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Proto-Carpathian: Difference between revisions
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==Grammar== | ==Grammar== | ||
All inflectional and derivational endings had front- and back-vowel variants with, which matched the vowels in the word stem according to the vowel harmony. Endings which closed the final syllable of a word triggered a consonant gradation on that syllable. If that syllable contained a long vowel, that vowel shortened. Many irregularities had appeared in Late Proto-Carpathian before it splitted into different dialects. Vowel alterations had been leveled by Late Proto-Carpathian and remained mostly in endings and suffixes, while in the early stage many alterations still remained and were productive. One of such alterations is a singular oblique suffix which had three varieties: ''*-cid'', ''*-jid'' and ''*-sid''. There is no clear explanation to the origin of these alterations, but they might have appeared already in Proto-Oronaic. | |||
===Nouns=== | |||
The exact amount of noun cases in Proto-Carpathian is unknown, however, eight cases were proposed. Adjectives agreed with their nouns according to case and number just like in modern descendants, which may be an innovation, influenced by the nearby Indo-European languages. Three numbers: singular, dual and plural are reconstructed on the basis of East Carpathian dialects. The dual nuber endings were ''*-jə'' and ''*-ńə'' (found only in East Carpathian ''erkiń'' "eye (dual)"< ''*gèrə<sub>1</sub>kińə''). The plural was marked with ''*-kə'', ''*-ɣi'', and ''*-ɣət'', but only the first ending can be found in almost all words in modern descendants (Again in East Carpathian the nominative plural for the word "eyes" is ''erie'' from ''*gerə<sub>1</sub>ɣì'' or ''*gerə<sub>1</sub>kìɣi''). The accusative singular was ''*-tax'' or ''*-dax'' while ''*-m-'' infix was added to form the accusative plural and ''*-w-'' for the dual. | |||
The following cases are typically reconstructed (vowel harmony counterparts are not included): | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
! Case | |||
! Singular<br/>ending | |||
! Dual<br/>ending | |||
! Plural<br/>ending | |||
! Meaning/use | |||
|- | |||
! Nominative | |||
| ∅ | |||
| *-jə, *-ńə | |||
| *-kə, *-ɣi | |||
| Subject, object of imperative | |||
|- | |||
! Accusative | |||
| *-tax, *-dax | |||
| *-wdax | |||
| *-mdax | |||
| Direct object, agent of some intransitive verbs | |||
|- | |||
! Genitive | |||
| *-jɣuŋ | |||
| *-jəŋ | |||
| *-duŋ | |||
| Possession, relation | |||
|- | |||
! Oblique | |||
| *-cid, *-jid, *-sid | |||
| *-jud, (*-sud) | |||
| *-əjdid, *-əjcid, (*-əjsid) | |||
| Indirect object | |||
|- | |||
! Essive | |||
| *-pə | |||
| *-ibə | |||
| *-kəbə | |||
| Being, acting as | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="5" | Locative cases | |||
|- | |||
! Inessive | |||
| *-βtus | |||
| *-iβtui | |||
| *-əβtus | |||
| Location inside | |||
|- | |||
! Adessive | |||
| *-βɣo | |||
| *-iβɣoi | |||
| *-əβɣo | |||
| Location outside/on/at | |||
|- | |||
! colspan="5" | Directional cases | |||
|- | |||
! Lative | |||
| *-ohə<sub>3</sub>n | |||
| *-ojhə<sub>3</sub>n | |||
| *-kohə<sub>3</sub>n | |||
| Motion towards/into | |||
|- | |||
! Ablative | |||
| *-jə<sub>2</sub>ba | |||
| *-jə<sub>2</sub>bai | |||
| *-kə<sub>2</sub>ba | |||
| Motion from/off | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
===Adjective comparison=== | |||
Adjectives are inflected in exactly the same way as nouns, but they also had three degrees of comparison. The comparative was formed by adding ''*-ava'' or ''*-ijä'' suffix to the stem, while superlative was formed with an suffixation of ''*-ma'' either to a comparative form or directly to the stem with an ''*-e-'' infix. | |||
===Verbs=== | |||
Proto-Carpathian had the following grammatical moods: | |||
*[[w:Indicative mood|Indicative]] - suffix: present: none, past: ''*-ul-'', perfect: none | |||
*[[w:Imperative mood|Imperative]] - suffix: ''*-ə<sub>2</sub>k'' | |||
*[[w:Optative mood|Optative]] - suffix: ''*-ko(n)-'' | |||
*[[w:Conditional mood|Conditional]] - suffix: imperfect: ''*-ə<sub>3</sub>cə<sub>3</sub>-'' or ''*-ə<sub>2</sub>cə<sub>2</sub>-'', perfect:''*-ə<sub>3</sub>cih-'' | |||
*[[w:Potential mood|Potential]] - suffix: imperfect: ''*-ə<sub>3</sub>nsə<sub>3</sub>-'', perfect: ''*-ə<sub>3</sub>nəsjə<sub>3</sub>-'' | |||
All moods, except imperative and optative, distinguished between imperfect and perfect. Indicative mood also had separate present and past tense suffixes. The pluperfect tense had not been formed until Late Proto-Carpathian, probably by the Indo-European languages influence. | |||
There were ten personal endings, for three persons and three numbers. In addition, there was an ending for the "fourth person", which indicated an unspecified person, similarly to the Ancient Greek [[w:Mediopassive voice|mediopassive]]. A new theory suggests also objective or intransitive endings in addition to the subjective or transitive ones, which later became the conjugation X in West Carpathian | |||
All personal endings of Proto-Carpathian: | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
! | |||
! Singular | |||
! Dual | |||
! Plural | |||
|- | |||
! First person | |||
| *- | |||
| *- | |||
| *- | |||
|- | |||
! Second person | |||
| *- | |||
| *- | |||
| *- | |||
|- | |||
! Third person | |||
| *- | |||
| *- | |||
| *- | |||
|- | |||
! Fourth person | |||
| colspan="3" | *- | |||
|- | |||
|} | |||
==Later development== | ==Later development== | ||
[[Category:Carpathian languages]] [[Category:Proto-languages]] [[Category:Languages]] | [[Category:Carpathian languages]] [[Category:Proto-languages]] [[Category:Languages]] | ||