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{{construction}}
{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|image = Ris.png
|image = Ris.png
|imagesize = 250px
|imagesize = 250px
|name = Ris
|name = Ris
|nativename = Rhánzi ris
|nativename = oī́kas ri
|pronunciation= /ˈr̥ʰand͡z͎ɪ rɪs͎/
|pronunciation= ɔˈɪːkas rɪ
|region = [[w:Mediterranean|Mediterranean]]
|setting = [[w:Mediterranean|Mediterranean]]
|states = [[w:Italy|Italy]], [[w:Cyprus|Cyprus]]; [[w:Sicily|Sicily]]
|nation = [[w:Italy|Italy]], [[w:Cyprus|Cyprus]]; [[w:Sicily|Sicily]]
|speakers = 301,486
|speakers = 301,486
|date = 2012
|date = 2012
|familycolor= Indo-European
|familycolor= American
|family=Menmer languages
|family=Jasi-Jivan languages
|ancestor=Proto-Men
|ancestor=Proto-Jivan
|script=[[w:Latin script|Latin]], [[w:Greek script|Greek]]
|script1=Latn
|agency=
|script2=Grek
|iso1=ri
|clcr=qri
|iso2=ri
|iso3=qri
|notice=IPA
|notice=IPA
|creator=User:Waahlis
}}
}}


'''Ris''' is my attempt to unite the sketchy constructed languages of mine; those lost forever in incomprehensible grammar, unsatisfying aesthetics and cumbersome phonologies. They stand united by the one shared feature - their relationship to the [[w:Greek language|Greek language]]; my greatest influence no matter the language.
The '''Ris''' language, ''oī́kas ri'', /ɔˈɪːkas  rɪ/ or simply '''Ris''' /rɪs/, is a Jasi-Jivan language related to the [[Kiwi]] and [[Kandi]] languages.
 
Grammatically speaking, the Ris language is morphologically [[w:fusional|fusional]] with a few [[w:agglutinative|agglutinative]] characteristics. It has [[Ris#Enclitic|enclitic]] pronouns representing the core arguments of agent and patient. It also has an unsusual [[Ris#Morphosyntactic-alignment|morphosyntactic alignment]]; the [[w:active-stative languages|active-stative]] one, in the [[w:Fluid-S|fluid subject]] subtype. This implies a system of [[Ris#Control|control]] and volition, closely tied to a distinction in [[Ris#Animacy|animacy]]. The [[w:morphology|morphology]] is evenly split between nominal and verbal inflections.
 
Phonologically and phonaesthetically, the language is modelled after [[w:Greek language|Greek]]. Other influences are [[w:native American languages|native American languages]], the [[w:Shona language|Shona language]] and to certain degree [[w:Swedish language|Swedish]]. Ris has a normal-sized inventory of consonants and a fair amount of [[w:allophony|allophony]].


The '''Ris''' language, '''ῤάνζι ρις''' /r̥ʰand͡z͎ɪ rɪs͎/, is a [[w:language isolate|language isolate]], and is thus not known to be related to any extant language. Ris has a normal-sized inventory of consonants and a fair amount of [[w:allophony|allophony]]. It is a [[w:fusional|fusional]] language and is morphosyntactically [[w:active-stative|active-stative]] and with a fluid subject. The [[w:morphology|morphology]] is evenly split between nominal and verbal inflections.
Ris is my attempt to unite the sketchy constructed languages of mine; those lost forever in incomprehensible grammar, unsatisfying aesthetics and cumbersome phonologies. They stand united by the one shared feature - their relationship to the [[w:Greek language|Greek language]]; my greatest influence no matter the language.
==Background==
The '''Ris''' language, '''ῤάνζι ρις''' /r̥ʰand͡z͎ɪ rɪs͎/, is a [[w:conlang|constructed language]], but does have a fictional background set in the real world. It is spoken on Sicily and on Cyprus and has about 300,000 native speakers. Or 1. Depends on how you count.


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
===Consonants===
===Consonants===
{{ris sidebar}}
The following is the inventory of consonants in the Ris language. There are 19 contrastive consonants. The inventory is very similar to what you would expect from an Indo-European language, except for the voiceless sonorant, /r̥/.
The following is the inventory of consonants in the Ris language. There are 18 contrastive consonants.
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
|+'''Ris consonants'''
|+'''Ris consonants'''
|-
|-
! colspan="9"|Consonants
! colspan="8"|Consonants
|-
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2"|
! colspan="2"|
! rowspan="2"| Bilabial
! Bilabial
! colspan="2" rowspan="1"| Denti-alveolar
! Dental
! rowspan="2"| Palatal
!  Alveolar
! rowspan="2"| Velar
! Postalveolar
! rowspan="2"| Glottal
! Velar
|-
! Glottal
! <small>plain</small>
! <small>whispered</small>
|- align="center"
|- align="center"
!Nasals
!Nasals
!<small>plain</small>
!<small>plain</small>
|'''m''' /m/
|'''m''' /m/
|'''n '''/n/
|colspan="2"|'''n '''/n/
|
|
|
|
|[ŋ]
|
|
|-
|-
! rowspan="3"|Plosives
! rowspan="3"|Plosives
!<small>aspirated</small>
!<small>affricate</small>
|'''ph''' /pʰ/
|'''ph''' /p͡f/
|'''th''' /tʰ/
|'''th''' /t͡θ/
|
|'''ts''' /t͡s/
|
|
|'''kh''' /kʰ/
|'''kh''' /k͡x/
| colspan="1" rowspan="3"| [ʔ]
|  
|-
|-
!<small>unvoiced</small>
!<small>unvoiced</small>
|'''p''' /p/
|'''p''' /p/
|'''t''' /t/
|colspan="2"|'''t''' /t/
|
|
|'''k''' /k/
|
|
|'''k''' /k/
|-
|-
!<small>voiced</small>
!<small>voiced</small>
|'''b''' /b/
|'''b''' /b/
|'''d''' /d/
|colspan="2"|'''d''' /d/
|
|
|'''g''' /g/
|
|
|'''g''' /g/
|-
|-
! colspan="1" rowspan="2"|Fricatives
! colspan="1" rowspan="2"|Fricatives
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|
|
|
|
|'''s''' /s͎/
|'''s''' /s/
| colspan="3" rowspan="1"|'''h''' /ç ~ x ~ h/
|'''sh''' /ʃ/
| colspan="2" |'''h''' /x ~ h/
|-
|-
!<small>voiced</small>
!<small>voiced</small>
|
|
| colspan="2" rowspan="1"|'''z''' /d͡z ~ d͡z͎ ~ z ~ z͎/
|
|[ʝ]
|'''z''' /z/
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
! rowspan="2"|Trills
! rowspan="2"|Trills
!<small>aspirated</small>
!<small>voiceless</small>
|
|
|
|  
|'''r''' /r̥ʰ/
| '''rh''' /r̥/
|
|
|
|
Line 103: Line 103:
!<small>voiced</small>
!<small>voiced</small>
|
|
|
|  
|'''r''' /r/
| '''r''' /r/
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="1"|Approximants
|'''ou''' /w/
|
|
|
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|'''l''' /l ~ ʎ/
|
|
|
|
|'''l''' /ɫ/
|
|
|}
|}


====Consonant allophony====
====Consonant allophony====
[[w:Allophony|Allophony]] is common to many consonants, and [[w:sandhi|sandhi]] forces them to be realised different in different environments.
[[w:Allophony|Allophony]] is common, and a variety of processes affect the consonants.
 
=====The glottal fricative=====
The phoneme /h/, the so called glottal fricative, is in [[w:free variation|free variation]] with the unvoiced palatal fricative /ç/ as well as the unvoiced velar fricative /x/.
 
{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em;"
|+
<!-- Sentence -->
| colspan="5"|'''{{blue|ἒ}}τροι'''
|-
| colspan="5"|'''{{blue|h}}étroi'''
|-
<!-- Pronunciation-->
|  /ˈ{{blue|h}}ɛtrɔɪ̯/
 
! =
 
| /ˈ{{blue|x}}ɛtrɔɪ̯/
 
! =
 
|/ˈ{{blue|ç}}ɛtrɔɪ̯/
|-
<!-- Translation -->
| colspan="5"| ''normal, okay''
|}
 
The velar fricative is the most common one, but the phones are all affected by palatalisation from front vowels, producing the palatal fricative [ç].
 
{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em;"
|+
<!-- Sentence -->
| colspan="4"|'''{{blue|ὒ}}ο'''
| colspan="3"|'''{{blue|ἢ}}στιμι'''
|-
| colspan="4"|'''{{blue|h}}ýo'''
| colspan="3"|'''{{blue|h}}ḗstimi'''
|-
<!-- Pronunciation-->
| /ˈ{{blue|h}}ʉ̩.ɔ/
 
! =
 
|[ˈ{{blue|h}}ʉ̩.ɔ]
 
!
 
|/ˈ{{blue|h}}eːs͎tɪmɪ/
 
! →
 
|[ˈ{{blue|ç}}eːs͎tɪmɪ]
|-
<!-- Translation -->
| colspan="4"| ''to leave'' .{{sc|ind.m.}}
| colspan="3"| ''pride'' .{{sc|f}}
|}
 
=====Palatalisation=====
[[w:Palatalisation|Palatalisation]] occurs due to two main factors:
* '''Internally''': Front vowels tend to palatalise preceding consonants if the syllable is stressed.
**C[-pal, -rhotic, -appr]  → C[+pal, -rhotic, -appr] /_V[+front, +stress]_
* '''Externally''': A final near-close near-front vowel, /ɪ/, palatalises the initial consonant of the following word.
 
All consonants but the rhotic trills and the labio-velar semivowel are affected.
 
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width:650px; text-align:center;"
|-
! Plain
!/m/
!/n/
!/p
!/t/
!/k/
!/b/
!/d/
!/g/
!/pʰ/
!/tʰ/
!/kʰ/
!/s/
!/z/
!/h/
!/l/
 
|-
! Palatalised
|[mɲ]
|[ɲ]
|[pj]
|[t͡ʃ]
|[c]
|[bj]
|[ɟ]
|[ʝ]
|[p]
|[t]
|[k]
|[ʃ]
|[ʒ]
|[ç]
|[ʎ]
|}
 
 
{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em;"
|+
<!-- Script-->
| colspan="3"| '''{{blue|ρ}}ἂκι'''
 
!
 
| colspan="3"| '''{{blue|τ}}ή'''
 
!
 
| colspan="3"| '''{{blue|ἢ}}στιμι'''
 
!
 
| colspan="3"|'''{{blue|τ}}ί {{blue|κ}}ατεράσχοι'''
|-
<!-- Sentence -->
| colspan="3"| '''rā́{{blue|k}}i'''
 
!
 
| colspan="3"| '''{{blue|t}}ḗ'''
 
!
 
| colspan="3"| '''{{blue|h}}ḗstimi?'''
 
!
 
| colspan="3"|'''{{blue|t}}í {{blue|k}}ateráskhoi?'''
|-
<!-- Pronunciation-->
|/ˈrakɪ/
 
! →
 
|[ˈracɪ]
 
!
 
|/ˈteː/
 
! →
 
|[ˈt͡ʃeː]
 
!
 
|/ˈheːs͎tɪmɪ/
 
! →
 
| [ˈçeːs͎tɪmɪ]
 
!
 
| /ˈtɪ katɛˈraskʰɔɪ̯/
 
! →
 
| [ˈt͡ʃɪ catɛˈraskʰɔɪ̯]
|-
<!-- Translation -->
| colspan="3"| ''root'' .{{sc|in.gen}}
 
!
 
| colspan="3"| ''how''
 
!
 
| colspan="3"| ''pride.'' .{{sc|f.pat}}
 
!
 
| colspan="3"|''Where did I write it?''
|}
 
====Phonological processes====
<!-- =====Assimilation=====
In verb conjugation, consonant clusters tend to appear. Various [[w:sandhi|]] rules then apply.Rules:* '''Most basic rule''': When two sounds appear next to each other, the first [[w:Assimilation (linguistics)|assimilates]] in voicing and aspiration to the second.** This applies fully to stops. Fricatives assimilate only in voicing, sonorants do not assimilate.* Before an {{IPA|/s/}} (future, aorist stem), velars become {{IPA|[k]}}, labials become {{IPA|[p]}}, and dentals disappear.* Before a {{IPA|/tʰ/}} (aorist passive stem), velars become {{IPA|[kʰ]}}, labials become {{IPA|[pʰ]}}, and dentals become {{IPA|[s]}}.* Before an {{IPA|/m/}} (perfect middle first-singular, first-plural, participle), velars become {{IPA|[ɡ]}}, nasal+velar becomes {{IPA|[ɡ]}}, labials become {{IPA|[m]}}, dentals become {{IPA|[s]}}, other sonorants remain the same.
 
-->


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
{{quote
There are 6 [[w:vowel|vowel]] phonemes in the Ris language.
|text='''Ptḗgna i rháki? Tān ptḗgi i khrísti!'''
|sign=''Common Ris saying''
|source=Idioms and phrases in Ris: An analysis. pg. 34
|about= The saying '''The hollow triangle? Rather the Christmas tree!''' is a nationalist idiom which represents the Ris people's belief that their language is superior to that of their neighbours. This is due to their vowel inventory creating an image of either an hollow triangle, or a pine tree.
}}
 
There are 7 [[w:vowel|vowel]] phonemes in the Ris language. In Ris, the system of vowels are known as ''ptḗgna i rháki'' - 'the hollow triangle', due to their symmetrical places of articulation.  


All vowels may be long, but the phonemes /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ change their quality when long; they are then pronounced /eː/ and /oː/ respectively.
All vowels are pronounced short. The transcription into the Latin alphabet includes no single grapheme <nowiki><u></nowiki>.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 375px; text-align: center;"
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 375px; text-align: center;"
|+'''Ris vowels'''
|+'''Ris vowels'''
|-
|-
! colspan="2"|
! colspan="1"|
! Front
! Front
! Near-front
! Near-front
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! Back
! Back
|-
|-
! rowspan="2"| Close
! Close
! <small>short</small>
|
|
|
|
|'''y''' /ʉ/
|
|
|
|-
! <small>long</small>
|
|
|'''ȳ''' /ʉː/
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
! rowspan="2"|Near-close
!Near-close
!<small>short</small>
|
|
|'''i '''/ɪ/  
|'''i '''/ɪ/ · '''y''' /ʏ/
|
|
|'''ou''' /ʊ/
|'''ou '''/ʊ/
|
|
|-
|-
!<small>long</small>
!Close-mid
|
|
|'''ī '''/ɪː/
|
|
|'''ou '''/ʊː/
|
|-
! colspan="2"|Close-mid
|'''ē''' /eː/
|
|
|
|
|
|
|'''ō''' /oː/
|-
|-
! colspan="2"|Mid
!Mid
|
|
|
|
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|
|
|-
|-
! colspan="2"|Open-mid
!Open-mid
|'''e''' /ɛ/
|'''e''' /ɛ/
|
|
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|'''o''' /ɔ/
|'''o''' /ɔ/
|-
|-
! colspan="2"|Near-open
!Near-open
|
|
|
|
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|
|
|-
|-
! rowspan="2"|Open
!Open
!<small>short</small>
|'''a '''/a/
|
|
|
|
|'''a '''/ä/
|
|
|
|
|-
!<small>long</small>
|
|
|'''ā '''/äː/
|
|
|}
Other than that, my vowels are rather simple. No mystics quirks at all. Well, that's if you choose to ignore the [[w:vowel harmony|vowel harmony]] and [[w:umlaut|umlaut]] process in the '''Nassi dialect'''. Makes it a tad more interesting, in my opinion.
==Orthography==
Ris is primarily written in the [[w:Latin alphabet|Latin alphabet]], but the original alphabet was in fact [[w:Greek alphabet|Greek]]. In its classical and modern form, the alphabet has 24 letters, ordered from alpha to omega; or ''ai mḗ otḗma'' in Ris. The below table shows the two alphabets and the Ris names for the letters, as well as the pronunciation in '''Standard Ris''' and the colloquial '''Ouis dialect'''.
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 600px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="6" scope="col" style="width:30px;"|Orthography
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:30px;"|Greek
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" scope="col" style="width:30px;"|Latin
! colspan="2" scope="col" style="width:50px;"|Pronunciation
|-
! scope="col" style="width: 50px; "|Ris
! scope="col" style="width: 50px; "|Ouis
|-
|Α α
|''άλπα''
|A a
|''ai''
| colspan="2"|/a/
|-
|Β β
|''βήτα''
|B b
|''bou''
|/b/
|/β/
|-
|Γ γ
|''γάμμα''
|G g
|''gou''
|/g/
|/ɣ/
|-
|Δ δ
|''δέλτα''
|D d
|''da''
|/d/
|/ð/
|-
|Ε ε
|''έψιλαν''
|E e
|''egnás''
| colspan="2" |/ɛ/
|-
|Ζ ζ
|''ζήτα''
|Z z
|''za''
| colspan="2"|/d͡z ~ d͡z͎ ~ z ~ z͎/
|-
|Η η
|''ήτα''
|Ē ē
|''etḗma''
|/eː/
|/eɪ̯/
|-
|Θ θ
|''θήτα''
|Th th
|''tha''
|/tʰ/
|/θ/
|-
|Ι ι
|''ιότα''
|I i
|''iou''
| colspan="2" |/ɪ/
|-
|Κ κ
|''κάππα''
|K k
|''kau''
| colspan="2" |/k/
|-
|Λ λ
|''λάπτα''
|L l
|''la''
| colspan="2" |/l/
|-
|Μ μ
|''μύα''
|M m
|''ḗma''
| colspan="2" |/m/
|-
|Ν ν
|''νύα''
|N n
|''ḗna''
| colspan="2"|/n/
|-
|Ξ ξ
|''ξία''
|X x
|''ḗxa''
| colspan="2" |/ks͎ ~ gz͎/
|-
|Ο ο
|''ομίκραν''
|O o
|''ognás''
| colspan="2" |/ɔ/
|-
|Π π
|''πία''
|P p
|''pau''
| colspan="2"|/p/
|-
|Ρ ρ
|''ρό''
|R r
|''ría''
|/r/
|/ɹ/
|-
|'Ρ ῤ
|''ῤαυ''
|Rh rh
|''rhau''
|/r̥ʰ/
|/r/
|-
|Σ σ ς
|''σίγμα''
|S s
|''sa''
| colspan="2" |/s͎/
|-
|Τ τ
|''τάυ''
|T t
|''tau''
| colspan="2" |/t/
|-
|Υ υ
|''ύψιλαν''
|Y y
|''hytḗma''
|/ʉ/
|/ʏ/
|-
|Φ φ
|''φία''
|Ph ph
|''pha''
|/pʰ/
|/f/
|-
|Χ χ
|''χία''
|Kh kh
|''kha''
|/kʰ/
|/x/
|-
|Ψ ψ
|''ψία''
|Ps ps
|''ḗpsa''
| colspan="2"|/ps͎/
|-
|Ω ω
|''ώμεγα''
|Ō ō
|''otḗma''
|/oː/
|/oɪ̯/
|}
===Diacritics===
The Ris alphabets, both the Latin and Greek one, use a few different diacritics to modify the pronunciation. There are five diacritics that mark the following:
*A stressed vowel in a syllable.
*A long vowel in a syllable.
*An aspirated vowel; preceded by /h/. Can also mark the phoneme /r̥ʰ/.
*A stressed, aspirated vowel.
*A long, aspirated vowel.
The use of [[w:aspiration|aspiration]] here does not refer to the co-articulating process, but rather that the vowel is preceded by an /h/, a "glottal fricative".
====Stressed vowels====
Stressed vowels are marked with an [[w:acute accent|acute accent]], <'''<big>´</big>'''>, in the Latin script. In the Greek alphabet, the diacritic is the acute accent as well, only slightly different; <'''<big>΄</big>'''>. These mark that the syllable with the vowel is to be [[w:Stress (linguistics)|stressed]], and thus articulated stronger, than other syllables.
{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-right: 50px; margin-left: 50px; text-align: center;"
|-
|[[File:Greek acute.png|50px]]
|[[File:Greek grave.png|50px]]
|[[File:Latin eta.png|50px]]
|-
|Acute || Grave || Eta
|-
|[[File:Greek asper.png|50px]]
|[[File:Greek asper acute.png|50px]]
|[[File:Latin eta acute.png|50px]]
|-
|Spiritus asper || Asper acute || Eta acute
|}
====Long vowels====
Long vowels are vowels pronounced vowels articulated for a longer period of time. These get a [[w:grave accent|grave accent]] in the Greek alphabet, <'''<big>`</big>'''>, and a [[w:macron|macron]] in the Latin script, <'''<big>¯</big>'''>.
Long vowels grave accent in the Greek script when stressed. In the Latin alphabet, however, the stressed long vowels get a second acute accent above the macron, <''<big>' ̄́</big>'''>.
As previously mentioned, all vowels can be long vowels, but there are two vowels that change their quality when elongated; the /ɛ/ and /ɔ/. These are raised to /eː/ and /oː/ respectively. In the Latin script these are marked as expected,  <'''ē'''> and <'''ō'''>. However, in the Greek script, they are replaced by the letters [[w:eta|eta]] <'''η'''> and [[w:omega|omega]] <'''ω'''> respectively.
====Aspiration====
Aspiration, when a vowel is preceded by /h/, is marked by a so-called [[w:rough breathing|dasia]] in the Greek script, <'''<big>῾</big>'''>. In the Latin manner of style though, the letter <'''h'''> precedes the vowel, as it does phonetically.
In the Greek script, the dasia can be combined with the acute and grave accent, producing <'''<big>῞</big>'''> and <'''<big>῝</big>'''>.
The dasia can also be placed on the Greek ''ro'' sign, <'''ρ'''>. The pronunciation of <'''ῤ'''> becomes /r̥ʰ/, an aspirated voiceless alveolo-dental trill.
==Morphology and grammar==
===Verbal===
====Conjugation====
:''Main article: [[Ris/Morphology#Conjugation|Ris conjugation]]''
The Ris verbs agree with 4 moods, 6 aspects and 2 voices. It is split into two paradigms; one for each voice.
=====First paradigm=====
The first paradigm is in the [[Ris#Active voice|active voice]]. The verbs are conjugated as follows. It is presented in the first person patientive singular, with a suffixed "-o".
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 750px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="5" scope="col"|''káter- '' - to write
|-
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|Indicative
! scope="col"|Subjunctive
! scope="col"|Jussive
! scope="col"|Imperative
|-
!Perfective
|''kátero''
|''katérro''
|''katerévo''
|''káterro''
|-
!Imperfective
|''káterto''<sup>1</sup>
|''katérratho''
|''kateréutho''<sup>2</sup>
|''katérratho''
|-
!Inceptive
|''hékatro''
|''hékatro''
|''hékatrevo''
|''hékatro''
|-
!Cessative
|''kateráskho''
|''katérraskho''
|''katerépso''
|''katérraskho''
|-
!Causative
|''katerazo''
|''katérrazo''
|''katerépso''
|''katérrazo''
|-
!Iterative
|''kékatro''
|''hékhatro''
|''kékatrevo''
|''hékhatro''
|}
#''káteratho'' is an alternative form.
#''katerépto'' is an alternative form.
===Pronouns===
====Declension====
=====Independent=====
Ris independent personal pronouns are not compulsory in the language. Ris is as such a [[w:pro-drop language|pro-drop language]]. The pronouns decline according to 3 persons, 3 [[Ris#Number|numbers]], and 7 [[Ris#Cases|cases]].
=====Enclitic=====
Ris enclitic personal pronouns are attached at the end of verbs, and indicate the subject and object of the verb. The object is only marked if it is not an [[w:apellative noun|apellative noun]].
The enclitic pronouns only decline according to the [[Ris#Core cases|core cases]], the patientive and agentive.
*If the subject is in full control of its actions, it is marked with the [[Ris#Agentive|agentive]]. If it is not, it gets the [[Ris#Patientive|patientive]].
*The object is always in the patientive.
The indicative enclitics are used when the verb is in the [[Ris#Indicative|indicative]] or [[Ris#Jussive|jussive]] moods, and the subjunctive when it is in the [[Ris#Subjunctive|subjunctive]] or [[Ris#Imperative|imperative]].
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 750px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="11" scope="col"|Ris pronominal enclitics
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" scope="col"|
! colspan="3" scope="col"|singular
! colspan="3" scope="col"|dual
! colspan="3" scope="col"|plural
|-
! scope="col"|1st
! scope="col"|2nd
! scope="col"|3rd
! scope="col"|1st
! scope="col"|2nd
! scope="col"|3rd
! scope="col"|1st
! scope="col"|2nd
! scope="col"|3rd
|-
! colspan="11"|Indicative (and jussive)
|-
! rowspan="2"|Subject
!Patientive
|''-o''
|''-i''
|''-a''
|''-on''
|''-in''
|''-an''
|''-ouna''
|''-ia''
|''-asi''
|-
!Agentive
|''-ōn''
|''-īn''
|''-en''
|''-ōne''
|''-īne''
|''-ene''
|''-ounen''
|''-ien''
|''-asīn''
|-
!Object
!Patientive
|''-mi''
|''-s''
|''-i''
|''-min''
|''-ns''
|''-in''
|''-mou''
|''-tsa''
|''-as''
|-
! colspan="11"|Subjunctive (and imperative)
|-
! rowspan="2"|Subject
!Patientive
|''-a''
|''-ei''
|''-ai''
|''-an''
|''-ēn''
|''-en''
|''-ouna''
|''-ia''
|''-asi''
|-
!Agentive
|''-en''
|''-ēn''
|''-ēn''
|''-ene''
|''-ēne''
|''-ēne''
|''-ounen''
|''-ien''
|''-asīn''
|-
!Object
!Patientive
|''-mi''
|''-s''
|''-i''
|''-min''
|''-ns''
|''-in''
|''-mou''
|''-tsa''
|''-as''
|}
===Nominal===
The nominal morphology is split into a number of classes.
====Declension====
:''Main article: [[Ris/Morphology#Nouns|Ris declension]]
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 375px; text-align: center;"
|+'''Declension of ''gýtē'''''
|-
! colspan="4"|Animate marked collective
|-
!{{sc|ma.an}}
! colspan="3"|''gýtē'' - fish
|-
!
! <small>singulative</small> !! <small>dual-collective</small> !! <small>plurative</small>
|-
! Patientive
|''gýtē'' ||''gytḗn'' ||''gytḗr''
|-
! Agentive
|''gytḗr'' ||''gytḗrne'' ||''gytḗra''
|-
! Dative
|''gytḗs'' ||''gytḗnse'' ||''gytḗi''
|-
! Instrumental
|''gytḗn'' ||''gytḗnne'' ||''gytḗs''
|-
! Genitive
|''gýtēa'' ||''gýtēan'' ||''gytēái''
|-
! Locative
|''gýtēia'' ||''gýtēian'' ||''gýtēiar''
|-
! Vocative
|''gýta'' ||''gýtan'' ||''gytár''
|-
|-
|}
|}


==Morphology==
:''Main article: [[Ris/Morphology|Ris morphology]]''


==Grammar==
====Number====
====Number====
Ris has three numbers, all of which are equally common in the language. The Ris numbers are different to those of English, instead using a so-called [[w:singulative number|collective-singulative]] distinction.
Ris has three numbers, all of which are equally common in the language. The Ris numbers are different to those of English, instead using a system similar to a [[w:singulative number|collective-singulative]] distinction.


The distinction infers that the basic form of a noun is the [[w:collective number|collective]], which is indifferent to the number and unmarked. However, in Ris, the collective form has an additional meaning, and can also signify [[w:dual number|dual]]s. It is thus the singulative that most often goes unmarked.
=====Singular number=====
The [[w:singular|singular]] ({{sc|sg}}) denotes one, single noun, and roughly corresponds to the English equivalent of [[w:singular|singular]]. A singularnoun is a single item, either of a collective noun or even a mass noun.
{{Gloss/indexable
|phrase = Athuo trema.
|IPA = /ˈatʰʉ̩ːɔ ˈtreːma/
|morphemes = athy-o tre-{{blue|ma}}
|gloss = to want-IND.PRFV.1.SG.M wheat.IV-{{blue|PAT}}.SG
|translation = I want a grain of wheat.
|index = 4.7
}}{{Gloss/indexable
|phrase = Mnio mna koupar.
|IPA = /ˈmnɪ̩ːɔ mna ˈkʊːpar/
|morphemes = mni-o mna koupar-{{blue|∅}}
|gloss = to see-IND.PRFV.1.SG.M one ram.I.{{blue|PAT}}.SG
|translation = I see a ram.
| index = 4.8
}}{{Gloss/indexable
|phrase = Imbrouas pagma?
|IPA = /ˈɪːmprwas ˈpaːkma/
| morphemes = im-rou-as pag-{{blue|ma}}
| gloss = to hold-SUBJ.PRFV-2.SG.M time.IV-{{blue|PAT}}.SG
| translation = Do you have a minute?
| index = 4.9
}}


=====Singulative=====  
=====Plural numbers=====
The [[w:singulative|singulative]] ({{sc|sg}}) denotes one, single noun, and roughly corresponds to the English equivalent of [[w:singular|singular]]. A singulative noun is a single item, either of a collective noun or even a mass noun.
======Indefinite plural======
The [[w:definiteness|indefinite]] [[w:plural|plural]] number ({{sc|indef.pl}}) is a special number to the Ris language. The indefinite plural primarily marks a collective number, whereas English uses the plural, or any indefinite amount in general.  


{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em; border:1px solid #CCC; background:#f5f5f5"
In addition, it also signify a pair of nouns, in certain contexts. The reason for this is historical; the old indefinite ending was similar in form to the dual ending, and eventually, the distinction between them disappeared.
|+
{{Gloss/indexable
<!-- Sentence -->
|phrase = Aroumena {{blue|gunte}} thuisto.
| colspan="4"|'''thýo trḗ{{blue|ma}}'''
|IPA = /aˈrʊːmɛna ˈɣʉːntə ˈtʰwiːstɔ/
 
| morphemes = aroumena {{blue|gunte}} thu-ist-o
!
| gloss = always fish.I-PAT.{{blue|INDEF.PL}} to_want-IND.IPFV-1.PAT.SG
 
| translation = I always want [two] fish(es).
| colspan="4"|'''mnío {{blue|klī́ta}} mna'''
| index= 4.10
 
}}{{Gloss/indexable
!
|phrase = {{blue|Aganti}} ous imistir {{blue|bhouna}}.
 
|IPA = /ˈaːkʼantɪ ʊs ɪˈmɪːstɪr ˈpʼʊːna/
| colspan="5"|'''íntrai páki{{blue|ma}} ḗs?'''
| morphemes = {{blue|aganti}} ous im-ist-ir bhou-{{blue|na}}
|-
| gloss = head.II/LOC.{{blue|INDEF.PL}} too  to_have-POT.IPFV-3.PAT.DC fat.II-PAT.{{blue|INDEF.PL}}
<!-- Pronunciation-->
| translation = You can have fat on your head as well.
| colspan="4"|/ˈtʰʉ̩ɔ ˈtreːma/
|index = 4.11
 
}}{{Gloss/indexable
!
|phrase = Kerak{{blue|ne}} noukist{{blue|ine}}
 
|IPA = /ˈke:raknə nʊˈkɪːstɪnə/
| colspan="4"|/ˈmnɪ̩ːɔ ˈklɪːta mna/
| morphemes = kerax-{{blue|ne}} nouk-ist-ine
 
| gloss = bird.II-INV.PAT.{{blue|INDEF.PL}} to_fly-IND.IPFV-3.INV.PAT.DC
!
| translation = Birds fly.
 
|index = 4.12
| colspan="5"|/ˈɪntraɪ̯ ˈpakɪma eːs/
}}
|-
======Definite plural======
<!-- Morphemes-->
The definite plural ({{sc|def.pl}}) marks when there are multiple nouns, but more than two. It does not have the collective sense that the English equivalent does, which means plurals automatically get an article due to context.
 
{{Gloss/indexable
|<small>thý</small>
|phrase = Ani ngou mou, mnio {{blue|bhalloi}} bhallistina .
|<small>-o</small>
|IPA = /aˈnɪː ˈŋgʊːˌmʊ ˈŋ͡mɪ̩ːɔ ˈpʰaːlːɔj ˈpʰaːlːɪstɪna/
|<small>trḗ</small>
| morphemes = ani ngou mou mni-o bhall-{{blue|oi}} bhall-ist-ina
|<small>{{blue|-ma}}</small>
| gloss = before eye.III/LOC.INDF.PL my/LOC.SG to_see-IND.IPFV-1.PAT.SG  ball.IV-PAT.{{blue|DEF.PL}} to_roll-IND.IPFV-3{{blue|DEF.PL}}.PAT
 
| translation = I see balls rolling before my eyes.
!
| index= 4.13
 
}}{{Gloss/indexable
|<small>mní</small>
|phrase =  Ai ourani {{blue|ouekitsoi}}.
|<small>-o</small>
|IPA = /aj ˈʊːranɪ ˈweːkiˌt͡sɔj/
|<small>{{blue|klī́ta}}</small>
| morphemes = ai ouran-i oekits-oi
|<small>mna</small>
| gloss = from<ref name="alpha"></ref> heaven.IV-GEN.SG tomato.IV-PAT.{{blue|DEF.PL}}
 
| translation = The tomatoes from heaven.
!
|index = 4.14
 
}}{{Gloss/indexable
|<small>ín-</small>
|phrase = Inaskho {{blue|tabellithoulianta}}.
|<small>-trai</small>
|IPA = /ˈɪːnaskʰɔ taˌpʼɛlːɪtʰʊˈlɪ̩ːanta/
|<small>paki-</small>
| morphemes = in-askh-o tabellithouli-{{blue|anta}}
|<small>{{blue|-ma}}</small>
| gloss = to_be-IND.CES-1SG.PAT marker_pen.IV-INST.{{blue|DEF.PL}}
|<small>ḗs</small>
| translation = I'm out of marker pens.<ref name="beta"></ref>
|-
|index = 4.15
<!-- Gloss-->
}}
|to want
<ref name="alpha">''ai'', ''au'' and ''ati'' are in fact demonstrative pronouns, but in many contexts, they get an adpositional meaning.</ref>
| -{{sc|ind.prfv.1.sg.m}}
<ref name="beta">Literally; ''I am no longer with marker pens.''</ref>
|wheat.{{sc|unm.inan}}
<references/>
| -{{sc|pat.{{blue|sg}}}}
!
 
|to see
| -{{sc|ind.prfv.1.sg.m}}
|wolf.{{sc|ma.an.pat.{{blue|sg}}}}
| one
 
!


|to be
====Gender and class====
| -{{sc|subj.prfv.1.sg.m}}
<!--''origou'' and ''amirou'' -->There are two [[w:Grammatical gender|gender]]s in the Ris language, the [[w:animacy|animate]] ({{sc|an}}) and inanimate ({{sc|inan}}). The animate gender includes only living animals and insects, as well as supernaturals like spirits and deities. The inanimate gender mainly denotes non-living objects, abstractions as well as flowers and microorganisms.
|time.{{sc|unm.inan}}
| -{{sc|pat.{{blue|sg}}}}
| you.{{sc|2.dat.sg.an.}}


|-
In addition to this, all Ris nouns are divided into classes. The classes are morphological and semantic, and nouns are grouped according to their gender as well as if it is inherently in the indefinite plural, or if it needs marking. There are as such four classes:
<!-- Translations -->


| colspan="4"| ''I want a grain of wheat.''
:'''I''' - ''animate, marked indefinite plural''
:'''II''' - ''animate, unmarked indefinite plural''
:'''III''' - ''inanimate, marked indefinite plural
:'''IV''' - ''inanimate, unmarked indefinite plural''


!
The class is the only thing indicated in Ris dictionaries, such as the [[User:Waahlis/Jivanity|Ourhagmatika]], where the lemma form is always written first:
 
{{Gloss/indexable
| colspan="4"|''I see a wolf.''
|phrase = thyrri, thyrrini
 
|IPA = /ˈtʰʉːr̥ʰːɪ ˈtʰʉːr̥ʰːɪnɪ/
!
|morphemes = thyrrhi-∅ thyrri-ni
 
|gloss = woman.I-SG woman.I-INDEF.PL
| colspan="5"|''Do you have a minute?''
|translation = a woman, women
|}
|index = 4.16
 
}}{{Gloss/indexable
=====Dual-collective=====
|phrase = oryx, orygma
The [[w:dual number|dual]]-[[w:collective number|collective]] number ({{sc|dc}}) is a special number to the Hrasic language. The dual-collective primarily marks the collective sense, whereas English uses the plural.  It does however also signify two nouns, a pair, in certain contexts.
|IPA = /ˈoːrʉgz ˈoːrʉgma/
 
|morphemes = oryx-∅ oryg-ma
=====Plurative=====
|gloss = whale.II-INDEF.PL whale.II-SG
The [[w:plurative|plurative]] ({{sc|pl}}) marks when there are multiple nouns, but more than two. It does not have the collective sense that the English equivalent does.
|translation = whales, a whale<ref name="gamma"></ref>
 
|index = 4.17
====Gender====
}}{{Gloss/indexable
There are two [[w:Grammatical gender|gender]]s in the Ris language, the [[w:animacy|animate]] ({{sc|an}}) and inanimate ({{sc|inan}}). The animate gender includes only living animals and insects, as well as supernaturals like spirits and deities. The inanimate gender mainly denotes non-living objects, abstractions as well as flowers and microorganisms.
|phrase = kanthra, kanthrani
 
|IPA = /ˈkaːntʰra ˈkaːntʰranɪ/
In the 2nd and 3rd person singular personal pronouns as well as verbs, the animate splits into a feminine ({{sc|f.an}}) and masculine ({{sc|m.an}}) animate gender. These mark only natural gender.
|morphemes = kanthra-∅ kanthra-ni
 
|gloss = heart.III-SG heart.III-INDEF.PL
====Case====
|translation = a heart, hearts
There are 7 [[w:grammatical case|grammatical case]]s in Ris. Most of these are rather common to the [[w:Indo-European languages|Indo-European languages]].
|index = 4.18
 
}}{{Gloss/indexable
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 600px; text-align: center;"
|phrase = issix, issigma
|+'''Ris cases'''
|IPA = /ˈɪːsːɪgz ˈɪːsːɪgma/
! colspan="6"|Cases and usage
|morphemes = issix-∅ issig-ma
|-
|gloss = hair.IV-INDEF.PL hair.IV-SG
! colspan="2"|Case
|translation = hair, strand of hair
! colspan="2"|Usage
|index = 4.19
! colspan="2"|Example
}}{{Gloss/indexable
|-
|phrase = ankis, ankisma
! colspan="2" rowspan="4"|Nominative
|IPA = /ˈaːŋkɪs ˈaːŋkɪsma/
| colspan="2"|The independent form of nouns; the lemma.
|morphemes = ankis-∅ ankis-ma
| colspan="2"|The '''dog'''
|gloss = elbow.IV-INDEF.PL elbow.IV-SG
|-
|translation = 2 elbows, an elbow<ref name="delta"></ref>
| colspan="2"|Subject of high-control intransitive verbs; without a patient.
|index = 4.20
| colspan="2"|The '''dog '''bites.
}}<ref name="gamma">Typical examples of class II are animals, although ''gytei'', "fish", is a notable example.
|-
</ref><ref name="delta">Since the indefinite plural has coalesced with the dual, some nouns may have an unmarked dual form. These nouns are typically body parts.</ref>
| colspan="2"|Subject of high-control intransitive verbs; without a patient.
<references/>
| colspan="2"|The '''man''' fell.
|-
| colspan="2"|Subject of a transitive verb; with a patient.
| colspan="2"|The '''dog '''bit the man.
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="5"|Accusative
| colspan="2"|Object or patient of a transitive verb.
| colspan="2"|The dog bit the '''man'''
|-
| colspan="2"|Indicates a duration of time.
| colspan="2"|I did it '''for many years'''
|-
| colspan="2"|In indirect statements.
| colspan="2"|He said '''I''' was '''ugly'''.
|-
| colspan="2"|To mark location.
| colspan="2"|I am '''at home'''.
|-
| colspan="2"|After certain prepositions.
| colspan="2"| Between '''one''' and '''ten'''; near '''you'''.
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="7"|Dative
| colspan="2"|Indirect object of a ditransitive verb.
| colspan="2"|He gave the '''man '''a pen
|-
| colspan="2"|Dativus finalis; dative of purpose.
| colspan="2"|I fight '''for the king'''! Call '''for help'''!
|-
| colspan="2"|Dativus commodi; dative of benefit or malefic.
| colspan="2"|Open the door '''for him'''; this one is not '''for children'''.
|-
| colspan="2"|Dativus lativus; dative of movement.
| colspan="2"|I'm going '''to Siberia'''; I come '''from home'''.
|-
| colspan="2"|Dativus modi; dative of manner and cause.
| colspan="2"|He died '''from a disease'''.
|-
| colspan="2"|Dativus possessivus; dative of possession.
| colspan="2"|There is a book '''to me'''; '''I''' have a book.
|-
| colspan="2"|After certain prepositions.
| colspan="2"|Get away '''from me'''.
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="3"|Instrumental
| colspan="2"|Instrumentalis instrumenti; the means of the action.
| colspan="2"|He writes with a '''pen'''.
|-
| colspan="2"|Instrumentalis auctoris; the performer of actions.
| colspan="2"|Opened by the '''mayor'''; caught '''by a net'''.
|-
| colspan="2"|Instrumentalis modi; the manner of means of an action.
| colspan="2"|Go by the '''short cut'''.
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="9"|Genitive
| colspan="2"|Symbolises ownership
| colspan="2"|The '''dog''''s bone
|-
| colspan="2"|Marks objects related to the subject in composition
| colspan="2"|The '''group '''member
|-
| colspan="2"|Symbolises lacking
| colspan="2"|Go without '''me'''
|-
| colspan="2"|Marks origin of nouns.
| colspan="2"|I moved from the '''house'''
|-
| colspan="2"|Marks origin of nouns
| colspan="2"|It is from '''France'''
|-
| colspan="2"|Marks concerned, associated nouns
| colspan="2"|On the '''Origin '''of '''Species'''.
|-
| colspan="2"|Marks concerned, discussed nouns.
| colspan="2"|Talking about '''films'''.
|-
| colspan="2"|Indicates cause
| colspan="2"|It's because of the '''snow'''.
|-
| colspan="2"|Marks abstract cause
| colspan="2"|Thanks to/despite '''him'''.
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2"|Semblative
| colspan="2"|For comparations, and semblatives.
| colspan="2"|It is '''like a fish'''.
|-
| colspan="2"|For comparative adverbials.
| colspan="2"|I dance '''like a god'''; I dance '''godly'''.
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="3"|Vocative
| colspan="2"|Direct address.
| colspan="2"|Hey, '''John'''!
|-
| colspan="2"|Disjoint address.
| colspan="2"|You are right, '''Mary'''.
|-
| colspan="2"|Exclamation.
| colspan="2"|Poor '''me'''! Wretched '''life'''!
|-
|}


====Core cases====
==Morphosyntax==
===Morphosyntactic alignment and core cases===
[[Image:Control-argument-qri.png|right|thumb|A table of the Ris control and volition distinction in the core arguments, illustrating the two-way distinction in the subject of intransitive clauses.|240px]]
[[Image:Control-argument-qri.png|right|thumb|A table of the Ris control and volition distinction in the core arguments, illustrating the two-way distinction in the subject of intransitive clauses.|240px]]
The Ris language is an active-stative language with fluid subjects, dependent upon semantic volition or control. This means that it marks the object of a transitive verb and the subject of a intransitive verb with the same '''patientive''' case, and marks the agent of the transitive verbs separately, with the '''agentive''' case.  
Ris possess an originally [[w:active-stative alignment|active-stative alignment]], which means that the two arguments of transitive verbs, the subject and object, are marked with the agentive case and patientive case respectively. The agent of an intransitive verb, however, can be marked with either. The agentive and patientive cases denote a different degree of control and [[w:volition (linguistics)|volition]] with the arguments.  Depending on the intransitive verb, different cases would be used.


In the fluid subtype however, the subject of an intransive verb may be marked like the agent of the transitive, if the subject has sufficient control over the action.
It later developed the so-called ''fluid-S'' subtype, which infers that any intransitive verb can use both the patientive and agentive cases, wich each grant a different degree of control of the verb.


=====Patientive=====
====Patientive case====
The '''patientive''', or '''undergoing''' case, ({{sc|pat}})  is the case used to indicate both the subject of an intransitive verb and the object of a transitive verb, in addition to being used for the citation form of nouns.  
The '''patientive''', or '''undergoing''' case, ({{sc|pat}})  is the case used to indicate both the subject of an intransitive verb and the object of a transitive verb, in addition to being used for the citation form of nouns.  


*As the patientive is the citation form of nouns, there is little consistency in the patientive endings. They differ due to class, gender and etymology.  
The patientive is used on low control agents, and [[w:patient (grammar)|experiencers]] of actions - neither of which have much influence on the verb. Colloquially, the patientive can be used on agents of transitive verbs to indicate a degree of innocence, lack of control of the event.{{Gloss/indexable
*The patientive is also marked on verbs, and agrees with both the subject and object. Although patientive pronouns exist, they are often dropped.  
|phrase = Ankour{{blue|o}}.
|IPA = /aŋˈkʊːrɔ/
|morphemes = ankour-∅-{{blue|o}}
|gloss = to trip-IND.PRFV-{{blue|PAT}}.1SG
|translation = I fell.|index = 5.21
}}{{Gloss/indexable
|phrase = Hyrrhorebma henta inist{{blue|a}}.
|IPA = /çʏˈr̥ʰːoːrɛpma ˈçeːnta ˈɪːnɪsta/
|morphemes = hyrrhorebma hent-∅-a in-ist-{{blue|a}}
|gloss = squirrel_soup.III-{{blue|PAT}}.SG be_okay-IND.PRFV-3.{{blue|PAT}}.SG exist-IND.IPFV-3.{{blue|PAT}}.SG
|translation = There is an okay squirrel soup.
|index = 5.22
}}{{Gloss/indexable
|phrase = Tagerras kerax!
|IPA = /taˈkʼeːrːas ˈkeːraks/
| morphemes = tager-r-as kerax-{{blue|∅}}
| gloss = hit-IMP.PRFV-AGT.2SG bird.I-{{blue|PAT}}.SG
| translation = Hit the bird!
|index = 5.23
}}{{Gloss/indexable
|phrase = Aner, ouinestra teskh{{blue|o}}...
|IPA = /ˈaneːr wɪˈneːstra ˈteːskʰɔ/
|morphemes = aner-{{blue|∅}} ouinestra-{{blue|∅}} teskh-∅-{{blue|o}}
|gloss = mother.I-{{blue|PAT}}.SG window.II-{{blue|PAT}}.SG smash-IND.PRFV-{{blue|PAT}}.1.SG
|translation = Mother, I happened to smash the window...
|index= 5.24
}}


====Agentive case====
The '''agentative''' ({{sc|agt}}) case is used to mark the subject, or agent, of transitive verbs. The agentive marks high control, volitional [[w:Agent (grammar)|agents]] of verbs.{{Gloss/indexable
|phrase = Kater{{red|os}} kterma.
|IPA = /ˈkaːtɛrɔs ˈktɛrma/
|morphemes = kater-∅-{{red|os}} kterma-{{blue|∅}}
|gloss = to_write-IND.PRFV-{{red|AGT}}.1SG letter.III-{{blue|PAT}}.SG
|translation = I am writing a letter.
|index=5.25
}}{{Gloss/indexable
|phrase = Kaukanthri{{red|as}} hai!
|IPA = /kawˈkantʰrijas xaj/
|morphemes = kau~ka<n>ter-i-{{red|as}} hai
|gloss =  <NEG>ITR~to_write-POT-{{red|AGT}}.1SG such
|translation = You can't go on writing like that!
|index=5.26
}}{{Gloss/indexable
|phrase = Katerr{{red|as}} sta ha{{red|os}}!
|IPA = /kaˈtɛrːas sta ˈxaɔ̩s/
|morphemes = kater-r-as sta ha-∅-os
|gloss =  to_write-SUBJ-{{red|AGT}}.1SG what to_wish-IND.PRFV-{{red|AGT}}
|translation = I'll write what I wish!
|index=5.26
}}{{Gloss/indexable
|phrase = Ankouros...!
|IPA = /ˈaːŋkʊros/
| morphemes = ankour-∅-{{red|os}}
| gloss = to_trip-IND.PRFV-{{red|AGT}}.1.SG
| translation = I purposely trip...!
|index=5.27
}}


{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em; border:1px solid #CCC; background:#f5f5f5"
====Unaccusatives, unergatives and the inversion of cases====
|+
[[Image:Alignment-qri.png|right|thumb|An illustration of the Ris alignment of verbal arguments, as a function of control, unergatives and unaccusatives.|350px]]
<!-- Sentence -->
Not all intransitive verbs are marked as described above. This only applies to Ris unaccusative verbs. The Ris unergative verbs inverse the marking, using the agentive as a default, low-control marking, and the patientive for high-control subjects.
| colspan="2"|'''ā́nkour{{blue|o}}'''


!
An unaccusative verb is a verb that has an experiencer as its subject, that is; the syntactic subject is not a semantic agent. When the subject is marked with the agentive, the agency, control and volition is increased, and it in effect becomes unergative. It gives a sense of intent, and trying.{{Gloss/indexable
|phrase = Ekras{{blue|a}} makhina.
|IPA = /ɛˈkraːsa ˈmaːkʰɪna/
|morphemes = ekras-∅-{{blue|a}} mākhina-{{blue|∅}}
|gloss = to_crash-IND.PRFV-{{blue|PAT}}.3SG car.III-{{blue|PAT}}.SG
|translation = The car crashed.
|index = 5.28
}}{{Gloss/indexable
|phrase = Aner tsanist{{blue|a}}.
|IPA = /aˈneːr ˈtsaːnɪsta/
|morphemes = aner-{{blue|∅}} psan-ist-{{blue|a}}
|gloss = mother.I-PAT.SG to_cry-IND.IPFV-{{blue|PAT}}.3SG
|translation = Mother cries.
|index = 5.29
}}{{Gloss/indexable
|phrase = Nta{{blue|os}}.
|IPA = /ˈntaːos/
|morphemes = nga-∅-{{red|os}}
|gloss = to_sleep-IND.PRFV-{{red|AGT}}.1.SG
|translation = I am trying to sleep.
|index = 5.30
}}
Unergatives are intransitive verbs and have a semantic agent as their subject. When the subject is marked with the agentive case, the verb almost unaccusative, lowering the volition, control and agency with the syntactic subject. In the gloss, unergatives have the letters {{sc|inv}}} before the casees. Thus, an unergative with a subject in the agentive conveys a feeling of involuntary actions, or trying.


| colspan="2"| '''{{blue|gráni}} ithá{{blue|nei}}'''
{{Gloss
|phrase = Khamista!
|IPA = /ˈkʰaːmɪsta/
|morphemes = kham-ist-{{blue|a}}
|gloss = to_come-IND.IPFV-{{blue|INV.PAT}}.3SG
|translation = It's coming!
}}


!
{{Gloss
|phrase = Antiou rhaistos...
|IPA = /ˈantjʊ r̥ʰaˈɔs/
|morphemes = anti-ou rha-ist-{{red|os}}
|gloss = night.IV-LOC.DC talk.ACT-IND.IPVF-{{red|INV.AGT}}.1.SG
|translation = I sleep-talk in the night.
}}


| colspan="2"|'''tagínte {{blue|kḗrax}}'''
{{Gloss
|-
|phrase = Ti rhās?
<!-- Pronunciation-->
|IPA = /tɪ ˈr̥ʰaːs/
| colspan="2"|  /ˈaːŋkʊrɔ/
|morphemes = ti rha-∅-{{red|as}}
|gloss = what.PAT.SG talk.ACT-IND.PRFV-{{red|INV.AGT}}.2.SG
|translation = What are you trying to say?
}}


!
{{Gloss
 
|phrase = Kinizas, kinizas!
| colspan="2"|/ˈgranɪ ɪˈtʰanɛɪ̯/
|IPA = /kɪnɪˈd͡zas kɪnɪˈd͡zas/
 
|morphemes = kiniz-∅-{{red|as}}
!
|gloss = drive.ACT-IND.PRFV-{{red|INV.AGT}}.2.SG
 
|translation = You're driving, you're driving! (''How is it possible?'')
| colspan="2"|/taŋˈgɪntɛ ˈkeːraks/
}}
|-
<!-- Morphemes-->
|<small>ánkour</small>
|<small>{{blue|-o}}</small>
 
!
 
|<small>{{blue|gráni}}</small>
|<small>ithá{{blue|nei}}</small>
 
!
 
|<small>tagínte</small>
|<small>{{blue|kḗrax}}</small>
 
|-
<!-- Gloss-->
|trip.{{sc|act.ind.perf}}
| -{{sc|{{blue|pat}}.1.sg}}
 
!
 
|pig.{{sc|unm.an.{{blue|pat}}.dc}}
|exist.{{sc|act.ind.ipfv}}
 
!
 
|hit.{{sc|act.imp.perf}}
|bird.{{sc|ma.an.{{blue|pat}}.sg}}
 
|-
<!-- Translations -->
| colspan="2"| ''I tripped''
 
!
 
| colspan="2"| ''Pigs exist.''
 
!
 
| colspan="2"|''Hit the bird''
|}
 
=====Agentative=====
The '''agentative''' ({{sc|agt}}) case is used to mark the subject, or agent, of transitive verbs. However, intertwined with the Ris language's distinction on control and volition, there is a distinction on intransitives, marking high control intransitives with the agentative argument.
 
*On verbs, the agentive uses the suffix <''-in''> to agree with a high-control subject, or an agentive noun. It is used if the agentive pronoun is omitted. However, this is not completely true; please see the section on [[Ris#Inverse marking|inverse marking]].
 
 
{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em; border:1px solid #CCC; background:#f5f5f5"
|+
<!-- Sentence -->
| colspan="4"|'''({{red|éu}}) kátero ktérma'''
 
!
 
| colspan="3"| '''{{red|tṓu}} téthour{{red|i}}'''
 
!
 
| colspan="2"|'''ānkour{{red|ṓn}}'''
|-
<!-- Pronunciation-->
| colspan="4"| /ˈɛu̩ ˈkatɛrɔ ˈktɛrma/
 
!
 
| colspan="3"|/ˈtʊː ˈtɛtʰʊrɪ/
 
!
 
| colspan="2"|/aːŋkʊˈroːn/
|-
<!-- Morphemes-->
|<small>{{red|éu}}</small>
|<small>káter</small>
|<small>-o</small>
|<small>ktérma</small>
 
!
 
|<small>{{red|tṓu}}</small>
|<small>téthour</small>
|<small>{{red|i}}</small>
 
!
 
|<small>ā́nkouro-</small>
|<small>{{red|-in}}</small>
 
|-
<!-- Gloss-->
|I.{{sc|1.{{red|agt}}.sg}}
|write.{{sc|act.ind.perf}}
| -{{sc|pat.1.sg}}
|letter.{{sc|ma.inan.pat.sg}}
 
 
!
 
|you.{{sc|2.{{red|agt}}.sg}}
|run.{{sc|act.ind.itr}}
| -{{sc|{{red|agt}}.1.sg}}
 
!
 
|trip.{{sc|act.ind.perf}}
| -{{sc|{{red|agt}}.1.sg}}
 
|-
<!-- Translations -->
| colspan="4"| ''I am writing a letter.''
 
!
 
| colspan="3"| ''You are running around.''
 
!
 
| colspan="2"|''I trip on purpose''
|}
 
 
 
=====Agentive versus patientive=====
Confer the difference between the [[w:English language|English]] intransitives "He tripped" and "He talked". In Ris, the former argument would be marked with the patientative case, since he is undergoing the verb, and the latter would be marked with the agentative, since he is in full control of his actions and the agent of the verb.
 
Being a fluid-S language, however, the simple "He tripped", might be marked with the agentative, should he intentionally have done so. Most often, this conveys a slight semantic shift, and "He tripped" might be interpreted as "He's faking a fall". Some verbs are are inherently high control, for example, the dynamic action "to cook" can hardly be performed unintentionally, likewise is the word for "to talk" somewhat difficult to perform involuntarily, except for sleep-talking.
 
*The semantic shift is illustrated below with the word ''ánthēro'', "to meet", which may be interpreted differently, depending on whether marked with the patientive or agentive pronoun, and wether it has a patientive or agentive suffix.
 
 
{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em; border:1px solid #CCC; background:#f5f5f5"
|+
<!-- Sentence -->
| colspan="4"|'''({{red|éu}}) ánthēr{{blue|o}}{{blue|i}}'''
 
!
 
| colspan="4"|'''({{blue|ei}}) ánthēr{{blue|o}}{{blue|i}}'''
 
!
 
| colspan="4"|'''({{red|éu}}) anthēr{{red|ṓn}}{{blue|i}}'''
|-
<!-- Pronunciation-->
| colspan="4"| /ˈɛʊ̩ ˈantʰɛrɔɪ̯/
 
!
 
| colspan="4"|/ˈɛɪ̯ ˈantʰɛrɔɪ̯/
 
!
 
| colspan="4"|/ˈɛʊ̩ antʰɛˈroːnɪ/
|-
<!-- Morphemes-->
|<small>{{red|éu}}</small>
|<small>ánthēr</small>
|<small>{{blue|-o}}</small>
|<small>{{blue|-i}}</small>
 
!
 
|<small>{{blue|ei}}</small>
|<small>ánthēr</small>
|<small>{{blue|-o}}</small>
|<small>{{blue|-i}}</small>
 
!
 
|<small>{{red|éu}}</small>
|<small>ánthēr</small>
|<small>{{red|-ṓn}}</small>
|<small>{{blue|-i}}</small>
 
|-
<!-- Gloss-->
|I.{{sc|1.{{red|agt}}.sg}}
|meet.{{sc|act.ind.perf}}
| -{{sc|{{blue|pat}}.1.sg}}
| -{{sc|3.{{blue|pat}}.sg}}
 
!
 
|I.{{sc|1.{{blue|pat}}.sg}}
|meet.{{sc|act.ind.perf}}
| -{{sc|{{blue|pat}}.1.sg}}
| -{{sc|3.{{blue|pat}}.sg}}
 
!
 
|I.{{sc|1.{{red|agt}}.sg}}
|meet.{{sc|act.ind.perf}}
| -{{sc|{{red|agt}}.1.sg}}
| -{{sc|3.{{blue|pat}}.sg}}
 
|-
<!-- Translations -->
| colspan="4"| ''I met him/I met up with him.''
 
!
 
| colspan="4"| ''I bumped into him.''
 
!
 
| colspan="4"|''I met up with him.''
|}
 
=====Polar marking=====
 
Both the agentive and the patientive can be the subject or agent of a verb. The choice between the two depend on the degree of control with the subject. High-control subjects get the agentive, low-control subjects get the patientive.
 
The Ris verbs conjugate according to both the patientive, as well as the agentive.
 
{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em;"
|+
<!-- Sentence -->
| colspan="2"| '''ā́nkouro'''
 
!
 
| colspan="2"|'''ānkourṓn'''
 
!
 
| colspan="2"|'''rháo'''
 
!
 
| colspan="2"|'''rhaṓn'''
|-
<!-- Pronunciation-->
| colspan="2"|  /ˈaːŋkʊrɔ/
 
!
 
| colspan="2"|/aŋkʊˈroːn/
 
!
 
| colspan="2"|/ˈr̥ʰaɔ̩/
 
!
 
| colspan="2"|/r̥ʰaˈoːn/
|-
<!-- Morphemes-->
|<small>ā́nkour</small>
|<small>{{blue|-o}}</small>
 
!
 
|<small>ānkour</small>
|<small>{{red|-ṓn}}</small>
 
!
 
|<small>rhá</small>
|<small>-{{red|o}}</small>
 
!
 
|<small>rha</small>
|<small>{{blue|-ṓn}}</small>
|-
<!-- Gloss-->
|breath/{{sc|ind.dyn.m.sg}}
| -{{sc|{{blue|pat}}.2.sg}}
 
!
 
|you/{{sc|.2.m.sg}}
| -{{sc|m.{{red|agt}}}}
|breathe/{{sc|ind.dyn.m.sg}}
 
!
 
|breathe/{{sc|dir.pos.m.sg}}
| -{{sc|{{blue|pat}}.2.sg}}
 
!
 
|you/{{sc|.2.m.sg}}
| -{{sc|m.{{red|agt}}}}
|breathe/{{sc|dir.pos.m.sg}}
|-
<!-- Translations -->
| colspan="2"|''You are breathing.'' <br/><small>(involuntarily, subconciously)</small>
 
!
 
| colspan="3"|''You are breathing.''<br/><small>(intentionally, "breathing heavily")</small>
 
!
 
| colspan="2"|''Breathe!'' <br/><small>(as in "to start breathing")</small>
 
!
 
| colspan="3"|''Breathe!''<br/><small>(as in "calm down")</small>
|}
 
When high-control intransitives are marked with the agentive case - as in the case "''to cook''" - the direct object may be left unmentioned, granted that the gnomic aspect is used. This implies the cooking of something, instead of directly mentioning it. If there is doubt whether an action is performed intentionally or involuntarily, the agentive is generally used.
 
{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em;"
|+
<!-- Sentence -->
| colspan="2"|'''{{red|minim}} azmim'''
 
!
 
| colspan="5"|'''{{red|minim}} ta mithr{{blue|a}} izmim'''
 
!
 
| colspan="4"| '''ta ram{{red|va}} aramia'''
|-
<!-- Pronunciation-->
| colspan="2"| /ˈŋiniŋ azˈŋiŋ/
 
!
 
| colspan="5"|/ˈŋiniŋ ta ˈŋiθr̥a izˈŋiŋ/
 
!
 
| colspan="4"|/ta ˈraŋ͡ma ˈr̥iŋej/
|-
<!-- Morphemes-->
|<small>{{red|minim}}</small>
|<small>azmim</small>
 
!
 
|<small>{{red|minim}}</small>
|<small>va</small>
|<small>mithr</small>
|<small>-{{blue|a}}</small>
|<small>izmim</small>
 
!
 
|<small>va</small>
|<small>ram</small>
|<small>{{red|-va}}</small>
|<small>rimey</small>
|-
<!-- Gloss-->
| you/{{sc|{{red|agt}}.1.c.pl}}
|cook/{{sc|ind.neu.c.pl}}
 
!
 
| you/{{sc|{{red|agt}}.1.c.pl}}
|the{{sc|.def.n}}
|squirrel/{{sc|n.sg}}
| -{{sc|n.{{blue|pat}}}}
|cook/{{sc|ind.dyn.c.pl}}
 
!
 
|the{{sc|.def.n}}
|bird/{{sc|n.sg.}}
| -{{sc|m.{{red|agt}}}}
|fly/{{sc|ind.stat.n.sg}}
|-
<!-- Translations -->
| colspan="2"|''You cook (something)''
 
!
 
| colspan="5"|''You are cooking a squirrel''
 
!
 
| colspan="4"|''The bird flies''
|}


===Case===
There are 7 [[w:grammatical case|grammatical case]]s in Ris. Most of these are rather common to the [[w:Indo-European languages|Indo-European languages]].
====Instrumental====
====Instrumental====
=====Instrumental proper=====
=====Instrumental proper=====
The '''instrumental''' ({{sc|ins}}) case serves a number of purposes in the Ris language. Primarily, it is used to indicate that a noun is the instrument or means by or with which an action is conducted.  
The '''instrumental''' ({{sc|ins}}) case serves a number of purposes in the Ris language. Primarily, it is used to indicate that a noun is the instrument or means by or with which an action is conducted.  


{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em;"
{{Gloss
|+
|phrase = Thērouna nasērrhan.
<!-- Sentence -->
|IPA = /tʰeːˈrʊna naˈseːr̥ʰːan/
| colspan="8"| '''gva va gramma genn{{blue|an}} gira'''
|morphemes = thēr-∅-{{red|ouna}} nasēr-rhan
|-
|gloss = go.ACT-IND.PRFV-AGT.1.SG boat.III-INS.SG
<!-- Pronunciation-->
|translation = We go by boat.
| colspan="8"| /ɡwa wa ˈkr̥aŋ͡mø ˈk͡pœœnːan ˈɡira/
}}
|-
<!-- Morphemes-->
|<small>g</small>
|<small>-va</small>
|<small>va</small>
|<small>gramm-</small>
|<small>-a</small>
|<small>kvenn</small>
|<small>{{blue|-an}}</small>
|<small>gira</small>
|-
<!-- Gloss-->
|I{{sc|.1.sg.m}}
| -{{sc|m.agt}}
|the.{{sc|def.n}}
| letter.{{sc|n.sg}}
| -{{sc|pat.n.sg}}
|pen.{{sc|m.sg}}
| -{{sc|m.{{blue|ins}}}}
|write/{{sc|ind.dyn.m.sg}}
|-
<!-- Translations -->
| colspan="8"| ''I write the letter with a pen''
|}


{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em;"
{{Gloss
|+
|phrase = Napsantan as...
<!-- Sentence -->
|IPA = /naˈpsantan as/
| colspan="4"|'''atva {{blue|u}}tagav{{blue|un}} aggim'''
|morphemes = napsa-ntas-n as
|gloss = learn.ACT-PCP-INS.SG this.PROX.3.SG
|translation = By learning this...
}}


!
{{Gloss
|phrase = Ankis mia skhasto igan mia.
|IPA = /ˈancɪs mʊ ˈsxastɔ ˈɪkʼan mʊ/
|morphemes = ankis-∅ mou skha-ist-o i
|gloss = elbow.III-PAT.DC my.GEN.1.SG scratch.ACT-IND.IPFV-INV.PAT.1.SG nail.II-INS.DC my.GEN.1.SG
|translation = I scratch my shoulders with my nails.
}}


| colspan="4"|'''inaratr{{blue|in}} nurimni'''
=====Inanimate subjective instrumental=====
|-
Marking the inanimate noun with the agentive is incorrect. This is a distinction quite well known in natural languages, and even the [[w:Proto-Indo-European|Proto-Indo-European]] language is supposed to have made the distinction.
<!-- Pronunciation-->
| colspan="4"|/atˈwa utˈaɡøwun aɡˈɡiŋ/


!
| colspan="4"|/inˈaratr̥in ˈnuriŋ͡mi/
|-
<!-- Morphemes-->
|<small>at</small>
|<small>-va</small>
|<small>⟨{{blue|u}}⟩tagav⟨{{blue|un}}⟩</small>
|<small>aggim</small>
!
|<small>inaratra</small>
|<small>{{blue|-in}}</small>
|<small>nurimn</small>
|<small>-mni</small>
|-
<!-- Gloss-->
|we/{{sc|1.c.pl}}
| {{sc|m.agt}}
|⟨{{sc|n.{{blue|ins}}}}⟩boat/{{sc|n.col}}⟨{{sc|n.{{blue|ins}}}}⟩
| go/{{sc|ind.gn.c.pl}}
!
|happiness/{{sc|f.sg}}
| -{{sc|f.{{blue|ins}}.sg}}
|gladden/{{sc|med.dir.c.pl}}
| -{{sc|2.pat.f.pl}}
|-
<!-- Translations -->
| colspan="4"| ''We go by boat''
!
| colspan="4"|''Let happiness make you glad!'' - Attian saying.
|}
=====Inanimate subjective instrumental=====
On subject of control in the Ris verbs, inanimate agents of transitive verbs: subjects such as "the knife" in the sentence ''"The knife slices the bread"'' could impossibly be marked with the agentive case, since the subject has no control of its actions. Nor is it experiencing the slicing, and can as such not be marked with the patientive. Instead a construction with the mediopassive and instrumental used.
On subject of control in the Ris verbs, inanimate agents of transitive verbs: subjects such as "the knife" in the sentence ''"The knife slices the bread"'' could impossibly be marked with the agentive case, since the subject has no control of its actions. Nor is it experiencing the slicing, and can as such not be marked with the patientive. Instead a construction with the mediopassive and instrumental used.


Of course if desired, the agent can be reintroduced, which means a switch from passive to active.  
Of course if desired, the agent can be reintroduced, which means a switch from passive to active.  
{{Gloss
|phrase = {{red|Lemner}} me tagī.
|IPA = /ʎɛmˈnɛr mɛ taˈkʼɪː/
|morphemes = lemn-{{red|er}} me tagi-∅-i
|gloss = stone.II-{{red|AGT}}.SG me.1.PAT.SG hit.ACT-IND.PRFV-3.AGT.SG
|translation = *A stone hit me.
}}


{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em;"
{{Gloss
|+
|phrase = Entagio {{blue|lemnanta}}.
<!-- Sentence -->
|IPA = /ˈɛntakʼjɔ ʎɛmˈnanta/
| colspan="8"|'''gva rega {{blue|a}}magv{{blue|an}} gava'''
|morphemes = en-tagi-∅-o lemn-{{blue|anta}}
|gloss = MED.hit.IND-PRFV-1.SG.PAT stone.III-{{blue|INS}}.PL
|translation = I am hit with stones.
}}


!
{{Gloss
|phrase = Tagias me {{blue|lemnanta}}.
|IPA = /ˈtakʼjas mɛ ʎɛmˈnanta/
|morphemes = tagi-∅-as me lemn-{{blue|anta}}
|gloss =  hit.ACT.IND-PRFV-2.SG.AGT me.1.PAT.SG stone.II-{{blue|INS}}.PL
|translation = You hit me with stones.
}}


| colspan="3"| '''{{blue|u}}van{{blue|un}} tutann'''
{{Gloss
|-
|phrase = Kinis {{red|lanērrha}} pāni.
<!-- Pronunciation-->
|IPA = /cɪˈnɪ ʎaˈnɛr̥ʰːa paːˈnɪ/
| colspan="8"|/ˈɡwa ˈr̥ɛɡa aŋˈaɡwan ˈɡøwa/
|morphemes = kin-∅-is lanēr-{{red|rha}} pāni-∅
|gloss = cut.ACT-IND.PRFV-3.INV.AGT.SG knife.III-{{red|AGT}}.SG bread.III-PAT.SG
|translation = *A knife cuts the bread.
}}


!
{{Gloss
 
|phrase = Inkini {{blue|lanērrhan}} pāni.
| colspan="3"|/uˈwana ˈtutanː/
|IPA = /cɪˈnɪ ʎaˈnɛr̥ʰːan paːˈnɪ/
|-
|morphemes = kin-∅-is lanēr-{{blue|rhan}} pāni-∅
<!-- Morphemes-->
|gloss = MED.cut-IND.PRFV-3.INV.PAT.SG knife.III-{{blue|INS}}.SG bread.III-PAT.SG
|<small>g</small>
|translation = The bread was cut with a knife.
|<small>-va</small>
}}
|<small>ury</small>
|<small>-a</small>
|<small>{{blue|a}}-</small>
|<small>magv</small>
|<small>-{{blue|an}}</small>
|<small>gava</small>
 
!
 
|<small>⟨{{blue|u}}⟩vaun⟨{{blue|un}}⟩</small>
|<small>tuta</small>
|<small>-nn</small>
|-
<!-- Gloss-->
|I{{sc|.1.sg.m}}
| -{{sc|m.agt}}
|bread/{{sc|col.n.}}
| -{{sc|n.pat}}
| {{sc|m.{{blue|ins}}}}-
|knife/{{sc|col.m.}}
| -{{sc|m.{{blue|ins}}}}
| cut/{{sc|ind.neu.m.sg}}
 
!
 
|⟨{{sc|n.{{blue|ins}}}}⟩stone/{{sc|n.col}}⟨{{sc|n.{{blue|ins}}}}⟩
|hit/{{sc|med.dyn-stat.m.sg}}
| -{{sc|-pat.1.sg}}
|-
<!-- Translations -->
 
| colspan="7"| ''I cut bread with knifes''
 
!
 
| colspan="3"|''I am hit with stones''
|}
 
Marking the inanimate noun with the agentive is incorrect. This is a distinction quite well known in natural languages, and even the [[w:Proto-Indo-European|Proto-Indo-European]] language is supposed to have made the distinction.
 
{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em;"
|+
<!-- Sentence -->
| colspan="4"|'''''{{red|vanev}}'' ittimann'''
 
!
 
| colspan="4"|'''vanun tutinn'''
 
!
 
| colspan="5"|'''yatva vanum titann'''
|-
<!-- Pronunciation-->
| colspan="4"|/ˈwanɛw itˈtiŋanː/
 
!
 
| colspan="4"|/ˈwanun ˈtutinː/
 
!
 
| colspan="5"|/ˈjatwa ˈwanuŋ ˈtitanː/
|-
<!-- Morphemes-->
|<small>vana</small>
|<small>-ev</small>
|<small>ittim</small>
|<small>-ann</small>
 
!
 
|<small>vana</small>
|<small>-un</small>
|<small>tuti</small>
|<small>-nn</small>
 
!
 
|<small>yat</small>
|<small>-va</small>
|<small>vana</small>
|<small>-um</small>
|<small>tita</small>
|<small>-nn</small>
|-
<!-- Gloss-->
|stone/{{sc|n.pl.}}
| -{{sc|n.pl.agt}}
|hit/{{sc|ind.dyn.n.pl}}
| -{{sc|-m.pat.1.sg}}
 
!
 
|stone/{{sc|n.pl}}
| -{{sc|n.pl.ins}}
|hit/{{sc|med.dyn-stat.m.sg}}
| -{{sc|-m.pat.1.sg}}
 
!
 
|someone/{{sc|m.sg}}
| -{{sc|m.agt}}
|stone/{{sc|n.pl}}
| -{{sc|n.pl.ins}}
|hit/{{sc|ind.dyn.m.sg}}
| -{{sc|-m.pat.1.sg}}
|-
<!-- Translations -->
 
| colspan="4"|''*Stones hit me''
 
!
 
| colspan="4"|''I am hit with stones''
 
!
 
| colspan="5"|''Some guy hits me with stones''
|}


=====Comitative instrumental=====
=====Comitative instrumental=====
The Ris instrumental also bears comitative and quantitative senses, indicating actions in company with other subjects, amounts, as well as lacking:
The Ris instrumental also bears comitative and quantitative senses. It indicates actions in company with other subjects, amounts, as well as lacking things:


{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em;"
{{Gloss
|+
|phrase = Indroua {{blue|mena}}?
<!-- Sentence -->
|IPA = /ˈɪndrwa mɛˈna/
| colspan="5"|'''amnayya g{{blue|an}}?'''
|morphemes = in-r-oua me-{{blue|na}}
|gloss = be.ACT-SUBJ.PRFV-2.PAT.SG me.1-{{blue|INS}}.SG
|translation = Are you with me?
}}


!
{{Gloss
 
|phrase = As arrhos {{blue|ena}}.
| colspan="6"|'''gva amn{{blue|an}} imgimna'''
|IPA = /as ˈar̥ʰːɔs ɛˈna/
 
|morphemes = as-∅ arrh-∅-os e-{{blue|na}}
!
|gloss = it.3.PROX-PAT.SG make.ACT-IND.PRFV-1.AGT.SG s/he.1-{{blue|INS}}.SG
 
|translation = I'm making it with him/her.
| colspan="6"|'''gvayya yarm{{blue|un}}an'''
}}
|-
{{Gloss
<!-- Pronunciation-->
|phrase = Ne nenisto na {{blue|issigan}} nai.
| colspan="5"|/aˈŋ͡majːa ɡøn/
|IPA = /nɛ nɛˈnɪstɔ na ˈɪsːɪgan naj/
 
|morphemes = ⟨ne⟩ nen-ist-o ⟨na⟩ issig-{{blue|an}} nai
!
|gloss = ⟨VB.NEG⟩ not_be.ACT-IND.IPFV-1.PAT.SG ⟨VB.NEG⟩ hair.IV-{{blue|INS}}.DC NOM.NG
 
|translation = I have no hair / I am not with no hair.
| colspan="6"|/ɡwa aˈŋ͡man iŋˈɡiŋ͡ma/
}}
 
!
 
| colspan="6"|/ˈɡwajːa ˈjar̥ŋunan/
|-
<!-- Morphemes-->
 
|<small>amn</small>
|<small>-a</small>
|<small>-yya</small>
|<small>g</small>
|<small>{{blue|-an}}</small>
 
!
 
|<small>g</small>
|<small>-va</small>
|<small>amn</small>
|<small>-{{blue|an}}</small>
|<small>imgim</small>
|<small>-na</small>
 
!
 
|<small>g</small>
|<small>-va</small>
|<small>-yya</small>
|<small>yarm</small>
|<small>-{{blue|un}}</small>
|<small>-an</small>
|-
<!-- Gloss-->
|you/{{sc|2.sg.c}}
| -{{sc|c.pat.sg}}
| -{{sc|cop.act.ind.stat}}
| I/{{sc|1.sg.m}}
| -{{sc|m.{{blue|ins}}}}
 
!
 
| I/{{sc|1.sg.m}}
| -{{sc|m.agt.sg}}
|you/{{sc|2.sg.c}}
| -{{sc|m.{{blue|ins}}}}
|make/{{sc|act.ind.dyn.c.pl}}
| -{{sc|-pat.3.n.sg}}
 
!
 
| I/{{sc|1.sg.m}}
| -{{sc|m.agt.sg}}
| -{{sc|cop.act.ind.stat}}
|hair/{{sc|n.sg}}
| -{{sc|n.{{blue|ins}}}}
| -{{sc|n.neg}}
|-
<!-- Translations -->
 
| colspan="5"| ''Are you with me?''
 
!
 
| colspan="6"|''I make it with you.''
 
!
 
| colspan="6"|''I am with no hair.'' or ''I have no hair.''
|}


=====Animate subjective instrumental=====
=====Animate subjective instrumental=====
The last use of the instrumental, similarly to [[w:Russian language|Russian]] and in part to [[w:English language|English]] is to reintroduce a subject in a passive clause, very similarly to the adpositional phrase "by me" in English, as in ''"He was killed"'', and later; ''"He was killed by me"''. Using the instrumental with a reflexive mediopassive gives a reinforced statement, confer the Spanish disjunct prepositional pronouns:
The last use of the instrumental, similarly to [[w:Russian language|Russian]] and in part to [[w:English language|English]] is to reintroduce a subject in a passive clause. The usage is very similar to the adpositional phrase "by me" in English, as in ''"He was killed"'', and later; ''"He was killed by me"''.  
*''Me lavo'' - «I wash myself»
*''A mí me lavo'' - «As for myself, I wash myself»


{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em;"
Please note, that this formation, although grammatically correct, is considered quite rude by most speakers. The subjective instrumental is reserved for inanimates for most speakers, and an active verb is used for animate subjects.
|+
<!-- Sentence -->
| colspan="5"|'''gva muni min{{blue|an}}?'''


!
{{Gloss
|phrase = Enmnīnta {{blue|ouena}}
|IPA = /ɛnˈmnɪnta wɛˈna/
|morphemes = en-mnīo-nta oue-{{blue|na}}
|gloss = MED-to_see-PCP 1.EXC-{{blue|INS}}.DC
|translation = Seen by the two of us.
}}


| colspan="3"|'''mumnayyiz g{{blue|an}}'''
{{Gloss
 
|phrase = Atai eniniskhanta {{blue|ērrhasterrhan}}
!
|IPA = /ˈataj ɛnɪnɪsˈxanta eːˈr̥ʰːastɛr̥ʰːan/
 
|morphemes = atai en-ino-iskha-nta ērrho-aster-{{blue|rhan}}
| colspan="4"| '''ethunann g{{blue|an}}'''
|gloss = they.3.PAT.PL MED-to_be-CAU.CES-PCP to_love-AG-{{blue|INS}}.SG
|-
|translation = They were killed by the lover.
<!-- Pronunciation-->
}}
| colspan="5"|/ɡwa ˈŋ͡muni ˈŋinan/
{{Gloss
 
|phrase = Ērrhastera atai iniskhis
!
|IPA = /eːˈr̥ʰːastɛra ˈataj ɪnɪsˈxɪs /
 
|morphemes = ino-iskha-∅-is atai ērrho-aster-a
| colspan="3"|/ˈmuŋ͡majːiz ˈɡøn/
|gloss =  to_love-AG-AGT.SG they.3.PAT.PL to_be.ACT-IND.PRFV-1.AGT.SG
 
|translation = The lover killed them.
!
}}
 
| colspan="4"|/ˈθunanː ɡøn/
|-
<!-- Morphemes-->
 
|<small>g</small>
|<small>-va</small>
|<small>muni</small>
|<small>min</small>
|<small>{{blue|-an}}</small>
 
!
 
|<small>mumnayyiz</small>
|<small>g</small>
|<small>{{blue|-an}}</small>
 
!
 
|<small>thuna</small>
|<small>-nn</small>
|<small>g</small>
|<small>{{blue|-an}}</small>
|-
<!-- Gloss-->
| I/{{sc|1.sg.m}}
| -{{sc|m.agt.sg}}
|see/{{sc|med.ind.dyn.c.sg}}
|you/{{sc|2.pl.c}}
| -{{sc|m.{{blue|ins}}}}
 
!
 
|discover/{{sc|medpcp}}
| I/{{sc|1.sg.m}}
| -{{sc|m.{{blue|ins}}}}
 
!
 
|talk/{{sc|med.ind.dyn.c.sg}}
| -{{sc|-m.pat.1.sg}}
| I/{{sc|1.sg.m}}
| -{{sc|m.{{blue|ins}}}}
|-
<!-- Translations -->
 
| colspan="5"| ''I'm seen by you''
 
!
.
| colspan="3"|''Discovered by me''
 
!
 
| colspan="4"|''Me, I speak of myself.''
|}


====Locative====
====Locative====
Line 2,298: Line 1,006:
|}
|}


====Classes====
==Possession==
There are a multitude of declensional classes in the Hrasic languages, below are the four most common ones. These decline with either a marked dual-collective or a marked singulative number.
Possession is a complicated subject in Ris grammar. There are about seven different constructions to indicate ownership, depending on context. The primary parameters is the alienability of the possessed, but also the animacy of the possessor.
 
===Predicative possession===
 
====Copula and dative====
==Morphology==
====Copula and locative====
===Nominal===
====Copula and instrumental====
====Declension====
====Transitive construction====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 375px; text-align: center;"
===Adnominal possession===
|+'''Declension of ''gýtē'''''
====Genitive construction====
|-
====Locative construction====
! colspan="4"|Animate marked collective
====Dative construction====
|-
!{{sc|ma.an}}
! colspan="3"|''gýtē'' - fish
|-
!
! <small>singulative</small> !! <small>dual-collective</small> !! <small>plurative</small>
|-
! Patientive
|''gýtē'' ||''gytḗn'' ||''gytḗr''
|-
! Agentive
|''gytḗr'' ||''gytḗrne'' ||''gytḗra''
|-
! Dative
|''gytḗs'' ||''gytḗnse'' ||''gytḗi''
|-
! Instrumental
|''gytḗn'' ||''gytḗnne'' ||''gytḗs''
|-
! Genitive
|''gýtēa'' ||''gýtēan'' ||''gytēái''
|-
! Locative
|''gýtēia'' ||''gýtēian'' ||''gýtēiar''
|-
! Vocative
|''gýta'' ||''gýtan'' ||''gytár''
|-
|}
 
===Verbal===
====Conjugation====
=====Active verbs=====
The active Ris verbs are conjugated as follows. These are the roots of all active verb forms, on which personal suffixes are added.
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 750px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="5" scope="col"|''káter- '' - to write
|-
! scope="col"|
! scope="col"|Indicative
! scope="col"|Subjunctive
! scope="col"|Jussive
! scope="col"|Imperative
|-
!Perfective
|''kátero''
|''katérro''
|''katerévo''
|''káterro''
|-
!Imperfective
|''káterto''<sup>1</sup>
|''katérratho''
|''kateréutho''<sup>2</sup>
|''katérratho''
|-
!Inceptive
|''hékatro''
|''hékatro''
|''hékatrevo''
|''hékatro''
|-
!Cessative
|''kateráskho''
|''katérraskho''
|''katerépso''
|''katérraskho''
|-
!Causative
|''katerazo''
|''katérrazo''
|''katerépso''
|''katérrazo''
|-
!Iterative
|''kékatro''
|''hékhatro''
|''kékatrevo''
|''hékhatro''
|}
 
#''káteratho'' is an alternative form.
#''katerépto'' is an alternative form.
 
===Pronouns===
====Declension====
=====Independent=====
=====Enclitic=====
{| border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 750px; text-align: center;"
! colspan="11" scope="col"|Ris pronominal enclitics
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" scope="col"|
! colspan="3" scope="col"|singular
! colspan="3" scope="col"|dual
! colspan="3" scope="col"|plural
|-
! scope="col"|1st
! scope="col"|2nd
! scope="col"|3rd
! scope="col"|1st
! scope="col"|2nd
! scope="col"|3rd
! scope="col"|1st
! scope="col"|2nd
! scope="col"|3rd
|-
! colspan="11"|Indicative
|-
! rowspan="2"|Subject
!Patientive
|''-o''
|''-i''
|''-a''
|''-on''
|''-in''
|''-an''
|''-ouna''
|''-ia''
|''-asi''
|-
!Agentive
|''-ōn''
|''-īn''
|''-en''
|''-ōne''
|''-īne''
|''-ene''
|''-ounen''
|''-ien''
|''-asīn''
|-
!Object
!Patientive
|''-mi''
|''-s''
|''-i''
|''-min''
|''-ns''
|''-in''
|''-mou''
|''-tsa''
|''-as''
|-
! colspan="11"|Subjunctive
|-
! rowspan="2"|Subject
!Patientive
|''-a''
|''-ei''
|''-ai''
|''-an''
|''-ēn''
|''-en''
|''-ouna''
|''-ia''
|''-asi''
|-
!Agentive
|''-en''
|''-ēn''
|''-ēn''
|''-ene''
|''-ēne''
|''-ēne''
|''-ounen''
|''-ien''
|''-asīn''
|-
!Object
!Patientive
|''-mi''
|''-s''
|''-i''
|''-min''
|''-ns''
|''-in''
|''-mou''
|''-tsa''
|''-as''
|}


==Samples==
==Samples==
Line 2,496: Line 1,025:
*''Atḗ, inḗ gytḗn ~ Atḗ, inḗ gýtē ne!''
*''Atḗ, inḗ gytḗn ~ Atḗ, inḗ gýtē ne!''


[[Category:Languages]][[Category:Conlangs]][[Category:A priori]][[Category:Ris]]
[[Category:Languages]][[Category:Languages]][[Category:A priori]][[Category:Jasi-Jivan languages]][[Category:Ris]]
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