynamic
same -u- wu- ku- u- yu- hu-
different -a- wa- ka- a- ya- ha-


Grammatical gender

Kāndi has a peculiar system of grammatical gender. The genders are purely natural: Women are feminine f, men and males are masculine m, and everything else is neuter n.

Do note, however, that the grammatical gender is not marked. Rather, there is a form of dual marking. The gender of the subject of a content word is marked as either the "same" or "different" to that of the speaker. If the subject gender is the same as that of the speaker, it is marked as the same sam, whereas if the subject gender is different to that of the speaker, it is marked as "different" diff.

It is standard to assume a male speaker in stories. A male speaker is assumed in all examples on the page unless otherwise stated.

katsa
[ˈkat͡sa]
katsa-
songbird.N-3SG.DIFF

It is a songbird.

(11)

agūrriy
[aˈɣu͜βɾɪj]
agūrri-y
boy.M-3SG.SAM

It is a boy.

(12)

tšanukān
[t͡ʃanuˈkaːn]
tshanu-k-ā-n
horse.M-2-SAM-PL

You are horses.

(13)

The system is sometimes more versatile than the English grammatical gender. In the last example (13), we are able to deduce that the speaker in this instance is a male, since he is of the same gender as the speaker.

thūrrina
[θu͜βrẽna]
thūrrina-
women.F.IRREG-3.DIFF

She is a woman.

(14)


Predicative complements

Simple predicative expressions

In Kandi, the predicative complement of an expression is equivalent to the predicate itself. All content words are predicates in their own right, due to a copula suffix. This copula is a null suffix in the third person proximate, but it congruates with the subject. The subject does not need to be independent, and is only marked on the predicate.


katsa
[ˈkat͡sa]
katsa-∅
songbird.N-3SG.PROX.HO

It is a songbird.

(1)

katsawí
[ˈkat͡sajiɨ̯]
katsa-wí
songbird.N-1SG.HE

I am a songbird.

(2)

katsayín
[ˈkat͡saʝẽː]
katsa-yín
songbird.N-2PL.HE

You are songbirds.

(3)


Predicative nominatives

If the subject of the expression is stated independently, it is marked with a specifier, (SPEC), which roughly translates as the English relative determiner that which, or the construction it is […] that is […]. The post-vocalic form is –n and the post-consonantal form is –i.


The predicative complement, or predicate, agrees with the topic. The topic, most often the subject, is marked with the third person singular homus suffix, as well as the specifier.


  • ᎭᎱ ᎧᏊᏪ:
    yan katsawí
    [ʝʌ̃ʔ ˈkat͡sajiɨ̯]
    ya-∅-n katsa-wí
    1SG.M-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC songbird.N-1SG.HE

    I am a songbird.

(2.5)


  • Ꮡ:Ꮾ ᏡᎪᏕ:
    yóni tsháatlí
    [ˈʝɒ̃ʔi ˈt͡ɕaːt͡ɬiɨ̯]
    yón-∅-i tsháatli-í
    1SG.M-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC nice.N;3SG.PROX.HE

    John is nice.

(2.6)


  • Ꮡ:Ꮾ ᎪᏌᎪ
    yóni anda
    [ˈʝɒ̃ʔi ˈʌ̃tʼa]
    yón-∅-i anda-∅
    1SG.M-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC man.N-3SG.PROX.HO

    John is a man.

(2.7)


Predicative accusatives

Kandi has one copula, and one copula only. In English you may find a variety of related verbs with similar function to the main copula to be; for example to feel, to seem and to become. In Tsan, the semantics of these verbs are all conveyed by means of modifying the copula with evidentials, mood markers, applicatives and other constructions.

Typically, what may be percieved as an increase in valency is marked with the copula and an appropriate applicative-like affix. The former subject is always demoted to the object or patient.


  • Ꮡ:Ꮾ Ꮝ:ᎪᎭᏌ:
    yóni sáayandá
    [ˈʝɒ̃ʔi saːˈʝʌ̃tʼaː]
    yón-∅-i sáay-anda-∅
    John-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC 3PL.REP-man.N-3SG.PROX.HO

    They call John a man.

(2.8)


  • yóni wandátsu
    [ˈʝɒ̃ʔi β̞atʼaːt͡su]
    yón-∅-i <wúu>-anda-∅<tsu>
    John-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC <1SG.CAUS>-man.N-3SG.PROX.HO-<1SG.CAUS>

    I made John a man.

(2.9)


  • sáayayómbá
    /saːʝaˈʝɒ̃pʼaː/
    sáaya-yón-wá
    3PL.REP-John-1SG.HO

    They call me John.

(2.10)


Intransitive clauses

When you accept that two content words in a predicative expression co-function as predicate and subject, it is not difficult to imagine other clauses with one core argument. The simplest are the corresponding English intransitive clauses. Tsan makes an important dichotomy between stative and dynamic content words.

Stative clauses

Stative predicates, such as to hang, to lie, to be on fire, to taste like and to know are almost exclusively expressed by means of the copula suffix. See also predicative complements, which is an equivalent interpretation.

  • tátshuyi kákawiká
    [ˈta:t͡ɕʊʝi ka:ˈk͡xajika:]
    tátshuy-∅-i kákawi-ká
    guard.N-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC fire.N-3SG.OBV.HO

    The guard is burning [up].

(3.11)


  • téndatshiwí...
    [tə̃ːtʼaˈt͡ɕijiː]
    ténda-tshi-wí
    knowing.N-DUB-1SG.HE

    I am not sure I know.

(3.12)


Dynamic clauses

Dynamic predicatives on the other hand, including to run, to lay, to put on fire, to savour, and to learn, are formed with a conjugating dynamic prefix, acting in the same manner as the copula.

  • tátshuyi yáakákawi
    [ˈta:t͡ɕʊʝi ʝa:ˈka:k͡xaji]
    tátshuy-∅-i yáa-kákawi
    guard.N-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC DYN.3SG.OBV.HO-fire.N

    The guard is burning [something].

(3.13)


  • wáaténdatshi...
    [ɰa:tə̃ːtʼaˈt͡ɕi]
    wáa-ténda-tshi
    DYN.1SG.HE-knowing.N-DUB

    I am not sure I learn [anything].

(3.14)


  • yáanti katsan
    [ʝaːˈʔani ˈkat͡sʌ̃]
    yáa-anti katsa-∅-n
    DYN.3SG.OBV.HO-walking.N songbird.N-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC

    The songbird walks.

(3.15)


Flexibility of arguments and predicates

It is in these dynamic and static clauses that Tsan first exhibits its flexibility of arguments. By simply switching the prefixes of the content words, the meaning is reversed or changed drastically.

  • tátshuyá kákawin
    [ˈta:t͡ɕʊʝa: ˈka:k͡xajẽ]
    tátshuy-∅ kákawi-n
    guard.N-3SG.OBV.HO fire.N-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC

    The fire is a guard.

(3.16)


  • yáatátshuy kákawin
    [ʝa:ˈta:t͡ɕʊʝ ˈka:k͡xajẽ]
    yáa-tátshuy kákawi-n
    DYN.3SG.OBV.HO-guard.N fire.N-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC

    The fire is a guard.

(3.17)


  • yáakatsa antin
    [ʝaːˈk͡xat͡sa ˈʔanẽ ]
    yáah-katsa anti-∅-n
    DYN.3SG.OBV.HO-songbird.N walking.N-3SG.PROX.HO-SPEC

    *The walk songbirds.

(3.18)


See also

Tsani language
Orthography Cree syllabary
Phonology IPA for TsanPhonology
Grammar GrammarArgumentsSyntax
Vocabulary Basic vocabularySwadesh list
Numerals
Example texts The Lord's PrayerThe North Wind and the SunThe Tower of BabelThe Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Geneaology Tanisi languagesProto-Tanisi