Chlouvānem/Morphology: Difference between revisions

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'''Chlouvānem''' is a highly inflected language with a synthetic morphology. Five parts of speech are traditionally distinguished: nouns, verbs, pronouns, numerals, and particles.
'''Chlouvānem''' is a highly inflected language with a synthetic morphology. Five parts of speech are traditionally distinguished: nouns, verbs, pronouns, numerals, and particles. Throughout the page there will be references to the topics treated in the pages on [[Chlouvānem/Syntax|Chlouvānem syntax]], [[Chlouvānem/Positional and motion verbs|positional and motion verbs]], and [[Chlouvānem/Exterior and interior verbs|exterior and interior verbs]].
{{Chlouvānem sidebar}}
==Nouns (''halenī'') ==
==Nouns (''halenī'') ==
→ ''See [[Lahob languages#Morphology|Lahob languages § Morphology]] for diachronical tables and comparisons with sister languages.''<br/>
→ ''See also [[Chlouvānem/Syntax#Noun_phrase|Chlouvānem syntax § Noun phrase]] for discussion of case usage.''


The [[Chlouvānem]] noun (''haloe'', pl. ''halenī'') is highly inflected - it declines for:

The [[Chlouvānem]] noun (''haloe'', pl. ''halenī'') is highly inflected - it declines for:

* Three numbers:
* Three numbers:
:: '''Singular''' (''lailausire niañis'')
:: '''Singular''' (''emibausire smoḍūm'')
:: '''Dual''' (''daniausire niañis'')
:: '''Dual''' (''danyausire smoḍūm'')
:: '''Plural''' (''tailiausire niañis'')
:: '''Plural''' (''tailyausire smoḍūm'')
* Twelve cases:

* Twelve cases:

:: '''Direct''' (''daradhūkire dirūnnevya'')
:: '''Direct''' (''daradhūkire dirūnnevya'')
Line 14: Line 17:
:: '''Genitive''' (''cārūkire dirūnnevya'')

:: '''Genitive''' (''cārūkire dirūnnevya'')

:: '''Translative''' (''najamarcūkire dirūnnevya'')

:: '''Translative''' (''najamarcūkire dirūnnevya'')

:: '''Exessive''' (''nenijamarcūkire dirūnnevya'')
:: '''Exessive''' (''nanijamarcūkire dirūnnevya'')
:: '''Essive''' (''gyausire dirūnnevya'')
:: '''Essive''' (''jalausire dirūnnevya'')
:: '''Dative''' (''męliausire dirūnnevya'')
:: '''Dative''' (''męlyausire dirūnnevya'')
:: '''Ablative''' (''tųflunūkire dirūnnevya'')
:: '''Ablative''' (''tųlunūkire dirūnnevya'')
:: '''Locative''' (''yutiūkire dirūnnevya'')
:: '''Locative''' (''yuñcūkire dirūnnevya'')
:: '''Instrumental''' (''drausire dirūnnevya'')
:: '''Instrumental''' (''drausire dirūnnevya'')


There are a few nouns which lack number; a few are singularia tantum and lack a plural (e.g. ''hærūm'' lips), other ones are plural only - most notably these include all ethnicities (e.g. ''chlǣvānem'', which is also an irregular plural). The singular is made by using the genitive form attributed to ''lila'' (person), e.g. ''chlǣvānumi lila'' (a Chlouvānem).<br/>
There are a few nouns which lack number; a few are singularia tantum and lack a plural (e.g. ''hærūm'' lips), other ones are plural only - most notably these include all ethnicities (e.g. ''chlǣvānem'', which is also an irregular plural). The singular is made by using the genitive form attributed to ''lila'' (person), e.g. ''chlǣvānumi lila'' (a Chlouvānem).<br/>


Chlouvānem does not have grammatical gender, and there are only a few natural gender terms; see [[Chlouvānem#Gendered_and_gender-neutral_terms|Chlouvānem § Gendered and gender-neutral terms]] for more information.  
Chlouvānem does not have grammatical gender, and there are only a few natural gender terms. There are thirteen different noun declensions, but most of them only have few small differences. Chlouvānem declensions are predictable from the ending of the direct case noun, and they're categorized depending on their endings as ''s-'', ''m-'', or ''h-nouns''<ref>These are the remnants of a former gender system present in Proto-Lahob, still evident in other Lahob languages; unlike others in the family, Chlouvānem did not become genderless because of losing gender marking on nouns, but because it lost concordance anywhere else.</ref>: inside these broad categories, different declensions are distinguished by the thematic vowel of the suffix: ''a'', ''u'', or ''i'' for ''s-'' and ''m-nouns'', and ''a'', ''e'', ''u'', ''i'' for ''h-nouns''.
 
There are thirteen different noun declensions, but most of them only have few small differences. Chlouvānem declensions are predictable from the ending of the direct case noun, and they're categorized depending on their endings as ''s-'', ''m-'', or ''h-nouns''<ref>These are the remnants of a former gender system present in Proto-Lahob, still evident in other Lahob languages; unlike others in the family, Chlouvānem did not become genderless because of losing gender marking on nouns, but because it lost concordance anywhere else.</ref>.
 
'''S-nouns (sasą lā halenī)''':
* '''1s''': nouns ending in ''-as'' or ''-ās'', as well as Eastern toponyms in ''-o''
* '''2s''': nouns ending in ''-us'' or ''-ūs''
* '''3s''': nouns ending in ''-is'' or ''-īs''
* '''4s''': nouns ending in ''-oe''
'''M-nouns (mamą lā halenī)''':
* '''1m''': nouns ending in ''-am'', ''-em'', ''-ām'', ''-ēm'' (or ''-n'')
* '''2m''': nouns ending in ''-um'' or ''-ūm'' (or ''-n'')
* '''3m''': nouns ending in ''-im'' or ''-īm'' (or ''-n'')
* '''4m''': nouns ending in ''-ai''
'''H-nouns (hahą lā halenī)''':
* '''1h''': nouns ending in ''-a'', ''-ah'', ''-ā'', or ''-āh''
* '''2h''': nouns ending in ''-ē'' or ''-eh'' (plus some diminutives ending in ''-ēh'')
* '''3h''': nouns ending in ''-uh'' or ''-ūh'', and a few words of Dabuke origin in ''-u'' (mostly only used regionally in the West)
* '''4h''': nouns ending in ''-ih'' or ''-īh'' (plus a few exceptional ones in ''-i'')
* '''5h''': nouns ending in ''-a'' which have ablaut-conditioned variations in their stems in different cases


===S-nouns - Sasą lā halenī===
===S-nouns - Sasą lā halenī===
There are some traits which are common to all nominal declensions: the vocative is only distinct in the singular; in the dual there is also no distinction between translative and dative, essive and locative, and between exessive, ablative, and instrumental.
There are some traits which are common to all nominal declensions: the vocative is only distinct in the singular; in the dual there is also no distinction between translative and dative, essive and locative, and between exessive, ablative, and instrumental. In the plural, the exessive and ablative also share the same form, as do the essive plural and the ergative dual.
 
{{col-begin}}
{| class="wikitable"
{{col-break}}
{| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+1-s (-as, -ās)
|-
|-
! rowspan=2 | Case !! colspan=3 | 1-s nouns !! colspan=3 | 2-s nouns !! colspan=3 | 3-s nouns !! colspan=3 | 4-s nouns
! Case !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
! <small>Direct</small>
| '''prātas'''<br/><small>''"wind"''</small> || rowspan=2 | prātāt || rowspan=2 | prāte
|-
|-
! Direct
! <small>Vocative</small>
| '''prātas''' <small>''"wind"''</small> || prātāt || prāte || '''kældus''' <small>''"wax"''</small> || kældūt || kældaus || '''kumis''' <small>''"bamboo"''</small> || kumīt || kumais || '''haloe''' <small>''"name"''</small> || halenāt || halenī
| prātau
|-
|-
! Vocative
! <small>Accusative</small>
| prātau || prātāt || prāte || kældu || kældūt || kældaus || kumi || kumīt || kumais || haloe || halenāt || halenī
| prātu || prātāṣa || prataih
|-
|-
! Accusative
! <small>Ergative</small>
| prātu || prātāṣa || prātaih || kældavu || kældūṣa || kældavih || kumayu || kumīṣa || kumaih || halenu || halenāṣa || halenaih
| prātei || prātāya || prātān
|-
|-
! Ergative
! <small>Genitive</small>
| prātei || prātāya || prātān || kældave || kældūya || kældūn || kumaye || kumīya || kumīn || halenei || halenāya || halenān
| prāti || prāteva || prātumi
|-
|-
! Genitive
! <small>Translative</small>
| prāti || prāteva || prātumi || kældavi || kældagva || kældǣmi || kumayi || kumajña || kumiumi || halenies || halemva || haloemi
| prātan || prātaus || prātāmān
|-
|-
! Translative
! <small>Exessive</small>
| prātan || prātaus || prātyoh || kældun || kældugus || kælduyoh || kumin || kumigus || kumyoh || halenan || halenaus || halenyoh
| prātat || prātābhan || prātenīs
|-
|-
! Exessive
! <small>Essive</small>
| prātat || prātābhan || prātāmān || kældut || kældobhan || kældomān || kumit || kumebhan || kumemān || halenat || haloebhan || haloemān
| prātą || prātigin || prātāya
|-
|-
! Essive
! <small>Dative</small>
| prātą || prātigin || prātēm || kældą || kældugin || kældavēm || kumę || kumigin || kumayēm || halen || haloegin || haloem
| prātom || prātaus || prātasām
|-
|-
! Dative
! <small>Ablative</small>
| prātom || prātaus || prātasām || kældavom || kældugus || kældusām || kumayom || kumigus || kumisām || halenom || halenaus || haloesām
| prātų || prātābhan || prātenīs
|-
|-
! Ablative
! <small>Locative</small>
| prātų || prātābhan || prātenīs || kældų || kældobhan || kældunīs || kumyų || kumebhan || kuminīs || halenų || haloebhan || haloenīs
| prāte || prātigin || prātilīm
|-
|-
! Locative
! <small>Instrumental</small>
| prāte || prātigin || prātilīm || kældave || kældugin || kældulīm || kumaye || kumigin || kumilīm || halenie || haloegin || halenilīm
| prātap || prātābhan || prātenīka
|-
! Instrumental
| prātap || prātābhan || prātenīka || kældup || kældobhan || kældunīka || kumip || kumebhan || kuminīka || halenap || haloebhan || haloeinīka
|}
|}
 
{{col-break}}
Note that modern borrowings ending in [s] typically add a further case ending, e.g. Skyrdagor ''valtasz'' (nunatak) becomes Chlouvānem ''valtasas'' (same meaning), declining as ''valtasau'', ''valtasu'', ''valtasei''...
{| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
 
|+2-s (-us, -ūs)
===M-nouns - Mamą lā halenī===
'''Tables in this and the following (H-nouns) section are NOT up-to-date. I'll make them anew soon as part of a restructuring of the whole "Nouns" section). You can, however, find the up-to-date declension of -am, -um, -im nouns here: [[Lahob languages#Second declension|Proto-Lahob morphology § Second declension]]'''
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! rowspan=2 | Case !! colspan=3 | 1-m nouns !! colspan=3 | 2-m nouns !! colspan=3 | 3-m nouns !! colspan=3 | 4-m nouns
! Case !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
! <small>Direct</small>
| '''haɂrus'''<br/><small>''"squid"''</small> || rowspan=2 | haɂrūt || rowspan=2 | haɂraus
|-
|-
! Direct
! <small>Vocative</small>
| '''yujam''' <small>''"lotus"''</small> || yujāmion || yujye || '''tūlum''' <small>''"worm"''</small> || tūlūmion || tūluvye || '''jāyim''' <small>''"girl"''</small> || jāyīmion || jāyiñe || '''lunai''' <small>''"tea"''</small> || lunāyon || lunāye
| haɂru
|-
|-
! Vocative
! <small>Accusative</small>
| yujam || yujāmion || yujye || tūlu || tulūmion || tūluvye || jāyī || jāyīmion || jāyiñe || lunai || lunāyon || lunāye
| haɂravu || haɂrūṣa || haɂravih
|-
|-
! Accusative
! <small>Ergative</small>
| yujamu || yujamūri || yujāmūn || tūlau || tulūri || tūlumūn || jāyimu || jāyimūri || jāyimin || lunāyu || lunāyūri || lunainū
| haɂrave || haɂrūya || haɂrūn
|-
|-
! Ergative
! <small>Genitive</small>
| yujamei || yujamą || yujamān || tūlumei || tūlumą || tūlumān || jāyimei || jāyimą || jāyimān || lunǣ || lunaiyą || lunæyān
| haɂravi || haɂragva || haɂrǣmi
|-
|-
! Genitive
! <small>Translative</small>
| yujami || yujameva || yujammi || tūlumvi || tūlumeva || tūlǣmi || jāyimi || jāyīva || jāyiñumi || lunayi || lunaiva || lunæyumi
| haɂrun || haɂrugus || haɂromān
|-
|-
! Translative
! <small>Exessive</small>
| yujaman || yujyās || yujyoh || tūluman || tūluvyās || tūluvyoh || jāyiman || jāyiñyās || jāyiñyoh || lunāyan || lunāyās || lunāyoh
| haɂrut || haɂrobhan || haɂruṇīs<sup>1</sup>
|-
! Exessive
| yujamat || yujambhan || yujāman || tūlumat || tūlumbhan || tūlūman || jāyimæt || jāyimbhan || jāyīman || lunāyat || lunaibhan || lunaiman
|-
|-
! Essive
! <small>Essive</small>
| yujamą || yujamiona || yujamēm || tūlumą || tūlumiona || tūlumēm || jāyimą || jāyimiona || jāyimēm || lunąis || lunāyona || lunǣm
| haɂrą || haɂrugin || haɂrūya
|-
|-
! Dative
! <small>Dative</small>
| yujamom || yujyās || yujaṃsām || tūlumom || tūluvyās || tūluṃsām || jāyimom || jāyiñyās || jāyiṃsām || lunāmom || lunāyās || lunaisām
| haɂravom || haɂrugus || haɂrusām
|-
|-
! Ablative
! <small>Ablative</small>
| yujamų || yujambhan || yujaṃris || tūlumų || tūlumbhan || tūluṃris || jāyimų || jāyimbhan || jāyiṃrīs || lunāyų || lunaibhan || lunaiñīs
| haɂrų || haɂrobhan || haɂruṇīs<sup>1</sup>
|-
|-
! Locative
! <small>Locative</small>
| yujaṃrye || yujamiona || yujailīm || tūluṃrye || tūlumiona || tūluvilīm || jāyiṃrye || jāyimiona || jāyīlīm || lunaiñe || lunāyona || lunāyilīm
| haɂrave || haɂrugin || haɂrulīm
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! <small>Instrumental</small>
| yujamini || yujambhan || yujaṃrika || tūlumini || tūlumbhan || tūluṃrika || jāyimini || jāyimbhan || jāyiṃrīka || lunaini || lunaibhan || lunaiñīka
| haɂrup || haɂrobhan || haɂruṇīka<sup>1</sup>
|}
|}
 
{{col-break}}
Note that all nouns with '''-n''' have their direct and vocative plural forms ''identical'' to the singular ones - all other inflections (including the dual) are the same as the other nouns. Thus e.g. '''samin''' may be either ''child'' or ''children'', and it is usually the verb that marks the number - compare ''samin mālchē'' "the kid runs" and ''samin mālchīran'' "the kids run". They are de facto undistinguishable out of context in forms where singular and plural have the same verb form, e.g. in the perfect - ''samin amālcha'' can mean either "the kid has run" or "the kids have run" depending on context.<br/>These unmarked plurals are regular - note that ''hulin'' (woman) has both a regular plural (''hulin''), used in a wider scope (e.g. ''chlǣvānumi hulin'' "Chlouvānem women") and an irregular plural (''hilāni'') used in other contexts (e.g. ''nanā hilāni'' "those women there").
{| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
 
|+3-s (-is, -īs)
''-en'' nouns decline following the 1m pattern (with unmarked plural).
 
===H-nouns - Hahą lā halenī===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan=2 | Case !! colspan=3 | 1-h nouns !! colspan=3 | 2-h nouns !! colspan=3 | 3-h nouns !! colspan=3 | 4-h nouns !! colspan=3 | 5-h nouns
|-
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
! Case !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Direct
! <small>Direct</small>
| '''māra''' <small>''"mango"''</small> || mārion || mārai || '''javileh''' <small>''"apple"''</small> || javilion || javiliai || '''camūh''' <small>''"group"''</small> || camūyon || camūvai || '''ghārṭih''' <small>''"arrow"''</small> || ghārṭiyon || ghārṭeyai || '''lila''' <small>''"person"''</small> || lilion || leliē
| '''ḍhogis'''<br/><small>''"monument"''</small> || rowspan=2 | ḍhogīt || rowspan=2 | ḍhogais
|-
|-
! Vocative
! <small>Vocative</small>
| māra || mārion || mārai || javili || javilion || javiliai || camū || camūyon || camūvai || ghārṭī || ghārṭiyon || ghārṭeyai || lila || lilion || leliē
| ḍhogi
|-
|-
! Accusative
! <small>Accusative</small>
| māru || mārūri || mārānu || javilu || javiliūri || javilēnu || camūvau || camūyūri || camǣnu || ghārṭiyu || ghārṭiyūri || ghārṭeinu || lilu || lilūri || leliu
| ḍhogayu || ḍhogīṣa || ḍhogaih
|-
|-
! Ergative
! <small>Ergative</small>
| mārei || mārą || mārān || javilei || javilią || javilēn || camūvei || camūvą || camǣn || ghārṭiyi || ghārṭiyą || ghārṭein || lilei || lilą || leliei
| ḍhogaye || ḍhogīya || ḍhogīn
|-
|-
! Genitive
! <small>Genitive</small>
| māri || māreva || mārumi || javili || javilieva || javilumi || camūvi || camūyeva || camūmi || ghārṭī || ghārṭyeva || ghārṭyumi || leli || lileva || laili
| ḍhogayi || ḍhogajña || ḍhogyumi
|-
|-
! Translative
! <small>Translative</small>
| māran || māryās || māryāh || javilan || javilyās || javilyāh || camūn || camūyās || camūyāh || ghārṭīn || ghārṭīyās || ghārṭīyāh || lilan || lilyās || lelian
| ḍhogin || ḍhogigus || ḍhogemān
|-
|-
! Exessive
! <small>Exessive</small>
| mārat || mārābhan || mārāman || javilet || javilēbhan || javilēman || camūt || camūbhan || camūman || ghārṭit || ghārṭībhan || ghārṭīman || lilat || lilābhan || leliat
| ḍhogit || ḍhogebhan || ḍhogenīs
|-
|-
! Essive
! <small>Essive</small>
| māręs || māriona || mārēm || javilęs || javiliona || javilēm || camųs || camūyona || camūvēm || ghārṭįs || ghārṭiyona || ghārṭīvēm || liląs || liliona || lailąs
| ḍhogę || ḍhogigin || ḍhogīya
|-
|-
! Dative
! <small>Dative</small>
| mārom || māryās || mārasām || javilom || javilyās || javilesām || camvom || camūyās || camusām || ghārṭyom || ghārṭīyās || ghārṭišām || lilom || lilyās || leliom
| ḍhogayom || ḍhogigus || ḍhogisām
|-
|-
! Ablative
! <small>Ablative</small>
| mārų || mārābhan || mārenīs || javilių || javilēbhan || javilenīs || camųu || camūbhan || camūnīs || ghārṭių || ghārṭībhan || ghārṭīnīs || lilų || lilābhan || lelių
| ḍhogyų || ḍhogebhan || ḍhogenīs
|-
|-
! Locative
! <small>Locative</small>
| māre || māriona || mārilīm || javiliye || javiliona || javililīm || camve || camūyona || camūvilīm || ghārṭye || ghārṭiyona || ghārṭīlīm || lile || liliona || laile
| ḍhogaye || ḍhogigin || ḍhogilīm
|-
|-
! Instrumental
! <small>Instrumental</small>
| mārini || mārābhan || mārenīka || javileni || javilēbhan || javilenīka || camvini || camūbhan || camūnīka || ghārṭīni || ghārṭībhan || ghārṭīnīka || lilini || lilābhan || lelini
| ḍhogip || ḍhogebhan || ḍhoginīka
|}
|}
{{col-end}}
Table notes:
# The ending is ''-unīs/-unīka''; the '''n''' → '''ṇ''' shift is a case of regular saṃdhi.
Also note that modern borrowings ending in [s] typically add a further case ending, e.g. Skyrdagor ''valtasz'' (nunatak) becomes Chlouvānem ''valtasas'' (same meaning), declining as ''valtasau'', ''valtasu'', ''valtasei''...


===Irregular plurals===
===M-nouns - Mamą lā halenī===
A few Chlouvānem nouns have irregular plurals:
{{col-begin}}
* The word ''chlǣvānem'' itself is plural-only and irregular; direct and vocative are in ''-em'', but all other cases decline as a standard plural 1h noun (e.g. accusative ''chlǣvānānu'', ergative ''chlǣvānān'', genitive ''chlǣvānumi'');
{{col-break}}
* ''maila'' “water” does not have a dual form outside of colloquial use (where ''mailion'' is used with the meaning of “two glasses of water”) and has the irregular plural ''mailtiąa''. It declines as a ''singular'' 1h noun, with two exceptions, namely accusative in ''-ąu'' instead of expected *-ahu and genitive in ''-ąi'' instead of expected *-ahi. This plural form is actually common, used when talking about bodies of water in an area, water layers, glasses of water, and a few minor idiomatic uses (e.g. ''taili mailtiahe hilæflulke'', lit. “to arrive by crossing many waters”, meaning “to have had much experience”).
{| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
* ''hulin'' "woman" has both a regular plural (''hulin''), used in a wider scope (e.g. ''chlǣvānumi hulin'' "Chlouvānem women") and an irregular plural (''hilāni'') used in other contexts (e.g. ''nanā hilāni'' "those women there").
|+1-m (-am, -ām)
* ''resan'' "pig" and ''liken'' "arm" both have irregular plurals with vowel change: ''ryasan'' and ''læcin'' respectively.
|-
* ''ås'' "ford, crossing of a small river" has the stem ''av-'' in all pre-vocalic forms (e.g. plural ''ave'').
! Case !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
* The placenames in ''-ǣh'' of Lällshag origins (e.g. ''Taleihǣh'', ''Laikunanǣh'') decline as 2h nouns, as if they ended in ''-eh''.
* ''švas'' "animal (including humans)" pluralizes as ''švai'', as if it were a h-noun; all cases except for direct and vocative are however regular.
* There are some pluralia tantum: ''pārye'' “hair”, ''kāraṇḍhai'' “guts”, also ''agṇyaucai'' “sons and daughters”, ''vailašaus'' "cutlery", ''šūlyakāše'' "dishes", and all ethnonyms.
** Some pluralia tantum are the plural forms of nouns with other (usually related) meanings - when they are used as semantic plurals, they're counted with cardinal numerals (and are singular); when they are used as pluralia tantum, with collective numerals (and are plural). Examples are ''hamvyenī'' "nursery" (''hamvyoe'' "cradle"), ''įsmirte'' "playground" (''įsmirtas'' "swing"), ''nacai'' "clothes" (''naca'' "cloth"), or ''garaṇai'' "clock, watch" (''garaṇa'' "hour").
*** This is often used in poetry, with words like ''mešanāt'' "eyes" - dual of ''mešanah'' "view". In many set phrases, ''læcin'' "arms" is used with the meaning of "work, effort".
** Many toponyms in the Inquisition and a few ones abroad are only ever used in the plural. Island groups are an obvious example, but this also includes descriptive names of dioceses such as ''Vīdhyašaṇṭrē'' ("regions of the Vīdhyai"), ''Samvālšaṇṭrē'' (lit. "the Western Regions"), and many cities even with originally non-Chlouvānem names such as ''Kašikanye'' (episcopal seat of Saṃhayolah), ''Rīkalīnai'' (episcopal seat of Dārṭijātia), or ''Kareñjoklai'' (episcopal seat of Yūgarthāma).
* A few nouns are singularia tantum: ''hærṣūs'' “lips”, ''maula'' “breasts”, ''kanai'' “spices”, ''paɂeh'' “dust”, ''nāmvāvi'' “dust (made by crushing something)”, ''måris'' “ash”, ''ñailūh'' “ice”; ''lāsīm'' "cereals" (individual terms for cereals may have duals and plurals meaning "two/more varieties of ..."), ''mæchlišam'' "leafy greens", ''mæcichā'' "spinach", and ''bågras'' "legumes" with all types of legumes (''dīlla'' "peas", ''mahīra'' "lentils", ''miltai'' "soybeans"...)
* Dvandva compounds are usually all dual and pluralizable - like ''yāṇḍamaišñukam'' “genitals”, or also many dyadic kinship terms (e.g. ''maihāmeinā'' “daughter and mother”) - but some of them are inherently “singular” and therefore are dual only, like ''lillamurḍhyāyunya'' (how some philosophical Yunyalīlti currents refer to the ''yunya'' “nature” and the ''lillamurḍhyā'' “natural harmony” as two aspects of the same thing). Note that dual inflections are not present on the noun itself in direct and vocative forms.
* Toponyms (except inherently dual or plural ones), personal names, and miscellaneous things that are semantically only singular (like many Yunyalīlti concepts, e.g. ''yunya'' or ''lillamurḍhyā'') are found exclusively in the singular.
 
===Use of the plural===
Chlouvānem sometimes uses the singular in contexts where English uses the plural:
* Nouns are always singular after numerals (except, optionally, ''dani'' (two), which they can also be dual after), ''sora'' (some), ''læti'' (any), ''gu'' (no), ''guviṣam'' (no other), ''taili'' (many, much), ''nanū'' (more), ''kaili'' (most), and ''ṣubha'' (few, little).
** After ''yaiva'', the difference in the noun's number expresses a distinction much like the one between English "every" and "all": ''yaiva kita'' "every house", ''yaiva kitai'' "all houses".
* When referring to existence or availability of something, that something is always singular, e.g. ''dvārma lædьlęs virā'' "there are chairs in the room". It may be plural if topicalized, but the overall meaning of the sentence changes - e.g. ''lædьlai mæn dvārma virā'' "the chairs are in the room".
* When referring to a single person, ''dhāna'' (hand), ''mešīn'' (eye), and ''minnūlia'' (ear), and often also ''junai'' (foot) (more rarely for ''pājya'' (leg) and ''liken'' (arm)) are typically singular and not dual - e.g. ''tū mešīp mešute'' "I see it with my eyes" (lit. "with my eye"). In fact, they might be translated as "a person's hands/eyes/ears", given that dual forms are often used to mean e.g. "both hands of two people" and the plural ones for e.g. "many people's hands".
 
==Verbs (''daradhaus'')==
The Chlouvānem verb (''daradhūs'', pl. ''daradhaus'') is the most inflected part of speech; its most basic forms are fusional, but many more specific formations are more agglutinative due to their origin from old Proto-Lahob particles or participles.
 
The first and most important division we can find in Chlouvānem verbs is the distinction - a category called, with noticeable metaphorical use, '''''chlærim''''' (light) by native grammarians - between '''exterior '''(''kauyāva'') and '''interior''' (''nañyāva'') verbs. This may at first seem a voice system, but it must be distinguished from the true voices in Chlouvānem conjugation. The difference between them is mostly lexical: native grammarians distinguish exterior verbs as describing "activities or states that involve interactions with outside the self", and interior verbs as affecting principally the self. Exterior verbs are those we could most easily compare to active verbs in English, while interior verbs are a somewhat "catch-all" category including many distinct meanings, most notably middle-voice, reflexive and reciprocal ones, but also all adjectival verbs as well as peculiar and somewhat independent meanings for some verbs. Many verbs can be conjugated both as exterior and as interior and they often have differences in meaning - e.g. ''gṇyauke ''means “to give birth” when exterior and “to be born” when interior - commonly, the interior has the intransitive meaning and the exterior the transitive one - cf. ''lęlširu'' "I shake" vs. ''lęlšute'' "I shake (something)".
 
Potentially every Chlouvānem verb form, no matter if exterior or interior, has a '''causative''' (''drildyāva'') conjugation which is considered an inflection and not a derivation, even if the meanings may vary: ''mišake'' is an extreme example as each form has a different meaning (with particularly interior forms having many meanings) - non-causative exterior ''mešu'' "I am seen", interior ''meširu'' "I know; I see myself"; and causative exterior ''maišildu'' "I am shown", interior ''maišīldru'' "I learn; I show myself <small>(trans.)</small>".
 
Chlouvānem verbs also conjugate for seven '''voices''' (''tadgeroe'', pl. ''tadgerenī''), each one putting one of seven different core elements as the ''direct-case argument'', usually for means of topicalization or definiteness; they reflect the Austronesian-type morphosyntactical alignment of the language. The seven voices are, for exterior verbs:
* '''patient-trigger''' (''dṛṣokire tadgeroe'') (unmarked);
* '''agent-trigger''' (''darīnūkire tadgeroe'') (transitive and ditransitive verbs only);
* '''benefactive-trigger''' (''hulābādmęlīnūkire tadgeroe'');
* '''antibenefactive-trigger''' (''tadlunsusūkire tadgeroe'');
* '''locative-trigger''' (''yutiūkire tadgeroe'');
* '''dative-trigger''' (''męliausire tadgeroe'') (mostly ditransitive verbs);
* '''instrumental-trigger'''  (''drausire tadgeroe'') (morphologically possible for all verbs, but not always meaningful).
Interior verbs only have six voices, as they do not have an agentive voice; the patientive, unmarked voice, is here called '''common voice''' (''tailьcārē tadgeroe'')<ref>For simplicity's sake, voices' names are most often rendered as ''patientive'', ''agentive'', ''benefactive'' ''antibenefactive'', ''locative'', ''dative'', ''instrumental'', and ''common''.</ref>.
 
Chlouvānem verbs also conjugate for five different '''tense-aspect combinations''' (simply ''tenses'' (''avyāṣa'' - pl. ''avyāṣai'')): '''present''' (''kaminænikire avyāṣa''), '''past''' (''dāṃdenire avyāṣa''<ref>Sometimes ''ēktami avyāṣa''.</ref>), '''perfect''' (''mīraṃnajausire avyāṣa''), '''(general) future''' (''lallāmiti avyāṣa''), and '''future intentional''' (''osmešē lallāmiti avyāṣa''); other distinctions may be built periphrastically (most notably ''imperfect'', ''pluperfect'' and ''future perfect''). Tenses are the “basic unit” verbs conjugate in: all tenses conjugate for nine persons (1st-2nd-3rd in singular, dual and plural; note though that 3rd singular and 3rd plural are identical in the perfect). Note that some moods do only distinguish between imperfective and perfective aspect.
 
The last inflectional category of Chlouvānem verbs is the '''mood''' (''darišam'', pl. ''darišye''). Chlouvānem grammarians traditionally distinguish only four moods, which are those that cannot be combined:
* '''indicative''' (''chlåvdiausire darišam'') - the realis mood;
* '''imperative''' (''spruvyūkire darišam'') - used for giving orders or commands;
* '''optative''' (''purmanūkire darišam'') - used to express wishes or hopes. In modern Chlouvānem it has also replaced the imperative in most contexts;
* '''subjunctive''' (''milkausire darišam'') - used to express general advices (jussive use), purpose (supine use), unreal things that may happen or might have happened, and also syntactically conditioned by some particles.
 
There are a few more forms that can't be strictly considered moods because they can appear in all of the five actual moods, and are thus called '''''junia''''', pl. '''''juniai''''' (literally "shade, hue, dye") by Chlouvānem grammarians: they are actually regular derivational patterns, that are considered inflectional due to them being possible for all verbs. There are four ''juniai'':
* '''desiderative''' (''daudiūkire junia'') - used to express a desire or will (e.g. I want to X);
* '''necessitative''' (''rileyūkire junia'') - used to express need or obligation (e.g. I have to X);
* '''potential''' (''novire junia'') - used to express the ability to do something (e.g. I can [= am able to] X, also "I may [= it is possible that I] X")
* '''permissive''' (''drippūkire junia'') - used to express the permission to do something (e.g. I can [= I’m allowed to] X)
 
Finally, there are a further six forms which are called "secondary moods" (''šudarišam'', pl. ''-šye''). They are:
* four of them (only used with the indicative mood) express '''evidentiality''', namely: certainty (also '''energetic mood'''), deduction, dream, and hearsay (also '''inferential mood''');
* two '''consequential moods''': one expressing ''cause'' (e.g. “because X”), the other ''opposition'' (e.g. “although X”).
Chlouvānem verbs also have a '''non-finite form''' (''emibąukire daradhūs'') (the '''-ke''' form, called '''infinitive''' hereafter).
 
===Verb classes===
When talking about the regularity in the conjugation of Chlouvānem verbs, most Chlouvānem linguists consider the vast majority of verbs as regular. In fact, the same suffixes are used in conjugating almost all verbs and highly irregular verbs are often only small exceptions (''jalle'' "to be" and ''lulke'' "to go on foot (monodirectional)" are the most notable ones, having many suppletive stems). However, despite this regularity, Chlouvānem verbs are divided into lots of small classes, each one having only a few members, that have different stem vowels in various forms - typically, the 3SG forms of the present, past, and perfect are used as principal parts (with the infinitive often - but not always! - having the same vowel as the present).
 
A Chlouvānem verb's conjugation is determined by two factors: whether it is ''thematic'' and whether - and if it does, how - its root vowel changes among the different stems.<br/>
The thematic and athematic distinction is the easiest: '''thematic verbs''' add an ''-a-'' (''-e-'' in the 3SG past) between its root and every consonantic termination; '''athematic verbs''' don't. All verbs with vowel-ending roots are athematic.
 
Root vowel changes are, however, more complex, and up to eleven verb classes may be distinguished depending on how the various stems are formed. The first two classes comprise about 90% of all (primary) verbs:
# The verbs of the first class do not change its vowel in any form. About 45% of verbs belong to this class, including all those whose root vowel is any of '''ā, ą, e, ē, ę, ǣ, oe, ai, ąi, au, ąu''', as well as most verbs with root vowel '''a, æ, å, o, ei''', or '''ęi'''. An example is ''męlike'' (athematic) "to give": pres. ''męliē'', past ''męliek'', perfect ''emęlia''.
# Also called the '''basic ablauting class''', these verbs have the most basic ablaut alteration: in their present exterior forms and in the singular present interior ones, '''i ī''' become '''e''' (''mišake'' "to see": ''mešē — mišek — imiša''), '''u ū''' usually become '''o''' (''dhūlte'' "to write": ''dholtē, dhūltek, udhūlta''), but '''i''' in a few verbs (''kulke'' "to say": ''kilē — kulek — ukula''), and '''ṛ ṝ''' become '''ar''' (''dṛke'' "to do": ''darē — dṛk — (irr.) dadrā'')
# Also called ''strong ablauting class'', it is a subgroup of the ablauting class where instead of becoming middle-grade, the vowels ablaut to the maximum grade ('''ai, au, ār''') respectively. This class is somewhat rare: the three most common verbs in it are ''mulke'' (''mun-'') "to be able to": ''maunē — munek — umuna'', ''dīdake'' "to know a person": ''daidē — dīdek — idīda'', and ''kirake'' "to love": ''kairē — kirek — ikira''.
# Also called ''inverse ablauting class'', these verbs have either ''va'' or ''ya'' in the present (and infinitive; note that the initial semivowel may be "hidden" in a consonant!) that gets reduced to ''u'' or ''i'' respectively in the past. An easy example is ''valde'' "to open": ''valdē — uldek — vulda''; one with a hidden consonant is ''calyake'' "to harvest plums": ''calyē — kilyek — ikilda''. In verbs with ''r-va'', the '''v''' disappears, but the conjugation is otherwise regular, e.g. ''ranyake'' "to untie, loosen, dismantle": ''ranyē — runyek — urunya''.
# Verbs of this class (and the following ones) typically have a vowel change in the ''past'' form and not in the present one. This class has '''å''' in the infinitive, present, and perfect, and '''e''' in the past, for example ''påndake'' "to punch": ''påndē — pendek — apånda''). Verbs whose roots begin in ''y-'' lose it in the past, e.g. ''yåjyake'' "to float in the air; to go with a zeppelin, hot air balloon, or helicopter (monodirectional)": ''yåjyē — ejyek — ayåjya''.
# These verbs have '''ei''' in the present, '''a''' in the past, and '''a+ i''' in the perfect; e.g. ''heimake'' "to blow, to play (wind instruments)" ''heimē — hamek — ahima''.
# Verbs with '''e''' in the present, '''ya''' in the past, and '''i+ i''' in the perfect (and infinitive!); e.g. ''miṃsake'' "to risk" ''meṃsē — myaṃsek — imiṃsa''.
# Verbs with '''æ''' in the present, '''o''' in the past, and '''e+ i''' in the perfect; e.g. ''næljake'' "to turn, to screw": ''næljē — noljek — enilja''.
# Verbs with '''o''' in the present, '''ei''' in the past, and '''a+ ā''' in the perfect; e.g. ''volkake'' "to stab, to sting (esp. insects), to hit with something pointy": ''volkē — veilkek — avālka''.
# Verbs with '''æ''' in the present, '''ya''' in the past, and '''e+ ī''' in the perfect; e.g. ''kællake'' "to sew": ''kællē — kyallek — ekīlla''.
# Also called '''-ah verbs''', these verbs actually never modify their root vowel, but have different present endings. ''hæṃdike'' "to dream", ''jānake'' "to feel", and ''lilke'' "to live" are the most common verbs of this class.
 
Moods apart from the indicative mainly just follow root structure, with different allomorphs depending on whether the root ends in a consonant or in a vowel.
 
====Vocalic stems====
Vocalic stems are those whose stems end in a vowel; most of them are class 1 (without any vowel change), but some are class 2 (ablauting), more rarely of other classes. They are anyway somewhat rare in Chlouvānem, but a few common verbs have vocalic stems. These stems often do not behave as in normal vowel saṃdhi when vocalic terminations are added:
* The diphthongs '''ai, ei, au''', and their breathy-voiced versions mute the second element in a semivowel; in '''ai''' and '''au''' the vowel is naturally lengthened to '''ā''' - e.g. ''gṇyauke'' "to give birth", pres. exterior ''gṇyāvu, gṇyāvi, gṇyāvē''...; past exterior ''gṇyāvau, gṇyāvei, gṇyauk''...
* The short vowels '''i, u, ṛ''' and long '''ṝ''' change into their corresponding semivowels if it forms an accepted cluster - e.g. ''vike'' "to rest" (ablauting stem ''ve-'' in the present), past exterior ''vyau, vyei, vik''...
* '''æ''' and '''ǣ''' become '''ev''' and '''oe''' becomes '''en''' - e.g. ''gæke'' "to stretch", pres. exterior ''gevu, gevi, gevē''...; past exterior ''gevau, gevei, gæk''...
Other vowels add different epenthetic consonants depending on their quality:
* '''a''', '''e''' (and long versions), and '''å''' always add '''n''', e.g. ''liēke'' "to clap", pres. exterior ''liēnu, liēni, liēnē''...; past exterior ''liēnau, liēnei, liēk''.
* All other oral vowels add '''y''' (note that '''o''' contracts with '''e''' or '''ē''' to '''oe'''), e.g. ''khlūke'' "to search, look for" (abl. stem ''khlo-''), pres. exterior ''khloyu, khloyi, khloe''...; past exterior ''khlūyau, khlūyei, khlūk''...
* Breathy-voiced vowels dissimilate to vowel + '''h''': e.g. ''švęke'' "to point at": pres. ext. ''švehu, švehi, švehē<ref>Written ''švęe'' in some older texts.</ref>''...; past ext. ''švehau, švehei, švęk''...
 
In four basic verbs, ''-ьā-'' in the infinitive and most stems becomes ''-im-'' in the present and in the subjunctive. These are:
* ''-tiāke'' (all verbs meaning "to stay", such as ''tatiāke'') — ''-timē, -tiāk, -(ɂ)atiā''
* ''vjyāke'' (to grate, grind) — ''vjimē, vjyāk, avjyā''
* ''miāke'' (to carefully look, examine) — ''mimē, miāk, amiā''
* ''skliāke'' (to store, spare) — ''sklimē, skliāk, askliā''
 
===The infinitive===
The '''infinitive''' (''emibąukire daradhūs'') or ''ke-form'' is a non-finite form used in certain construction (like with certain verbs (e.g. ''daudike'' (to want)) or particles). It is also the citation form, and it is simple to recognize and form:
* The infinitive is always based on the root, thus with either a basic-grade vowel for ablauting verbs or an unreduced sequence for inverse-ablauting ones.
* Thematic verbs add '''-ake''';
* All other verbs just add '''-ke'''. There are a few cases where this is not always how it surfaces:
** verbs ending in a palatalized consonant have an epenthetic ''-i-'' (e.g. ''męlь-ke'' → ''męlike'' (to give));
** verbs whose roots end in any single or postnasal unvoiced dental, retroflex, or palatal stop or affricate, assimilate the ''-k-'' of the suffix (e.g. ''kit-ke'' → ''kitte'' (to put, place));
** verbs whose roots end in any single or postnasal voiced, non-velar stop, assimilate the voicing of the suffix ''-k-'' (e.g. ''dįb-ke'' → ''dįbge'' (to kick));
*** note that, due to regular saṃdhi, *-jg- resulting by this further changes to ''-jñ-'' (e.g. ''taj-ke'' → ''tajñe'' (to rub));
** verbs whose roots end in single ''-g'' or ''-gh'' assimilate the ''-k-'', with the regular saṃdhi change from double voiced stop to nasal + voiced stop (e.g. ''dig-ke'' → ''dilge'' (to pour));
*** This also happens with the cluster ''-nd'', where the assimilation ''-nd-k'' makes it ''-lg'' (e.g. ''mind-ke'' → ''milge'' (to hear));
** verbs whose roots end in any other consonant cluster only add ''-e'' (e.g. ''pudbh-ke'' → ''pudbhe'' (to sleep)).
 
Knowing the root form of the verb is necessary as two different roots may have the same infinitive, e.g. ''mulke'' for both ''mul-'' "to drink" (''molu'', ''mulau'', ''umulim'') and ''mun-'' "to be able to" (''maunu'', ''munau'', ''umunim'').
 
The infinitive can also be used as a noun, declining as ''-eh'' ones and getting a final ''-h'' in the direct case. Compared to derived ''-anah'' nouns, which denote a process, the nominalized infinitive is often more gnomic or perfective in meaning (''dhūlti baucanah'' makes sense, meaning "learning to write", while ''dholtani baucanah'' is grammatically correct but meaningless), but it can also be synonymous in some expressions (e.g. ''neniai naviṣyi dholtanęs væse'' or ''neniai naviṣyi dhūltęs væse'', both meaning "while writing this book" — if a distinction should be rendered in English, the first one would be translated "during the writing process of this book").
 
===Present indicative===
The regular present indicative has a distinct form for all verb types.<br/>Ablauting verbs have ''middle grade'' ablaut in all exterior forms and in the singular interior ones, but inverse-ablauting verbs have always the unreduced sequence.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 colspan=2 | Person !! colspan =2 | Thematic, no ablaut !! colspan =2 | Athematic !! colspan =2 | Ablaut !! colspan =2 | -ah-
! <small>Direct</small>
| '''yujam'''<br/><small>''"lotus"''</small> || rowspan=2 | yujivā || rowspan=2 | yujāk
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | nāmvake <br/><small>"to crush, press"</small> !! colspan=2 | gṇyauke <br/><small>"to give birth; ''int.:'' to be born"</small> !! colspan=2 | mišake <br/><small>"to see"</small> !! colspan=2 | lilke <br/><small>"to live; ''int.:'' to get healed<ref>The compound ''nalilke'' (exterior only) is more common in this sense.</ref>"</small>
! <small>Vocative</small>
| yujā
|-
|-
! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small>
! <small>Accusative</small>
| yujamu || yujmes || yujmaih
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
! <small>Ergative</small>
| nāmv'''u''' || nāmv'''iru''' || gṇyāv'''u''' || gṇyāv'''iru''' || meš'''u''' || meš'''iru''' || lil'''ah''' || lil'''ęru'''
| yujmæ || yujmyan || yujamūn
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Genitive</small>
| nāmv'''i''' || nāmv'''iris''' || gṇyāv'''i''' || gṇyāv'''iris''' || meš'''i''' || meš'''iris''' || lil'''aši''' || lil'''ęris'''
| yujami || yujmeva || yujaṃrān
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Translative</small>
| nāmv'''ē''' || nāmv'''ire''' || gṇyāv'''ē''' || gṇyāv'''ire''' || meš'''ē''' || meš'''ire''' || lil'''ah''' || lil'''ęre'''
| yujaman || yujmį || yujamān
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
! <small>Exessive</small>
| nāmv'''asme''' || nāmv'''irṣme''' || gṇyau'''sme''' || gṇyāv'''irṣme''' || meš'''asme''' || miš'''irṣme''' || lil'''ąsme''' || lil'''ęrṣme'''
| yujamat || yujabhan || yujmenīs
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Essive</small>
| nāmv'''adia''' || nāmv'''irdia''' || gṇyau'''dia''' || gṇyāv'''irdia''' || meš'''adia''' || miš'''irdia''' || lil'''ardia''' || lil'''ęrdia'''
| yujmą || yujmenne || yujmyan
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Dative</small>
| nāmv'''ade''' || nāmv'''irde''' || gṇyau'''de''' || gṇyāv'''irde''' || meš'''ade''' || miš'''irde''' || lil'''arde''' || lil'''ęrde'''
| yujamom || yujmį || yujaṃsām
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
! <small>Ablative</small>
| nāmv'''įm''' || nāmv'''irįm''' || gṇyāv'''įm''' || gṇyāv'''irįm''' || meš'''įm''' || miš'''irįm''' || lil'''ąim''' || lil'''ęrįm'''
| yujamų || yujabhan || yujmenīs
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Locative</small>
| nāmv'''ašin''' || nāmv'''iršin''' || gṇyau'''šin''' || gṇyāv'''iršin''' || meš'''ašin''' || miš'''iršin''' || lil'''ąšin''' || lil'''ęršin'''
| yujaṃrye || yujmenne || yujmilīm
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Instrumental</small>
| nāmv'''āhai''' || nāmv'''irāhe''' || gṇyāv'''āhai''' || gṇyāv'''irāhe''' || meš'''āhai''' || miš'''irāhe''' || lil'''ah''' || lil'''ęrāhe'''
| yujamap || yujabhan || yujaṃrīka
|}
|}
 
{{col-break}}
'''Causative'''<br/>
{| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
Causative forms are the same regardless of conjugation; they are formed basically with an extended stem with ''-ild(e)-'' (''-īldr-'' for the causative interior forms). Ablauting verbs always have the highest grade vowel, while inverse ablaut verbs have the "lowered" vowel in front of the normal stem.<br/>
|+2-m (-um, -ūm)
All causative verbs have both exterior and interior forms.
|-
 
! Case !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 colspan=2 | Person !! colspan =2 | No ablaut !! colspan =2 | Ablaut !! colspan =2 | Inverse ablaut
! <small>Direct</small>
| '''tūlum'''<br/><small>''"worm"''</small> || rowspan=2 | tūlvivā || rowspan=2 | tūlūk
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | nāmvake <br/><small>"to make crush, press"</small> !! colspan=2 | mišake <br/><small>"to show; ''int.:'' learn"</small> !! colspan=2 | valde <br/><small>"to make open"</small>
! <small>Vocative</small>
| tūlve
|-
|-
! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small>
! <small>Accusative</small>
| tūlumu || tūlves || tūluyih
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
! <small>Ergative</small>
| nāmv'''ildu''' || nāmv'''īldru''' || maiš'''ildu''' || maiš'''īldru''' || uvald'''ildu''' || uvald'''īldru'''
| tūluga || tūlvyan || tūlumūn
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Genitive</small>
| nāmv'''ildi''' || nāmv'''īldri''' || maiš'''ildi''' || maiš'''īldri''' || uvald'''ildi''' || uvald'''īldri'''
| tūlumi || tūlveva || tūluṃrān
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Translative</small>
| nāmv'''ilde''' || nāmv'''īldre''' || maiš'''ilde''' || maiš'''īldre''' || uvald'''ilde''' || uvald'''īldre'''
| tūluman || tūlvį || tūlumān
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
! <small>Exessive</small>
| nāmv'''ildesme''' || nāmv'''īldṛsme''' || maiš'''ildesme''' || maiš'''īldṛsme''' || uvald'''ildesme''' || uvald'''īldṛsme'''
| tūlumat || tūlubhan || tūlvenīs
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Essive</small>
| nāmv'''ildedia''' || nāmv'''īldṛdia''' || maiš'''ildedia''' || maiš'''īldṛdia''' || uvald'''ildedia''' || uvald'''īldṛdia'''
| tūlų || tūlunne || tūlvyan
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Dative</small>
| nāmv'''ildede''' || nāmv'''īldṛde''' || maiš'''ildede''' || maiš'''īldṛde''' || uvald'''ildede''' || uvald'''īldṛde'''
| tūlumom || tūlvį || tūluṃsām
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
! <small>Ablative</small>
| nāmv'''ildįm''' || nāmv'''īldrįm''' || maiš'''ildįm''' || maiš'''īldrįm''' || uvald'''ildįm''' || uvald'''īldrįm'''
| tūlumų || tūlubhan || tūlvenīs
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Locative</small>
| nāmv'''ildešin''' || nāmv'''īldṛšin''' || maiš'''ildešin''' || maiš'''īldṛšin''' || uvald'''ildešin''' || uvald'''īldṛšin'''
| tūluṃrye || tūlunne || tūlulīm
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Instrumental</small>
| nāmv'''ildǣhai''' || nāmv'''īldrāhe''' || maiš'''ildǣhai''' || maiš'''īldrāhe''' || uvald'''ildǣhai''' || uvald'''īldrāhe'''
| tūlumap || tūlubhan || tūluṃrīka
|}
|}
 
{{col-break}}
===Past Indicative===
{| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
In the past indicative, -ah verbs are not distinguished from others. Frequentative verbs in ''-ve(y)-'' are completely regular, but the suffix becomes ''-vi(y)-'', e.g. ''mīmīšviyek'' "it was frequently seen" vs. present ''mīmīšveyē'' "it is frequently seen".<br/>
|+3-m (-im, -īm)
Ablauting verbs always have their base grade, except for inverse ablaut roots which use the reduced vowel.
|-
Exterior forms:
! Case !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 colspan=2 | Person !! colspan =2 | Thematic, no ablaut !! colspan =2 | Athematic !! colspan =2 | Inverse-ablaut
! <small>Direct</small>
| '''jāyim'''<br/><small>''"girl"''</small> || rowspan=2 | jāyīvā || rowspan=2 | jāyīk
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | nāmvake <br/><small>"to crush, press"</small> !! colspan=2 | gṇyauke <br/><small>"to give birth; ''int.:'' to be born"</small> !! colspan=2 | valde <br/><small>"to open"</small>
! <small>Vocative</small>
| jāyī
|-
|-
! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small>
! <small>Accusative</small>
| jāyimu || jājñes<sup>1</sup> || jāyīh
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
! <small>Ergative</small>
| nāmv'''au''' || nāmv'''irau''' || gṇyāv'''au''' || gṇyāv'''iru''' || uld'''au''' || uld'''irau'''
| jājña<sup>1</sup> || jāyiyan || jāyimūn
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Genitive</small>
| nāmv'''ei''' || nāmv'''irei''' || gṇyāv'''ei''' || gṇyāv'''irei''' || uld'''ei''' || uld'''irei'''
| jāyimi || jājñeva<sup>1</sup> || jāyiṃran
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Translative</small>
| nāmv'''ek''' || nāmv'''irek''' || gṇyāv'''ek''' || gṇyāv'''irek''' || uld'''ek''' || uld'''irek'''
| jāyiman || jāyį || jāyimān
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
! <small>Exessive</small>
| nāmv'''aram''' || nāmv'''irlam''' || gṇyau'''ram''' || gṇyāv'''irlam''' || uld'''aram''' || uld'''irlam'''
| jāyimat || jāyibhan || jājñenīs<sup>1</sup>
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Essive</small>
| nāmv'''ares''' || nāmv'''irles''' || gṇyau'''res''' || gṇyāv'''irles''' || uld'''ares''' || uld'''irles'''
| jāyį || jāyinne || jāyiyan
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Dative</small>
| nāmv'''adat''' || nāmv'''irdat''' || gṇyau'''dat''' || gṇyāv'''irdat''' || uld'''adat''' || uld'''irdat'''
| jāyimom || jāyį || jāyiṃsam
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
! <small>Ablative</small>
| nāmv'''anāja''' || nāmv'''irāja''' || gṇyau'''nāja''' || gṇyāv'''irāja''' || uld'''anāja''' || uld'''irāja'''
| jāyimų || jāyibhan || jājñenīs<sup>1</sup>
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Locative</small>
| nāmv'''aneši''' || nāmv'''ireši''' || gṇyau'''neši''' || gṇyāv'''ireši''' || uld'''aneši''' || uld'''ireši'''
| jāyiṃrye || jāyinne || jāyilīm
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Instrumental</small>
| nāmv'''aika''' || nāmv'''ireka''' || gṇyāv'''aika''' || gṇyāv'''ireka''' || uld'''aika''' || uld'''ireka'''
| jāyimap || jāyibhan || jāyiṃrīka
|}
|}
{{col-end}}
{
Table notes:
# Such forms with ''-jñ-'' are underlyingly ''-y-y-'' (e.g. ''jāy-y-es'' → ''jājñes'').


Some verbs have an irregular 3SG exterior past form due to ''-k'' attaching directly to the consonant. This does not happen in all athematic verbs, but only in the following ones:
===H-nouns - Hahą lā halenī===
* ''purake'' "to powder, to break with the hands" and ''sturake'' "to fall" which have ''pāṭ'' and ''stāṭ'' respectively.
{{col-begin}}
* ''lutake'' "to obtain, gain, take advantage<ref>For the latter two meanings, the regular athematic verb ''halimaiške'' (halimaišē, halimaišek, ehalimaiše) is more commonly used.</ref>" (''lak''), ''ssutake'' "to attract, to bait, to seduce" (''ssak''), ''sprutake'' "to join, link" (''sprak'')
{{col-break}}
* ''leilge'' "to concern, to be on the topic of" (''lål'')
{| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
* ''peithake'' "to go on foot (multidirectional)" (''pat'')
|+1-h (-a, -ā, (-ah, -āh), -o<sup>1</sup>)
* ''ręiske'' "to tickle" (''rąs'') and ''ñæssake'' "to blink" (''ños'')
|-
 
! Case !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
'''Causative'''<br/>
Causative forms use the same stems as in the present indicative.
Exterior forms:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 colspan=2 | Person !! colspan =2 | No ablaut !! colspan =2 | Ablaut !! colspan =2 | Inverse ablaut
! <small>Direct</small>
| '''māra'''<br/><small>''"mango"''</small> || rowspan=2 | mārāt || rowspan=2 | mārai
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | nāmvake <br/><small>"to make crush, press"</small> !! colspan=2 | mišake <br/><small>"to show; ''int.:'' learn"</small> !! colspan=2 | valde <br/><small>"to make open"</small>
! <small>Vocative</small>
| māre
|-
|-
! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small>
! <small>Accusative</small>
| māru || mārāṣa || māraih
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
! <small>Ergative</small>
| nāmv'''ildau''' || nāmv'''īldrau''' || maiš'''ildau''' || maiš'''īldrau''' || uvald'''ildau''' || uvald'''īldrau'''
| mārei || mārāra || mārān
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Genitive</small>
| nāmv'''ildei''' || nāmv'''īldrei''' || maiš'''ildei''' || maiš'''īldrei''' || uvald'''ildei''' || uvald'''īldrei'''
| māri<sup>2</sup> || māreva || mārumi
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Translative</small>
| nāmv'''ildek''' || nāmv'''īldrek''' || maiš'''ildek''' || maiš'''īldrek''' || uvald'''ildek''' || uvald'''īldrek'''
| māran || mārarį || māremān
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
! <small>Exessive</small>
| nāmv'''ildaram''' || nāmv'''īldṛvam''' || maiš'''ildaram''' || maiš'''īldṛvam''' || uvald'''ildaram''' || uvald'''īldṛvam'''
| mārat || mārabhan || mārenīs
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Essive</small>
| nāmv'''ildares''' || nāmv'''īldṛves''' || maiš'''ildares''' || maiš'''īldṛves''' || uvald'''ildares''' || uvald'''īldṛves'''
| māręs || māranne || mārāra
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Dative</small>
| nāmv'''ildat''' || nāmv'''īldṛdat''' || maiš'''ildat''' || maiš'''īldṛdat''' || uvald'''ildat''' || uvald'''īldṛdat'''
| mārom || mārarį || māresām
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
! <small>Ablative</small>
| nāmv'''ildāja''' || nāmv'''īldrāja''' || maiš'''ildāja''' || maiš'''īldrāja''' || uvald'''ildāja''' || meš'''īldrāja'''
| mārų || mārabhan || mārenīs
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Locative</small>
| nāmv'''ildeši''' || nāmv'''īldreši''' || maiš'''ildeši''' || maiš'''īldreši''' || uvald'''ildeši''' || uvald'''īldreši'''
| māre || māranne || mārelīm
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Instrumental</small>
| nāmv'''ildaika''' || nāmv'''īldreka''' || maiš'''ildaika''' || maiš'''īldreka''' || uvald'''ildaika''' || uvald'''īldreka'''
| mārap || mārabhan || mārenīka
|}
|}
 
{{col-break}}
===Perfect Indicative===
{| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
The perfect is formed with the same terminations for all verbs. The particularity of this tense is that it uses a special stem (used for the perfect and for the future intentional), formed by prefixing the root vowel (shortened, oral, and with the basic root ablaut) to the stem - but note that verb classes 5 to 10 have their own vowel patterns that diverge from this general one. Examples:
|+2-h (-ē, -eh, -ǣh<sup>3</sup>)
* ''nāmvake'' “to crush, press” = ''nāmv- → anāmv-''
|-
* ''khluke'' “to search, look for” = ''khlu- → ukhlu-''
! Case !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
* ''hilkake'' “to dye, colour” = ''hilk- → ihilk-''
* ''męlike'' “to give” = ''męlь → emęlь-''
'''æ''' uses '''i'''; '''o''', '''å''', and '''ṛ''' use '''a''' (except for ''ṛ-'' initial verbs, which have ''ṝ-''); diphthongs usually only take their first component, exceptions being '''ai''' (→ e) and '''au''' (→ o):
* ''dældake'' “to speak” = ''dæld- → idæld-''
* ''kolkake'' “to be acid” = ''kolk- → akolk-''
* ''tṛlake'' “to know, understand” = ''tṛl- → atṛl-''
* ''ṛṣme'' "to plan to, to have the intention of" = ''ṛṣm- → ṝṣm-''
* ''yaudake'' “to catch” = ''yaud- → oyaud-''
* ''laitake'' “to row” = ''lait- → elait-''
 
Causative stems with ablaut have a full reduplication, using the first consonant plus the basic vowel grade, like ''miš- → maiš- → mimaiš-''. The causative interior forms have ''-ildr-'' with a short vowel, unlike for the past and present.
 
A few verbs have irregular stems:
* ''lulke'' "to go (unidirectional)" = ''elīs-''
* ''lilke'' “to live” = ''lælī-''
* ''dṛke'' “to do” = ''dadrā-''
 
Note that in the perfect, the 3rd person does not distinguish number:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 colspan=2 | Person !! colspan=2 | Non-causative !! colspan=2 | Causative
! <small>Direct</small>
| '''javileh'''<br/><small>''"apple"''</small> || rowspan=2 | javilyāt || rowspan=2 | javilyai
|-
|-
! colspan=4 | nāmvake <br/><small>"to crush, press"</small>
! <small>Vocative</small>
| javilei
|-
|-
! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small>
! <small>Accusative</small>
| javilyu || javilēṣa || javileih
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
! <small>Ergative</small>
| anāmv'''am''' || anāmv'''iram''' || anāmv'''ildam''' || anāmv'''ildṛm'''
| javilei || javilyāra || javilyān
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Genitive</small>
| anāmv'''es''' || anāmv'''ires''' || anāmv'''ildes''' || anāmv'''ildṛs'''
| javili || javileva<sup>4</sup> || javilyumi
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Translative</small>
| anāmv'''a''' || anāmv'''irā''' || anāmv'''ildā''' || anāmv'''ildirā'''
| javilen || javilerį || javilemān
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
! <small>Exessive</small>
| anāmv'''ara''' || anāmv'''irala''' || anāmv'''ildara''' || anāmv'''ildrāh'''
| javilet || javilebhan || javilenīs
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Essive</small>
| anāmv'''ari''' || anāmv'''irali''' || anāmv'''ildari''' || anāmv'''ildrai'''
| javilęs || javilenne || javilyāra
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Dative</small>
| anāmv'''a''' || anāmv'''irā''' || anāmv'''ildā''' || anāmv'''ildirā'''
| javilyom || javilerį || javilesām
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
! <small>Ablative</small>
| anāmv'''ima''' || anāmv'''irma''' || anāmv'''ildima''' || anāmv'''ildṛma'''
| javilyų || javilebhan || javilenīs
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Locative</small>
| anāmv'''iša''' || anāmv'''irša''' || anāmv'''ildiša''' || anāmv'''ildṛša'''
| javilye || javilenne || javilelīm
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Instrumental</small>
| anāmv'''a''' || anāmv'''irā''' || anāmv'''ildā''' || anāmv'''ildirā'''
| javilep || javilebhan || javilenīka
|}
|}
 
{{col-break}}
=== General future indicative ===
{| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
The general future tense does not vary between conjugations, and the stem - except for causative verbs - is always the one used in the infinitive. Like the perfect, the future does not distinguish number in the 3rd person (historically, the endings were the same, as the future was built with the perfect of PLB *išəj- (to take)). It is used for general future events (''menire dašajildiṣya'' "it will rain tomorrow"), obligations (''pūnikā menire męliṣya'' "the work will be [=has to be] delivered tomorrow"), and general imperfective events in the future (''lūlunimarte liliṣyam'' "I'll be living in Lūlunimarta"); see also the following section on ''future intentional''.
|+3-h (-uh, -ūh, -u<sup>5</sup>)
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Case !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 colspan=2 | Person !! colspan=2 | Non-causative !! colspan=2 | Causative
! <small>Direct</small>
| '''ñaɂuh'''<br/><small>''"fruit skin"''</small> || rowspan=2 | ñaɂūt || rowspan=2 | ñaɂūvi
|-
|-
! colspan=4 | nāmvake <br/><small>"to crush, press"</small>
! <small>Vocative</small>
| ñaɂū
|-
|-
! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small>
! <small>Accusative</small>
| ñaɂunu || ñaɂūṣa || ñaɂuyih
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
! <small>Ergative</small>
| nāmv'''iṣyam''' || nāmv'''iriṣyam''' || nāmv'''ildiṣyam''' || nāmv'''ildirṣyam'''
| ñaɂuyei || ñaɂura || ñaɂun
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Genitive</small>
| nāmv'''iṣyes''' || nāmv'''iriṣyes''' || nāmv'''ildiṣyes''' || nāmv'''ildirṣyes'''
| ñaɂuyi || ñaɂuva || ñaɂūmi
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Translative</small>
| nāmv'''iṣya''' || nāmv'''iriṣya''' || nāmv'''ildiṣya''' || nāmv'''ildirṣya'''
| ñaɂun || ñaɂurį || ñaɂumān
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
! <small>Exessive</small>
| nāmv'''iṣyara''' || nāmv'''iriṣyara''' || nāmv'''ildiṣyara''' || nāmv'''ildirṣyara'''
| ñaɂut || ñaɂubhan || ñaɂunīs
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Essive</small>
| nāmv'''iṣyari''' || nāmv'''iriṣyari''' || nāmv'''ildiṣyari''' || nāmv'''ildirṣyari'''
| ñaɂųs || ñaɂunne || ñaɂura
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Dative</small>
| nāmv'''iṣya''' || nāmv'''iriṣya''' || nāmv'''ildiṣya''' || nāmv'''ildirṣya'''
| ñaɂuvom || ñaɂurį || ñaɂusām
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
! <small>Ablative</small>
| nāmv'''iṣīma''' || nāmv'''iriṣīma''' || nāmv'''ildiṣīma''' || nāmv'''ildirṣīma'''
| ñaɂuvų || ñaɂubhan || ñaɂunīs
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Locative</small>
| nāmv'''iṣīsa''' || nāmv'''iriṣīsa''' || nāmv'''ildiṣīsa''' || nāmv'''ildirṣīsa'''
| ñaɂuve || ñaɂunne || ñaɂulīm
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Instrumental</small>
| nāmv'''iṣya''' || nāmv'''iriṣya''' || nāmv'''ildiṣya''' || nāmv'''ildirṣya'''
| ñaɂup || ñaɂubhan || ñaɂunīka
|}
|}
 
{{col-break}}
Note that ''-tiā-'' verbs (e.g. ''tatiāke'' "to stand") form their future with ''-tiā'' instead of ''-tim'' as the other tenses: ''tatiaiṣyam'', ''tatiairiṣyam'', ...
{| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
 
|+4-m (-ih, -īh, -i<sup>6</sup>)
Also note that, in order to state the future of "to be" and "to have", the '''present''' forms of ''ndǣke'' (to become) and ''milke'' (to get, take) respectively are more commonly used:
|-
: ''hulābdān ndevē'' "it is becoming good" = "it will be good" = exactly the same meaning as ''hulābdān jalṣya''.
! Case !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
: ''nanau naviṣyu milkute'' "I am taking that book" = "I will have that book" = exactly the same as ''naviṣya liliā jalṣya'' or similar sentences.
 
=== Future intentional indicative ===
The future intentional indicative is a verbal form used for stating mainly intentional, perfective in meaning, future events. It may be translated most commonly as "to be going to", "to plan to", or also as "to want to"; it also has the rather idiomatic meaning of an expectation. In any case, its perfective meaning means that habitual or continuous future events, even if planned, are either expressed with the general future or expressed with the future intentional of a frequentative verb. Some examples of its use are:
: ''menire prājaṃnē lalti lenta nakṣuṃkitom elīsāltam'' "tomorrow evening I'll go to the ''nakṣuṃkita''<ref>A small bar focused on music performances.</ref> with my friend".
: ''galiākinų tammi šulkų railų natte tailīsālta'' "the train from Galiākina is expected to arrive in five railai (=a bit more than 4½ minutes)."
: ''liliā maiha murkire helajyū ilakāltate : lili no ūnikire tū ilakāltaṃte'' "my daughter is going to take the black ''helajyā''<ref>A kind of blouse, usually worn with a Chlouvānem sarī (''jånirāh'').</ref>, while I'm going to take the red one."
 
The future intentional is formed starting from the ''perfect stem'': more properly, the third person form of any present verb is taken, the final ''-a'' is lengthened, and ''-lta'' (in the non-causative exterior) or ''-l(a)-'' (in all other forms) is added, followed by the usual perfect endings; the causative exterior has the otherwise irregular change ''-rā-'' → ''-ṝ-''.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 colspan=2 | Person !! colspan=2 | Non-causative !! colspan=2 | Causative
! <small>Direct</small>
| '''ghārṭih'''<br/><small>''"arrow"''</small> || rowspan=2 | ghārṭīt || rowspan=2 | ghārṭeyi
|-
|-
! colspan=4 | nāmvake <br/><small>"to crush, press"</small>
! <small>Vocative</small>
| ghārṭī
|-
|-
! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small>
! <small>Accusative</small>
| ghārṭyu || ghārṭīṣa || ghārṭeyih
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
! <small>Ergative</small>
| anāmv'''āltam''' || anāmv'''irālam''' || anāmv'''ildālam''' || anāmv'''ildṝlam'''
| ghārṭyei || ghārṭira || ghārṭin
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Genitive</small>
| anāmv'''āltes''' || anāmv'''irāles''' || anāmv'''ildāles''' || anāmv'''ildṝlas'''
| ghārṭīyi || ghārṭiva || ghārṭyumi
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Translative</small>
| anāmv'''ālta''' || anāmv'''irāl''' || anāmv'''ildāl''' || anāmv'''ildirāl'''
| ghārṭin || ghārṭirį || ghārṭimān
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
! <small>Exessive</small>
| anāmv'''āltara''' || anāmv'''irālara''' || anāmv'''ildālara''' || anāmv'''ildṝlāh'''
| ghārṭit || ghārṭibhan || ghārṭinīs
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Essive</small>
| anāmv'''āltari''' || anāmv'''irālari''' || anāmv'''ildālari''' || anāmv'''ildṝlai'''
| ghārṭįs || ghārṭinne || ghārṭira
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Dative</small>
| anāmv'''ālta''' || anāmv'''irāl''' || anāmv'''ildāl''' || anāmv'''ildirāl'''
| ghārṭyom || ghārṭirį || ghārṭisām
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
! <small>Ablative</small>
| anāmv'''āltima''' || anāmv'''irālma''' || anāmv'''ildālima''' || anāmv'''ildṝlma'''
| ghārṭyų || ghārṭibhan || ghārṭinīs
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Locative</small>
| anāmv'''āltiša''' || anāmv'''irālša''' || anāmv'''ildāliša''' || anāmv'''ildṝlša'''
| ghārṭye || ghārṭinne || ghārṭilīm
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Instrumental</small>
| anāmv'''ālta''' || anāmv'''irāl''' || anāmv'''ildāl''' || anāmv'''ildirāl'''
| ghārṭip || ghārṭibhan || ghārṭinīka
|}
|}
 
{{col-end}}
=== Voice marking ===
{{col-begin}}
Chlouvānem has seven voices, marked by affixes added, in unprefixed verbs, at the end of the verb. As the patient-trigger voice (common voice in interior verbs) is unmarked, the six voice markers are:
{{col-break}}
* '''-te''' for agent-trigger voice (in exterior verbs only) — but note that ''-ē-te'' (in most 3sg verbs) becomes ''-egde'' (as ''-ē'' derives from historical *-eg);
{| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
* '''-kæ''' for benefactive-trigger voice;
|+1-h (h-paradigm)
* '''-tū''' ('''-tur''' non-finally) for antibenefactive-trigger voice;
|-
* '''-rā''' for locative-trigger voice;
! Case !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
* '''-mǣ''' for instrumental-trigger voice;
* '''-ūsi''' for dative-trigger voice.
Examples of voice marking are ''męliē'' (he/she/it is given) — ''męliegde'' (he/she/it gives) (and ''męliu'' (I am given) → ''męliute'' "I give") — ''męliēkæ'' (something is given for him/her/it) — ''męliētū'' (something is given against him/her/it) — ''męliērā'' (something is given in him/her/it) — ''męliēmǣ'' (something is given with him/her/it) — ''męliegūsi'' (something is given to him/her/it).
 
In prefixed verbs, voice marking is a bit different as the voice marker is inserted between the prefix and the stem, thus forms like ''yāyųlē'' (he/she/it is eaten too much) → ''yāteyųlē'' (he/she/it eats too much). Saṃdhi is applied if needed, e.g. "something is eaten for him/her/it directly from a tree" is ''taktæyųlē'' (morphemically ''tad-kæ-yųlē'', verb ''tadyųlake'').
 
The triggered arguments are always marked with the direct case; the other roles are marked with the respective cases and/or locutions:
* Patient: accusative case
* Agent: ergative case
* Benefacted: ''nali'' (governs the direct case)
* Antibenefacted: ''ras'' (governs the direct case)
* Place: locative case
* Dative argument: dative case
* Instrument: instrumental case
Patients of intransitive and interior verbs usually require the essive case instead of the accusative. An example is the structure "there is/are ... in ...", usually cast in locative-trigger voice:
: ''keika lalāruṇęs virā.''
: garden.<small>DIR.SG</small>. lalāruṇa-<small>ESS.SG</small>. be.<small>IND.PRES.3S.EXTERIOR-LOCATIVE</small>.
: There is a lalāruṇa in the garden.
 
===The subjunctive mood===
The subjunctive mood only distinguishes aspects and not tense; it is formed by special terminations and has exterior, interior, regular and causative forms.
 
The subjunctive is fairly regular for all verbs, using (except in the causative conjugation) the most basic form of the root — that is,  in basic grade ablaut; the only exceptions being inverse ablauting roots which use their weakened form (e.g. ''valde'' uses ''uld-'' and not ''vald-'').
 
'''Imperfective aspect'''
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 colspan=2 | Person !! colspan=2 | Non-causative !! colspan=2 | Causative
! <small>Direct</small>
| '''raiṇah'''<br/><small>''"(piece of) cloth"''</small> || rowspan=2 | raiṇāt || rowspan=2 | raiṇai
|-
|-
! colspan=4 | nāmvake <br/><small>"to crush, press"</small>
! <small>Vocative</small>
| raiṇe
|-
|-
! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small>
! <small>Accusative</small>
| raiṇu || raiṇāṣa || raiṇaih
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
! <small>Ergative</small>
| nāmv'''ati''' || nāmv'''irte''' || nāmv'''ilde''' || nāmv'''ildret'''
| raiṇei || raiṇāra || raiṇān
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Genitive</small>
| nāmv'''īsь''' || nāmv'''iresь''' || nāmv'''ildīsь''' || nāmv'''ildresь'''
| raiṇi<sup>2</sup> || raiṇeva || raiṇumi
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Translative</small>
| nāmv'''ī''' || nāmv'''irya''' || nāmv'''ildī''' || nāmv'''ildrya'''
| raiṇan || raiṇarį || raiṇamān
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
! <small>Exessive</small>
| nāmv'''īndu''' || nāmv'''irdu''' || nāmv'''iledu''' || nāmv'''ildṛdu'''
| raiṇat || raiṇabhan || raiṇenīs
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Essive</small>
| nāmv'''īndi''' || nāmv'''īrdi''' || nāmv'''iledi''' || nāmv'''ildṛdi'''
| raiṇęs || raiṇanne || raiṇāra
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Dative</small>
| nāmv'''ī''' || nāmv'''irya''' || nāmv'''ildī''' || nāmv'''ildrya'''
| raiṇom || raiṇarį || raiṇasām
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
! <small>Ablative</small>
| nāmv'''īnam''' || nāmv'''irenam''' || nāmv'''ildīnam''' || nāmv'''ildṛnam'''
| raiṇų || raiṇabhan || raiṇanīs
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Locative</small>
| nāmv'''īnes''' || nāmv'''irenes''' || nāmv'''ildīnes''' || nāmv'''ildṛnes'''
| raiṇe || raiṇanne || raiṇalīm
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Instrumental</small>
| nāmv'''ī''' || nāmv'''irya''' || nāmv'''ildī''' || nāmv'''ildrya'''
| raiṇap || raiṇabhan || raiṇanīka
|}
|}
{{col-break|valign=middle|gap=1em}}
The ''h-paradigm'' used by nouns in ''-ah'' and ''-āh'' is substantially identical to the regular 1-h one, except for the exessive, dative, ablative, locative, and instrumental plural which have ''-a-'' instead of ''-e-'' as a linking vowel and, for some nouns, the genitive singular ''(see table note 2)''.
{{col-end}}
Table notes:
# ''-o'' nouns are mostly toponyms of Toyubeshian origins; they decline like ''-a'' nouns, with their ending being treated as *-a-u, with the -a part of the stem; e.g. ''Paramito'', locative ''Paramitai'' (underlying form Paramit-a-e).
# ''-ya'', and ''-yā'' nouns form the genitive singular in ''-ei'' (e.g. ''lalyā'' "night" → ''lalei''). Nouns in ''-yah'', and ''-yāh'', however, have the regular ending (e.g. ''yamyah'' "fog" → ''yamyi'').
# All ''-ǣh'' nouns are of Lällshag origin, and are mostly toponyms (like ''Laikunanǣh''), with some exceptions like the two lunar days ''kælyaunænǣh'' and ''yeicapænǣh''. Note that such nouns have their genitive singular in ''-ǣyi'' and not in ''-ī''.
# In older texts ''-eiva'' (e.g. ''javileiva''), today only used in literature for an archaïzing effect or to mark a character speaking with a Northern Plain pronunciation (where this form survives in the spoken language).
# Mostly regional Western words of Dabuke origin.
# Non-productive with borrowings, but common in native words.


'''Perfective aspect'''
===Special declensions===
{| class="wikitable"
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+Ablaut declension
|-
! Case !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 colspan=2 | Person !! colspan=2 | Non-causative !! colspan=2 | Causative
! <small>Direct</small>
| rowspan=2 | '''lila'''<br/><small>''"person"''</small> || rowspan=2 | lilāt || rowspan=2 | lelyē
|-
|-
! colspan=4 | nāmvake <br/><small>"to crush, press"</small>
! <small>Vocative</small>
|-
|-
! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small>
! <small>Accusative</small>
| lilu || lilāṣa || lelyu
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
! <small>Ergative</small>
| nāmv'''ēta''' || nāmv'''irēta''' || nāmv'''ildēta''' || nāmv'''ildrēta'''
| lilei || lilāra || lelyei
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Genitive</small>
| nāmv'''ēti''' || nāmv'''irēti''' || nāmv'''ildēti''' || nāmv'''ildrēti'''
| leli || lileva || laili
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Translative</small>
| nāmv'''ēt''' || nāmv'''irēt''' || nāmv'''ildēt''' || nāmv'''ildrēt'''
| lilan || lilarį || lelyan
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
! <small>Exessive</small>
| nāmv'''ētham''' || nāmv'''irētham''' || nāmv'''ildētham''' || nāmv'''ildrētham'''
| lilat || lilabhan || lelyat
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Essive</small>
| nāmv'''ēthai''' || nāmv'''irēthai''' || nāmv'''ildēthai''' || nāmv'''ildrēthai'''
| liląs || lilanne || lailąs
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Dative</small>
| nāmv'''ēt''' || nāmv'''irēt''' || nāmv'''ildēt''' || nāmv'''ildrēt'''
| lilom || lilarį || lelyom
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
! <small>Ablative</small>
| nāmv'''eine''' || nāmv'''ireine''' || nāmv'''ildeine''' || nāmv'''ildrene'''
| lilų || lilabhan || lelyų
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Locative</small>
| nāmv'''eiše''' || nāmv'''ireiše''' || nāmv'''ildeiše''' || nāmv'''ildreše'''
| lile || lilanne || laile
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Instrumental</small>
| nāmv'''ēt''' || nāmv'''irēt''' || nāmv'''ildēt''' || nāmv'''ildrēt'''
| lilap || lilabhan || lelyap
|}
|}
 
{{col-break}}
===The imperative mood===
{| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
The imperative is a defective paradigm, lacking all dual forms — note, though, that some grammarians follow common use and simply list dual forms that are exactly the same as the plural ones; the third person forms do not distinguish number anyway. It is formed from the bare root, thus it has the same formation for all verbs. Unlike all other terminations, there are separate agentive and patientive ones. Causative forms follow the same pattern as non-causative ones, but the stem is the specifically causative one.
|+-oe declension
 
|-
The imperative has imperfective and perfective aspects (the latter having the same terminations, except for 2SG and 3SG, but with the perfect stem), like the subjunctive: the perfective forms are used with a time expression and indicate that the action has to be done before that time, e.g. ''enaukaṃrye parās irįšæ'' "have your hair cut before the summer" - cf. ''enaukaṃrye parās rįša'' "get a haircut during the summer".
! Case !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
 
In contemporary Chlouvānem, most forms of the imperative are obsolete: the imperfective imperative is typically only used in the 2SG and in the 3SG patientive; the singular and first-person plural (except for the 1SG and 3SG causatives) are the only ones commonly used in the perfective. The imperative is, furthermore, colloquial and may be impolite in many cases; wherever a command is needed, the optative is used instead, if not even more complex constructions.<br/>The imperative is however used for generic, mandatory commands, most notably on warning signs or announcements, such as e.g. ''nakāyų thiatia'' "mind the gap".
 
''In all following tables, forms in <small>smaller italic font</small> are obsolete in contemporary Chlouvānem.''
 
'''Imperfective aspect'''
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 colspan=2 | Person !! colspan=3 | Non-causative !! colspan=3 | Causative
! <small>Direct</small>
| rowspan=2 | '''haloe'''<br/><small>''"name"''</small> || rowspan=2 | halenāt || rowspan=2 | halenī
|-
|-
! colspan=6 | nāmvake <br/><small>"to crush, press"</small>
! <small>Vocative</small>
|-
|-
! <small>Ex. patientive</small> !! <small>Ex. agentive</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Ex. patientive</small> !! <small>Ex. agentive</small> !! <small>Interior</small>
! <small>Accusative</small>
| halenu || halenāṣa || halenaih
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
! <small>Ergative</small>
| <small>''nāmv'''iku'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''yasu'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''iriku'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''ildiku'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''ildesu'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''ildriku'''''</small>
| halenei || halenāya || halenān
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Genitive</small>
| nāmv'''ota''' || nāmv'''a''' || nāmv'''ih''' || nāmv'''ilduta''' || nāmv'''ilda''' || nāmv'''ildṝ'''
| haleni || halemva || haloemi
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Translative</small>
| nāmv'''ogit''' || <small>''nāmv'''āgi'''''</small> || nāmv'''irogi''' || <small>''nāmv'''ildogi'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''ildāgi'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''ildrogi'''''</small>
| halenan || halenaus || haloemān
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
! <small>Exessive</small>
| rowspan=3 colspan=6 style="text-align: center;" | ''No dual imperative forms''
| halenat || haloebhan || haloenīs
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Essive</small>
| halen || haloegin || halenāya
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Dative</small>
| halenom || halenaus || haloesām
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
! <small>Ablative</small>
| <small>''nāmv'''immi'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''yasmi'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''irimmi'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''ildimmi'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''ildesmi'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''ildrimmi'''''</small>
| halenų || haloebhan || haloenīs
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Locative</small>
| <small>''nāmv'''oše'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''ąs'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''irąs'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''ilduše'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''ildąs'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''ildruše'''''</small>
| halenye || haloegin || halenilīm
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Instrumental</small>
| <small>''nāmv'''avija'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''aik'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''iroja'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''ildoja'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''ildaik'''''</small> || <small>''nāmv'''ildroja'''''</small>
| halenap || haloebhan || haloenīka
|}
|}
 
{{col-break}}
Note that the second person singular agentive non-causative form does not take '''-a''' if the ending of the root is already acceptable (e.g. ''lgut!'' "buy!"). If the root ends with a palatalized consonant, it remains as such if it ends with a single acceptable consonant (e.g. ''męlь!'' "give!), otherwise it adds ''-i'' (e.g. ''dhāsmi!'' "save!").
{| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
 
|+-ai declension
'''Perfective aspect'''
|-
{| class="wikitable"
! Case !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 colspan=2 | Person !! colspan=3 | Non-causative !! colspan=3 | Causative
! <small>Direct</small>
| rowspan=2 | '''lunai'''<br/><small>''"tea"''</small> || rowspan=2 | lunaiva || rowspan=2 | lunāye
|-
|-
! colspan=6 | nāmvake <br/><small>"to crush, press"</small>
! <small>Vocative</small>
|-
|-
! <small>Ex. patientive</small> !! <small>Ex. agentive</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Ex. patientive</small> !! <small>Ex. agentive</small> !! <small>Interior</small>
! <small>Accusative</small>
| lunāyu || lunāyes || lunāyaih
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
! <small>Ergative</small>
| anāmv'''iku''' || anāmv'''yasu''' || anāmv'''iriku''' || <small>''anāmv'''ildiku'''''</small> || <small>''anāmv'''ildesu'''''</small> || <small>''anāmv'''ildriku'''''</small>
| lunǣ || lunāyēn || lunāyūn
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Genitive</small>
| anāmv'''os''' || anāmv'''æ''' || anāmv'''ih''' || anāmv'''ildos''' || anāmv'''ildæ''' || anāmv'''ildṝ'''
| lunāyi || lunaiva || lunāyān
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Translative</small>
| anāmv'''oja''' || anāmv'''ænь''' || anāmv'''iruja''' || <small>''anāmv'''ilduja'''''</small> || <small>''anāmv'''ildænь'''''</small> || <small>''anāmv'''ildṛja'''''</small>
| lunain || lunāyį || lunaimān
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
! <small>Exessive</small>
| rowspan=3 colspan=6 style="text-align: center;" | ''No dual imperative forms''
| lunait || lunaibhan || lunǣnīs
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Essive</small>
| lunąis || lunainne || lunāyēn
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Dative</small>
| lunāyom || lunāyį || lunaisām
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
! <small>Ablative</small>
| anāmv'''immi''' || anāmv'''yasmi''' || anāmv'''irimmi''' || anāmv'''ildimmi''' || anāmv'''ildesmi'''|| anāmv'''ildrimmi'''
| lunāyų || lunaibhan || lunǣnīs
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Locative</small>
| <small>''anāmv'''oše'''''</small> || <small>''anāmv'''ąs'''''</small> || <small>''anāmv'''irąs'''''</small> || <small>''anāmv'''ilduše'''''</small> || <small>''anāmv'''ildąs'''''</small> || <small>''anāmv'''ildruše'''''</small>
| lunāye || lunainne || lunailīm
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Instrumental</small>
| <small>''anāmv'''avija'''''</small> || <small>''anāmv'''aik'''''</small> || <small>''anāmv'''iroja'''''</small> || <small>''anāmv'''ildoja'''''</small> || <small>''anāmv'''ildaik'''''</small> || <small>''anāmv'''ildroja'''''</small>
| lunaip || lunaibhan || lunainīka
|}
|}
{{col-end}}
The ablaut declension is in the singular (except for the vocative and essive) and dual the same as the 1-h one, including the ''-ei'' rule for the genitive singular (e.g. ''rinya'' "ceiling", gen.sg. ''renei''), except for the fact that the genitive singular has a middle-grade vowel. The plural has mostly the same endings as the singular but with middle-grade vowels in most forms (genitive, essive, and locative have a higher-grade one). ''-y-'' is inserted between the stem and the ending, but not for nouns ending in ''-ya'' (''rinya'' → ''renyē'').<br/>
The vowel that undergoes ablaut is usually the penultimate (e.g. ''plušamila'' "Office of the Inquisition", plural ''plušamelyē''), but in some cases it's the first (e.g. ''kimeda'' (a type of panther), plural ''kemedyē'').


===The optative mood===
Hypocoristic forms of male names, which end in ''-em'' and are only used in the singular, are declined following a mix of the 1-m and 1-h patterns. In fact, they follow the 1-m pattern (the ''-am'' paradigm) except for the ergative (in ''-emei'' instead of *-(e)mæ) and the essive (in ''-ęs'' instead of *-(e)mą). For example the hypocoristicon ''Kælem'' has ergative ''Kælemei'' and essive ''Kælęs''.
The optative mood also only conjugates in imperfective and perfective aspect. It uses a special stem, regular for almost all verbs, formed by adding ''-ūy-'' to the root plus thematic vowel. This means that, for thematic verbs, the marker is always ''-oy-'' (e.g. ''nāmvoyu''), while it is always ''-ūy-'' for athematic ones (e.g. ''drūyu'').


The imperfective aspect uses the present tense endings (but 3SG exterior has ''-e'' and not *-ē), while the perfective aspect uses the past ones (with ''-a'' instead of *-k for 3SG exterior).
===Singularia and pluralia tantum===
'''Pluralia tantum''' in Chlouvānem include the following words or categories of words:
# many collective nouns:

#: ''pārāk'' "hair", ''kāraṇḍhai'' "guts", ''yūgure'' "limbs", ''agṇyaucai'' "sons and daughters", ''vailašaus'' "cutlery", ''šūlyakāše'' "dishes"
# things that are heterogeneous in form but considered as a single entity:
#: ''katanai'' "clutter", ''dūḍhvai'' "banquet, buffet", ''vārṇaigīk'' (a type of sandals made from straw rope), ''ḍheṃlatiryai'' "streaming"<ref>The word ''latiryai'' is the plural of ''latirē'' (wave, ray), but this compound does not have a singular form.</ref>, ''ltælime'' "magic", ''ṣrūḍhais'' "savings", ''dāyārṣe'' "resin", ''ḍåtvāk'' "fat", ''tadmāltsāk'' "controller"
# certain actions and processes that involve multiple people:
#: ''vāgdilanai'' "elections", ''viṣlonai'' "protest, riot", ''jāṃrice'' "traffic jam", ''grembātatālunai'' "hide-and-seek" (sometimes also found as dual)
# nouns denoting certain time spans, festivals, or holidays:
#: ''saṃlallai'' "afternoon", ''Bhaivyāvāṣaryai'' (the most important Yunyalīlti festivity), ''Kūlħanarai'' (a winter festival of Kenengyry origin)
# a few illnesses and health conditions or disorders:
#: ''nirganai'' "urticaria", ''nañvai'' "autism", ''paṣadårbhai'' "influenza"
# some locations, including large delimited areas as well as many toponyms:
#: ''aryai'' "square", ''cahåtaibāk'' "tropics"
#: ''Rīkalīnai'', ''Mūnnakṣalte''
# all ethnonyms:
#: ''chlǣvānem'' "Chlouvānem", ''ṣurṭāgyai'' "Skyrdegan(s)", ''bronyai'' "Bronic(s)", ''sairghīṭyai'' "Cerian(s)", ''nivrahīrai'' "Nivarese"                                                 
A few nouns do not have a singular, but can have a dual and a plural form. Their citation form is usually the dual:
: ''maihadhūt'' "parents", ''grembātatālunāt'' "hide-and-seek" (most commonly a plurale tantum)
Counted among pluralia tantums are certain words which are not defective in number, but whose plural forms have an additional meaning alongside the one of the singular form, like in the following examples:
: ''hamvyenī'' "nursery" (''hamvyoe'' "cradle"), ''įsmirte'' "playground" (''įsmirtas'' "swing"), ''nacai'' "clothes" (''naca'' "cloth"), ''garaṇai'' "clock, watch" (''garaṇa'' "hour), ''lairusī'' "galaxy" (''lairē'' "sky, air"), ''ilēneyi'' "universe" (''ilēni'' "space, invisible sky").
Unlike ethnonyms, nouns formed with the suffix ''-yūs'', generally identifying a person from a certain city (e.g. ''līlasuṃghāṇyūs'', ''ajāɂilbādhyūs'') – but note ''yacvānyūs'' "Westerner" – are not pluralia tantum and have regularly-formed plurals (in ''-yaus'').


Example (''nāmvake'' “to crush, press”):
Some words are '''singularia tantum''':
* Imperfective: <small>(EXT)</small> ''nāmvoyu'', ''nāmvoyi'', ''nāmvoye'', ''nāmvoyasme'', ... <small>(INT)</small> ''nāmvoyiru'', ''nāmvoyiris'', ... <small>(CAUS EXT)</small> ''nāmvoyildu'', ''nāmvoyildi'', ... <small>(CAUS INT)</small> ''nāmvoyīldru'', ''nāmvoyīldri'', ...
# many collective nouns:
* Imperfective: <small>(EXT)</small> ''nāmvoyau'', ''nāmvoyei'', ''nāmvoya'', ''nāmvoyaram'', ... <small>(INT)</small> ''nāmvoyirau'', ''nāmvoyirei'', ... <small>(CAUS EXT)</small> ''nāmvoyildau'', ''nāmvoyildei'', ... <small>(CAUS INT)</small> ''nāmvoyīldrau'', ''nāmvoyīldrei'', ...
#: ''nūlastām'' "money", ''maula'' "breasts [pair of]", ''mæchlišam'' "leafy greens" (and particular types, e.g. ''mæcichā'' "spinach), ''bågras'' "legumes" (and particular types, e.g. ''dīlla'' "peas", ''mahīra'' "lentils"), ''lāsīm'' "cereals", ''båltis'' "free time"
# feelings and sensations:
#: ''lācāh'' "romantic love", ''læchlyoe'' "fun", ''ǣlna'' "sadness"
# nouns denoting certain uncountable things:
#: ''paɂeh'' "dust", ''kanai'' "spices", ''nāmvāvi'' "powder, dust made from crushing something", ''ḍolam'' "ice", ''narmis'' "ash"
# certain illnesses and health conditions:
#: ''badarauga'' "blue plague", ''kloppa'' "cough" (cf. pluralizable ''kloppukāram'' "a single instance of coughing"), ''nadirṣas'' "runny nose"
# proper nouns referring to certain concepts:
#: ''yunya'', ''lillamurḍhyā'', ''mulipenai'' "the Eastern Bloc's 'Internet'", ''tulbaiganim'' "the Eastern Bloc's 'Olympics'"
#: individual sports, such as ''tēyakaitsūh'', ''ḍaṣaras'', ''lairhiṃħa'', ''yalkhaitah''
#: cardinal points, ''pūrjayuñca'' "North", ''nalejñuñca'' "East"..., including relative ones such as ''smrāṇyuñca'' "upstream" or ''memājñuñca'' "downstream"
#: musical genres, such as ''laneika'', ''mūṃjas'', ''kerachomā'', ''tūnisus''
#: specialistic terminology made with suffixes and related to sciences (''-tarlā'', ''-nātra''), diseases (''-ræṣka'', ''-yūtam'', ''-ītsun'', ''-gulas''), and political/philosophical currents (''-nātra'', ''-lija'')
# Most toponyms:
#: ''Murkadhānāvi'' "the Inquisition", ''Kaiṣamā'', ''Ṣurṭāgah'' "Skyrdagor", ''Sairghīṭa'' "Ceria", ''Kuyugvajitava'' "Kŭyŭgwažtov"


===The desiderative===
===Irregular plurals===
The desiderative ''junia'' uses a special stem, formed with reduplication of the root plus '''-s'''. The resulting stem conjugates as any root verb.
A few Chlouvānem nouns have irregular plurals:
* The word ''chlǣvānem'' itself is plural-only (like all ethnonyms) and irregular; direct and vocative are in ''-em'', but all other cases decline as a standard plural 1h noun (e.g. accusative ''chlǣvānānu'', ergative ''chlǣvānān'', genitive ''chlǣvānumi'');
* ''hulineh'' "woman" has the suppletive plural ''hulūne'' "women", which is declined as a regular 1s declension noun.
* ''maila'' “water” does not have a dual form outside of colloquial use (where ''mailāt'' is used with the meaning of “two glasses of water”) and has the irregular plural ''mailusī'', declined as the plural of an ''-oe'' noun, with ''-us-'' instead of ''-en-'' or ''-oe-'' throughout the declension (but note genitive ''mailūsmi'' and not ''mailusmi''). This plural form is actually common, used when talking about bodies of water in an area, water layers, glasses of water, and a few minor idiomatic uses (e.g. ''taili mailusilīm hilælulke'', lit. “to arrive by crossing many waters”, meaning “to have had much experience”).<br/>The ''-usī'' semantic plural is also used for the word ''damītah'' when used for "petals" (''damītusī''; the meaning of "nails" has the regular plural ''damītai''), and ''lairē'' (''lairusī'', which does not mean "skies" or "days" but "galaxy").
* Nouns with non-standard final endings (except ''chlǣvānem'') are declined by unpacking the vowel through regular saṃdhi and applying the resulting declension to the newfound root, with regular saṃdhi. The most common such nouns are ''gos'' "ford, crossing of a small river" (ga-us; gen.sg. ''ge'' (ga-i), pl. ''gaus'' (ga-aus)) and ''khaim'' "goose" (khā-im; pl. ''khaik'' (khā-īk)).
* ''švas'' "animal (including humans)" pluralizes as ''švai'', as if it were a h-noun; all cases except for direct and vocative are however regular.


Reduplication adds the first consonant of the verb (except prefixes) and its first vowel (always oral short).There are however some special rules followed in reduplicating:
===Irregular vocatives===
* Aspirated stops are always reduplicated as unaspirated;
Five very common words have common, irregular, vocative forms:
* '''g-''' is always reduplicated as '''h-''', except for a few irregular verbs;
* ''ñæltah'' "(male's) sister" — ''ñæli'' or ''ñæl''
* '''h-''' is reduplicated as '''k-''';
* ''glūkam'' "(female's) brother" — ''galū''
* '''k-''' as '''š-''';

* ''meinā'' "mother" — ''mā'' or ''mē''
* '''ġ-''' as '''ġ-''', but in the root it becomes '''ɂ'''.
* ''bunā'' "father" — ''bā'' or ''vā''
* '''l-''' in the initial clusters '''lk-''', '''lkh-''', '''lg-''', or '''lgh-''' reduplicates as '''n-'''.
* ''udhyāras'' "Comrade" — ''udhyā'' (rarely ''udhyār'')
** Some roots beginning with '''l''' have '''ħ''' as their reduplication, most notably ''lun-'' → ''ħuloṃs-'' (to go on foot, walk (monodirectional)). This is because these roots began with the Pre-Chlouvānem cluster *ħl, which was then simplified to just '''l'''; originally, the reduplication was also regular (e.g. *ħlun → *ħuħloṃs-).
* Initial clusters which begin with '''s-''', '''ṣ-''', '''š-''', or '''v-''' use the first consonant which is not one of them (but '''šv-''' reduplicates as '''š-''');
* Verbs with ablautable vowels almost always have middle-grade ablaut (there are a few exceptions, such as ''khlu-''); '''ṛ''' reduplicates as '''a''';
* Inverse-ablaut verbs have the consonant of the unreduced root but the reduced vowel;
* Roots beginning with vowels are regular, reduplicating the otherwise allophonic initial '''ɂ'''.
* Prefixes are added before the reduplicated root.
Final added '''-s''' has some special saṃdhi rules, too (in addition to the usual ones):
* '''-d-s''' and '''-dh-s''' both become '''-ts''';
* After voiced stops, '''-s''' becomes '''-r''' and aspirated stops lose aspiration. '''-j-s''' and '''-jh-s''' both become '''-jl''';
* '''-š-s''' becomes '''-kṣ''';
* '''-y-s''' becomes '''-š''';
* '''-l-s''' becomes '''-lь''' when prevocalic and '''-lš''' when preconsonantal, but '''-rl-s''' always becomes '''-relь-'''.


Causative forms just add the causative endings, without further modifying the stem. The vowel augment in the perfect stem is short if the vowel of the root is long (or ''o, å'', or a diphthong), otherwise long (e.g. ''nanāmvsute'' "I want to crush", ''ananāmvsaṃte'' "I have wanted to crush"; ''kukhlusute'' "I want to search", ''ūkukhlusaṃte'' "I have wanted to search")


In many of the northeastern and northwestern lands of the Inquisition, the analytic ''infinitive + daudike'' construction is used instead of the synthetic desiderative in almost any case.
===Use of the plural===
Chlouvānem sometimes uses the singular in contexts where English uses the plural:
* Nouns are always singular after numerals (except, optionally, ''dani'' (two), which they can also be dual after), ''sora'' (some), ''grāṇa'' (any), ''gu'' (no), ''guviṣam'' (no other), ''taili'' (many, much), ''širē'' (more), ''kaili'' (most), and ''ṣubha'' (few, little).
** After ''yaiva'', the difference in the noun's number expresses a distinction much like the one between English "every" and "all": ''yaiva kita'' "every house", ''yaiva kitai'' "all houses".
* When referring to existence or availability of something, that something is always singular, e.g. ''dvārma širēmįs virā'' "there are chairs in the room". It may be plural if topicalized, but the overall meaning of the sentence changes - e.g. ''širēmeyi mæn dvārma virā'' "the chairs are in the room".
* When referring to a single person, ''dhāna'' (hand), ''mešīn'' (eye), and ''minnūlya'' (ear), and often also ''junai'' (foot) (more rarely for ''pājya'' (leg) and ''molnya'' (arm)) are typically singular and not dual - e.g. ''nanau mešīp mešute'' "I see it with my eyes" (lit. "with my eye"). In fact, they might be translated as "a person's hands/eyes/ears", given that dual forms are often used to mean e.g. "both hands of two people" and the plural ones for e.g. "many people's hands".
* ''junyoe'' (indoor slippers), ''rapūda'' ((thick) shoes), ''mæska'' (boots), and all types of shoes are also used in the singular to refer to a pair of them. The main exception is ''varṇaigīk'' (straw rope sandals), which is a plurale tantum.
Duals and plurals of given names have the meaning of an associative plural, i.e. ''Kālomījñai'' "Kālomīyeh and people in/of her group".


Examples of desiderative stems are:

==Verbs (''daradhaus'')==
* ''peithake'' “to go (multid.)”, root ''peith-'' → ''pe-peith-s'' → ''pepeits-
''
: ''Main article: [[Chlouvānem/Verbs|Chlouvānem verbs]]''
* ''lgutake'' “to buy”, root ''lgut-'' → ''nu-lgot-s'' → ''nulgots-''
* ''khluke'' “to search, look for”, root ''khlu-'' → ''šu-khlu-s'' → ''šukhlus-
''
* ''nilyake'' “to think”, root ''nily-'' → ''ni-nely-s'' → ''ninelš-''
* ''tṛlake'' “to do”, root ''tṛl-'' → ''ta-tarl-s'' > ''tatarelь-''
* ''valde'' “to open”, root ''vald-'' → ''v-uld-s'' > ''vults-''




A few verbs have completely irregular stems:
The Chlouvānem verb (''daradhūs'', pl. ''daradhaus'') is the most inflected part of speech; its most basic forms are fusional, but many more specific formations are more agglutinative due to their origin from old Proto-Lahob particles or participles.
* ''jalle'' “to be”: ''jijāl-''
* ''lilke'' “to live”: ''lēlikṣ-''
* ''męlike'' “to give”: ''mimęñ-
''
* ''milke'' “to take”: ''mūṃchl-''.
 
===The necessitative===
The necessitative ''junia'' is formed and conjugates much like the desiderative; it uses a stem formed by reduplication, and adding '''-sū-''', with the saṃdhi changes as in the desiderative. There are a few differences in the reduplication:
* They have higher-grade or lenghthened vowel in the ''reduplication'' and not the stem;
* Verbs with non-ablauting vowels always have ''ī'';
* Inverse-ablauting verbs have ''va'' or ''ya'' as reduplication, followed by the root with the reduced vowel (''va-u-'' and ''ya-i-'' regularly become ''vo-'' and ''e-'')
The resulting stem is a regular vocalic stem.
 
Modifications in causative and perfect stems are also the same as in the desiderative ''junia''.
 
Examples:
* ''peithake'' “to go (multid.)”, → ''pīpeitsū-''
* ''khlunāke'' “to search, look for” → ''kokhlusū-''
* ''nilyake'' “to think” → ''nenilšū-''
* ''valde'' “to open” → ''voltsū-''
 
===The potential===
The potential ''junia'' also conjugates in all tenses and aspects and has a stem formed with initial reduplication. It is formed by adding '''-(e)nā-''' to the root and behaves as a fourth conjugation verb, adding an epenthetic -n before vocalic endings. Note that ''-r-nā-'' becomes '''-rṇā-''' due to saṃdhi.
 
Examples: ''peithake'' → ''pepeithnā-'' ; ''gṇyauke'' → ''gagṇyaunā-'' ; ''nilyake'' → ''ninelyenā-''.
 
A special case of saṃdhi occurs in roots which end in a single '''-g''' or '''-k''': this consonant becomes '''-gh''' and the '''-n''' in the suffix becomes retroflex, e.g. ''mūmikke'' "to dance", root ''mūmik-'' > ''mumūmighṇā-'' ; ''dilge'' “to pour", root ''dig-'' > ''dideghṇā-''.
 
The potential is used both for the sense of "may" (to be possible that) and "can" (to be able to): two sentences such as "I may (it is possible that I) do it" and "I can (I'm able to) do it" would be both translated as ''dadrenānute''. To avoid ambiguity, the "may" sense may be rephrased with the verb ''širgake'' plus subjunctive - e.g. ''dratiaṃte šergē'' - while the "can" sense may be rephrased with ''novake'' plus subjunctive - e.g. ''dratiaṃte novē'' - or (less commonly) with the infinitive - e.g. ''dṛke novute''.
 
===The permissive===
The permissive ''junia'' also conjugates in all tenses and aspects and is formed with a reduplication with ''-ī-'' as the only possible vowel, except for verbs with a reduplicated labial consonant, which have ''ū'', and ''-ūd-'' after the root. The perfect stem always has a short vowel.
 
Examples: ''mišake'' → ''mīmišūd-'' > ''mīmišūdu'' "I am allowed to see", ''imīmišūdam'' “I was allowed to see”.
 
Bisyllabic roots which have as their second syllable an unstressed vowel between two consonants that may form an allowed cluster (thus sonorant-vowel-stop/fricative, except ''-m-velar'') lose this vowel while adding the suffix, e.g. ''nąroṃke'' > ''nīnąrmūd-''.
 
===Secondary moods: evidentiality===
The four secondary moods expressing evidentiality are all similarly formed, but with different stem additions. All of them are, historically, the result of grammaticalization of different verbs to the Proto-Lahob second infinitive in *-on, explaining why they are formed by adding ''-an'' to the verb stem and then another particle.<br/>Note that the third person singular has a -∅ ending in the present exterior in all four evidentials.
 
The ''visual evidential'' is made by adding '''-ansen-''' at the end of the verb, then conjugating it as a root verb (with -∅ for 3SG present exterior). e.g. ''yųlansen'' "it is [being] eaten (I see it)"; ''yųlansenāhai'' "they are [being] eaten (I see it)"; ''yųlansente'' "(s)he eats (I see it)".
 
The ''first inferential'', which refers to any non-visual inference that is probably true (often translatable with "apparently", "looks like"), is formed by adding '''-aneru(n)''' to the end of the verb. Note that 1SG present exterior does not add the epenthetic ''n'' but contracts ''-u-u'' to a long vowel instead. e.g.''yųlaneru'' "it is apparently being eaten"; ''yųlanerū'' "I am apparently eaten". Note that interior forms have ''-erir'' instead of *-erunir - cf. ''dældanerire'' "(s)he apparently speaks"; similarly causatives have ''-erild'' instead of *-erunild - cf. ''mišanerildegde'' "(s)he apparently shows".
 
The ''second inferential'' has a similar function to the first inferential, but the situation is unlikely to be true (translatable e.g. with "might/apparently... but probably don't/doesn't"); it is formed by adding '''-anuyo''' to the end of the verb. 1SG present exterior contracts to ''-uyū''; all other contractions are regular saṃdhi changes where ''o'' → ''av''. e.g. ''yųlanuyo'' "it is apparently being eaten, but probably not"; ''yųlanuyū'' "I am apparently eaten, but probably not". Interiors and causatives have ''-uyer'' and ''-uyeld'' instead of *-uyavir, *-uyavild - cf. ''dældanuyere'' "(s)he apparently speaks, but probably doesn't", ''mišanuyeldegde'' "(s)he apparently shows, but probably doesn't".
 
The ''reported'' evidential marks something the speaker does not know first hand; it is formed by adding '''-anode(n)''': e.g. ''yųlanode'' "it is said that it is [being] eaten". Interiors and causatives do not add the epenthetic ''n'' and contract ''-e-i-'' to ''-ei-'' instead - cf. ''dældanodeire'' "it is said that (s)he speaks", ''mišanodeildegde'' "it is said that (s)he shows".
 
=== The consequential secondary moods===
The two consequential secondary moods can actually be tertiary moods, as they can be added to evidential secondary moods too.
 
The consequential mood of cause is formed by adding '''-anai(r)-''' to the verb stem. For example ''pūnu'' → ''pūnanairu'' (given that I work, ...); ''pupūṃsi'' → ''pupūṃsanairi'' (given that you want to work, ...).<br/>
The consequential mood of opposition is similarly formed by adding '''-antsu(k)-''' to the verb stem. For example ''pūnu'' → ''pūnantsū'' (even if I work, ...); ''pupūṃsi'' → ''pupūṃsantsuki'' (even if you want to work, ...).
 
Consequentials for evidentials convert the latter to ''-ke'' forms first, so that:
* Visual: ''-sen'' → ''-selk(e)-''
* First inferential: ''-eru'' → ''-eruk(e)''
* Second inferential: ''-uyo'' → ''-uyok(e)''
* Reportative: ''-ode'' → ''odek(e)''
The added consequential morphemes are just ''-ai(r)-'' and ''-tsu(k)-'' respectively.
 
Examples: ''pūnaneru'' → ''pūnanerukairē'' (given that, apparently, (s)he worked, ...); ''pūnanuyo'' → ''pūnanuyoketsukē'' (even if, apparently, (s)he worked, but probably didn't, ...).
 
===Impersonal verbs===
Impersonal verbs, in Chlouvānem, are those verbs that are defective and only conjugated in third person exterior (with the partial exception of ''giṃšake'') and only used in patient-trigger voice. There are six such -basic- verbs:
* ''gårḍake'' (to be meant to)
* ''hælьte'' (to be moved, touched)
* ''maṣvake'' (to feel compassion, pity)
* ''ñæṃħake'' (to repent, to feel remorse, to be sorry for)
* ''prābake'' (to be disgusted)
* ''giṃšake'' (to get/be bored) — usually termed “half-impersonal” because it has a full interior conjugation, but with a different meaning (to be boring).
 
These verbs all have their cause in the exessive case (or a subjunctive verb) and the affected being in the dative; ''gårḍake'' usually only has a subjunctive. Examples:
: ''loh tamiāt maivat hælьtek'' “what (s)he said <small>(literally: his/her word)</small> moved me.”
: ''nīdrēta loh ñæṃħē'' “I’m sorry for how I behaved.”
: ''sęi tū priūsimęliati gårḍek'' “you were meant to give it back to me” (literally: it was meant that you give it back to me<ref>Note that in such a phrase the perfective subjunctive would have a different meaning, namely “to have already given it back to me”.</ref>) .
 
Derived forms usually behave as impersonal too, like ''taprābake'' (to hate) — e.g. ''taprābleliom taprābiṣya'' "haters gonna hate".


===Irregular verbs===
==Pronouns (''hailihalenī'')==
Chlouvānem has only a very small number of truly irregular verbs, as most verbs conform in some way to one of the various stem classes. Even among irregular verbs, many of them are only irregular in the formation of one of their three basic stems; only six verbs (''flulke, milke, mṛcce, lilke, jalle'', and ''tilah'') have at least one entirely suppletive stem.
The system of personal pronouns of modern Standard Chlouvānem is quite complex due to the honorific system. In modern Chlouvānem, the category of "pronouns" isn't actually syntactically differentiated from other nouns (except for being used anaphorically), and only some of them - the inherited pronouns from Proto-Lahob and Archaic Chlouvānem - follow a declension different from the one of nouns.
There are two true defective verbs: ''ṛṣme'' (to plan, to be going to) and the honorific ''tilah'' (not a self-standing verb).


Excluding the highly irregular ''jalle'' and ''tilah'', treated in the next sections, the other verbs with suppletive stems are:
The main reason for the complexity of the pronominal system is that there are many possible variants for each person, depending on the formality of the context, the two-way rank difference between speaker and listener, or the three-way rank difference between the speaker, the listener, and the addressee. Some particular forms are also chosen depending on gender.
* ''lulke'' (to go on foot, to walk (monodirectional)) — ''lun-, dāmek, elīsa''
** The singular present indicative forms are irregular ''lå, lin, liven'' - the other ones are regular, non-ablauting (''lunasme, lunadia...'').
** Also has the irregular optative stem ''lūy-'' (instead of expected *lunūy-).
* ''milke'' (to take, seize, catch, capture, get) — ''milūk-, milkek, ilaka''
** The singular present indicative forms use the stem ''milk-'': ''milku, milki, milkē'' - the other ones are regular (''milūkṣme, milūgdia...'').
** Also has the irregular stem ''mūṃchl-'' for the desiderative junia.
* ''mṛcce'' (to run (monodirectional)) — ''marcē, pañcek, amṛca''
** Suppletive in the past stem only. The present stem is ablauting.
* ''lilke'' (to live) — ''lilah, lilek, lælī''
** Suppletive in the perfect only. ''-ah'' verb in the present, non-ablauting.
** Also has the irregular stem ''lēlikṣ-'' for the desiderative junia.


=====Miscellaneous irregularities=====
The fact that there is no syntactical difference between the morphological pronouns and those that are nouns also means that every word used pronominally, including given names, requires that person's verbal concord, i.e. a given name used as a second-person pronoun will be used in concordance with a second-person verb. In the following list, words not marked as being inflected according to pronominal declension are inflected as nouns. However, '''yamei''' and '''lāma''' are honorific adpositions which do not decline; the title or given name used with them declines instead.
''ṛṣme'' (to plan, to be going to) is an unmarked agentive verb, which is only conjugated as agentive, and is a regular class 3 verb (''ārṣmē, ṛṣmek, ṝṣma'') It usually only takes verbs or verbal phrases as arguments, e.g. ''keitu dhāsmike ārṣmē'' "(s)he is going/plans to save the whale". It is often a synonym of the future intentional, though it conveys lesser certainty and may also be used for imperfective actions or states.<br/>
Note that the defectiveness does not apply to its derived forms - e.g. ''švṛṣme'' (to believe): ''švārṣmu'' "I am believed", ''šutayārṣmu'' "I believe" - and ''ṛṣme'' itself has regular causative forms (with the meaning of "make X intend to do").


The pair ''tamišake⁓tildake'' (to look at) is not counted as one of the thirteen irregular verbs, but ''tildake'' is an unmarked agentive verb, while ''tamišake'' is used in all other voices. Note that however ''tamišake'' also has a regular agentive voice, synonymous with ''tildake'': ''teldu'' ⁓ ''tatemešu'' (I look at). The verb ''najake'' "to happen" (explained below among the compounds of ''gyake'') is also sometimes considered irregular, as a verb with an unmarked dative-trigger voice.<br/>Prefixed motion verbs are also not marked for voice in the patient- and agent-trigger ones (with only cases on nouns distinguishing them), but that is considered a particular but regular behaviour of a semantically defined subset of verbs.
===List of personal pronouns and pronoun-equivalents===
====First person singular (I, me)====
* '''lili''' (pronominal declension): the morphological inherited pronoun and the most neutral. It is overall the most used, especially in the non-direct cases, but there are alternatives for very informal, childish, slang, and humble speech.
* '''emmā''': the humble speech word for "person", sometimes used in humble speech.
* '''demi''' (pronominal declension): literally "oneself", the reflexive pronoun; used in informal speech but conveying a sense of distance.
* Given name: used in childish speech and in certain slang forms, considered rude or uneducated otherwise.
* '''lilyā hulineh''': literally "my woman", informal or semi-formal, implies superiority.
* '''paralonį emmā''': literally "the person [humble] who is a disciple" or "I, [your] disciple". Used almost exclusively in writing, by students or pupils when talking to their professors or teachers.
* '''lilyā jāyim''' (in Archaic Chlouvānem only); literally "my girl", implying humbleness. Notably used by the Chlamiṣvatrā to refer to herself throughout the Holy Books.


''ñoerake'' (to crawl (multidirectional)) has the stem ''ñoerg-'' in the indicative present singular (''ñoergu, ñoergi, ñoergē''), but is regular everywhere else (''ñoerayou, ñoeradia''...).
====Second person singular (You)====
* Given name plus '''lāma''': the general polite form. '''lāma''' can be replaced by an appropriate title.
* '''yamei''' + given name + '''lāma''': similar to the above, but more polite, typically used for people of much higher rank or public officials.
* '''yamei''' + title: very polite, alternative to the above two.
* Appropriate honorific formula: the most polite usage, usually progressively reduced to (''yamei'') given name + ''lāma'' or ''yamei'' + title during the course of a conversation<ref>This is due to many honorific formulae being quite long - for example, the standard honorific formula when talking to an Inquisitor is (''lallāmaha'') [matronymic] ''yamei murkadhāna'' [given name] ''lāma''.</ref>.
* Given name + '''tanta''': same politeness as ''lāma'', used respectfully towards lower-ranked people, for example workers and colleague with less experience, soldiers of lower rank, employees, apprentices, and (from seventh class onwards) by teachers towards their students.
* Given name alone: used in semi-formal speech between (equal ranked) colleagues and friends with a moderate degree of acquaintance. Can be or is rude otherwise. Note that it is considered especially rude to use the given name (or any other form of the personal name) towards older family members, or family members of the same generation who are not siblings (e.g. brothers/sisters-in-law, unless they're close friends).
* [[Chlouvānem/Names#Informal_names_.28laltihalen.C4.AB.29|Informal name]]: used in informal speech among friends, siblings (and possibly cousins<ref>With cousins, whether the informal or the given name is used depends on how close they are; with first cousins using the informal name is nearly universal, while with farther cousins the given name may be more common.</ref>), partners, and all family members of a younger generation.
* Kinship term alone: used for older family members or non-siblings (excluding cousins) of the same generation.
* '''sāmi''' (pronominal declension): the morphological pronoun used in informal speech. Often replaced by the given name or by the hypocoristic form.
* '''nami''' (pronominal declension): the morphological pronoun of formal speech towards higher ranked people. Often used (and even more often in non-core forms such as the genitive '''namyā'''), but it is also common to use the given name + ''lāma'' formula instead.
* '''tami''' (pronominal declension): morphological pronoun of formal speech towards equal ranked people. Often used alternatively to the given name (with or without ''lāma''), even in the same conversation.
* '''rami''' (pronominal declension): morphological formal pronoun for lower ranked people; same usage pattern as ''tami''.
* '''udhyāras''': translatable as "Comrade" and introduced during the Kaiṣamā era, it is a formal second-person pronoun used for people in situations transcending social rank. It is particularly used among political activists, volunteers in any organization, or in cooperative activities distinct from one's usual work. It is also the preferred option when one has no information about the addressed person, or as a general second person pronoun not referring to any particular person.
* '''ṣari''': quite old-fashioned (but still actively used by older people), used by guests towards homeowners (or innkeepers) and by soldiers towards their superiors.
* '''ūttuka''' (mostly historical except for the Northeast): similar to '''ṣari''' but mostly used by servants towards their superiors or landowners; rapidly disappeared because of the Kaiṣamā era reforms except for the Northeast, where it was used in most contexts ''ṣari'' was elsewhere.
* '''blikā'''; an endearing term for "girl", used by sisters among themselves.
* '''lorkhās'''; male counterpart to ''blikā''.
* Informal name + '''cuca''': endearing form used in informal speech by parents towards their children.
* '''nūrya''', literally "kid, child": used in formal instances by parents towards their children.


Two verbs with '''-ur''' in the root have irregular vowels:
The following pronouns are mostly used for specific people, and only as reductions of other formulae:
* ''purake'' "to powder, to break with the hands": ''parē — (pārau) pāṭ — upura''
* '''aveṣyotariri nami''': literally "You excellent one"; extremely formal locution for non-religious superiors several ranks ahead.
* ''sturake'' "to fall": ''starē — (stārau) stāṭ — ustura''
* '''gopūrṭham''': used for public/religious and military officials.
* '''gopūrṭhami brausa''': used for the highest ranked Inquisitors, bishops, head monks, and the Baptist.
* '''yobrausa''': same as ''gopūrṭhami brausa''.
* '''lalla yobrausa''': used for the Great Inquisitor.


Three verbs have ''(a+) -ut'' in the infinitive and perfect, ''-at'' in the past, and ''att'' in the present:
With second-person pronouns, the possessives used are in nearly every case those of the corresponding morphological pronouns; however, in very informal speech, it is not uncommon to use the genitive of the informal name or of pronoun-equivalents such as ''blikā'' or ''lorkhās''.
* ''lutake'' "to obtain, gain, take advantage": ''lattē — (latau) lak — aluta''
* ''ssutake'' "to attract, to bait, to seduce": ''ssattē — (ssatau) ssak — assuta''
* ''sprutake'' "to join, link": ''sprattē — (spratau) sprak — aspruta''


Two verbs have '''(a+) -agv'' but ''-avu-'' in the past:
====Third person singular====
* ''lagvake'' "to assume": ''lagvē — lavuk — alagva''
Chlouvānem does not have any morphological third person pronoun; the demonstratives are used instead for non-human referents. For human referents, however, it is considered extremely rude to address them using a demonstratives. The choice of pronoun in the third person is especially complex because not just the relative rank of speaker and listener should be kept in mind, but also the rank of the addressee relative to both the speaker and the listener.
* ''ṣṭagvake'' "to carve": ''ṣṭagvē — ṣṭavuk — aṣṭagva''


Other various irregular verbs:
All titles listed in the section [[#Honorific titles|"Honorific titles"]] may be freely used with and without names. Furthermore, it is common in not excessively formal speech to use ''nāḍima'' (honorific word for "mother") for all female older relatives - of previous generations, not older siblings - of the interlocutor and similarly ''tamvāram'' (honorific for "father") for male older relatives.
* ''leilge'' (''leig-ke'') "to concern, to be on the topic of": ''leigē — (lågau) lål — eleiga''
* ''ręiške'' "to tickle": ''ręišē — (rąšau) rąs — eręiša
* ''lårpake'' "to swing": ''lårpē — lerpek — alurpa''


Three vowel-ending roots have an irregular behaviour:
'''udhyāras''', equivalent to "Comrade", is in contemporary Chlouvānem the least controversial third person pronoun, at least the only one that is never considered rude to use. However, depending on the situation, other pronouns may be more appropriate.
* ''rileike'' "to need" has the expected ''ei → ey'' change in the present, but adds ''-n-'' in the past instead: ''rileyu, rileyi, rileyē...'' but ''rileinu, rileinei, rileik''...
* ''lįke'' "to swim (monodirectional) and ''mųke'' "to jump (monodirectional)" behave before vowels as if their stems were (ablauting) *lis- and *mus-: pres. exterior ''lesu, lesi, lesē''...; past exterior ''lisau, lisei, lįk''.


====The verb "to be" (jalle)====
=====Reference table=====
The verb "to be" is suppletive as it uses various different stems (from Proto-Lahob ''*jaħħ'', ''*wi(w)ħ'', ''*ri'', ''*jek'', and ''*gəna'') and irregularly — for example, the non-singular present forms are morphologically perfect.
The following table is meant as a ''non-exhaustive'' reference for the ''most common'' ways used to refer to third person human referents in different situations, excluding titles:


Note that the indicative present is rarely used, as the copula is usually dropped in many cases; when used with the meaning of "to have" (e.g. ''lili mæn tulūɂa yambras jali'' "I have six pears" (lit.: I <small>TOPIC</small> six pears are)) it is considered better not to drop it, but it is often done nevertheless in common speech. It is also kept when used with the meaning "there is...".
{| class="redtable lightredbg" style="textalign:center"
 
Both future tenses are rarely used in colloquial and semi-formal speech, as the present tense of ''ndǣke'' (to become) is usually used as a replacement.
 
=====Indicative mood=====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | Person !! Present !! Past !! Perfect !! General future !! Future intent.
! colspan=2 | If... !! Speaker is higher than Listener !! Speaker is equal to Listener !! Speaker is lower than Listener
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing !! 1st
! rowspan=3 | 3SG is higher than... !! both Speaker and Listener
| ū || ēk || rem || jalṣyam || eku
| ''yamei'' (name) ''lāma''<br/>''yamei'' (name) ''suntam/sintam'' || ''(yamei)'' (name) ''suntam/sintam(/lāma)'' || ''yamei'' (name) ''suntam/sintam''
|-
|-
! 2nd
! Listener,<br/>but lower than or equal to Speaker
| vei || ēši || res || jalṣyes || eki
| ''udhyāras''<br/>''yamei lātiṃṣin''<br/>(name) ''lāma'' || / || /
|-
|-
! 3rd
! Speaker,<br/>but lower than or equal to Listener
| vi || ē || ri || jalṣya || elē
| / || / || ''yamei'' (name) ''lāma''
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
! rowspan=3 | 3SG is equal to... !! Listener
| jella || ekram || rira || jalṣyara || ekṣme
| ''udhyāras''<br/>''yamei'' (name) ''tanta''<br/> (name) ''lāma'' || / || ''yamei'' (name) ''suntam/sintam''
|-
|-
! 2nd
! both Speaker and Listener
| jelli || ekres || reri || jalṣyari || ēdia
| / || ''udhyāras''<br/>''lātiṃṣin''<br/> (name) ''lāma''<br/>''yamei'' (name) ''tanta'' || /
|-
|-
! 3rd
! Speaker
| jali || ēdat || ri || jalṣya || ēde
| ''udhyāras''<br/>''lātiṃṣin''<br/> (name) ''lāma'' || / || ''yamei'' (name) ''lāma''<br/>''udhyāras''<br/>''lātiṃṣin''
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
! rowspan=3 | 3SG is lower than...  !! Listener
| jalim || ekāja || rima || jalṣīma || ekįm
| ''udhyāras''<br/>(name) ''tanta'' || / || /
|-
|-
! 2nd
! both Speaker and Listener
| jalis || ekeši || riša || jalṣīsa || ekṣin
| / || ''udhyāras''<br/>(name) ''tanta'' || /
|-
|-
! 3rd
! Speaker
| jali || eivē || ri || jalṣya || ekāhai
| / || / || (name) ''lāma''<br/> ''udhyāras''
|}
|}


=====Other primary moods=====
====Dual pronouns====
The present tense or imperfective aspect of all other primary moods included as examples in this table:
====Plural pronouns====
{| class="wikitable"
====Other personal pronouns====
 
====Pronominal declension====
The pronominal declension has two variants: one used for the first person pronouns and another for the 2nd person ones. First person pronouns are the most archaic: they have a single-phoneme stem in all cases bar the direct, and a different stem in the direct case ('''lili''', derived from the original pronoun *li, in the singular, and suppletive '''amūt''' and '''amūvi''' in the dual and plural respectively).<br/>The second person pronouns are a Pre-Chlouvānem innovation, from the original short stem attached to the demonstrative ''ami'', and therefore they follow that word's declension. However, the original short stems are kept as alternative, shorter forms, for the accusative, ergative, and dative cases. Second-person plural pronouns exist, but are virtually unused outside of Archaic Chlouvānem.
 
All ergative singular forms in ''-ei'' have literary variants in ''-eis'' (cf. ''emeis'', ergative of ''emibe'' "one").
 
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
|-
! colspan=4 | !! Direct !! Accusative !! Ergative !!  Genitive !! Translative !! Exessive !! Essive !!  Dative !! Ablative !! Locative !! Instrumental
|-
! rowspan=5 | Singular !! colspan=3 | 1st person
| '''lili''' || lū || lei || lyai<br/>lilyā || lan || lat || lįs || lum || ląu || lēn || lāni
|-
! rowspan=4 | 2nd person !! colspan=2 | Informal
| '''sāmi''' || sāmyū<br/>sū || sāmī<br/>sei || sāmī || sāmīn || sāmīt || sāmįs || sāmūm<br/>som || sāmų || sāmǣ || sāmūni
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | Person !! Imperative !! Subjunctive !! Optative !! Desiderative !! Necessitative !! Potential !! Permissive
! colspan=2 | Form. sup.
| '''nami''' || namyū<br/>nū || namī<br/>nei || namī || namīn || namīt || namįs || namūm<br/>num || namų || namǣ || namūni
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
! colspan=2 | Form. equal
| jalikṣam || gati || joyu || jijāliu || jājalšū || jelau || jījalūdu
| '''tami''' || tamyū<br/>tū || tamī<br/>tei || tamī || tamīn || tamīt || tamįs || tamūm<br/>tum || tamų || tamǣ || tamūni
|-
|-
! 2nd
! colspan=2 | Form. inf.
| jalios || gīsь || joyi || jijāli || jājalšūyi || jelai || jījalūdi
| '''rami''' || ramyū<br/>nū || ramī<br/>nei || ramī || ramīn || ramīt || ramįs || ramūm<br/>rum || ramų || ramǣ || ramūṇi
|-
|-
! 3rd
! colspan=4 | Reflexive pronoun
| jaliotīs || gī || joye || jijālie || jājalšūyē || jelai || jījalūdē
| '''demi''' || jū || jei || jai<br/>demyā || jen || jet || jįs || jum || jąu || jēn || jāni
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
! rowspan=5 | Dual !! colspan=3 | 1st person
| rowspan=3 | — || gīndu || joyasme || jijālkṣe || jājalšūsme || jelāyǣ || jījalūtsme
| '''amūt''' || lūṣa || lūra || lūva || lūh || lūbhan || lūnne || lūh || lūbhan || lūnne || lūbhan
|-
|-
! 2nd
! rowspan=4 | 2nd person !! colspan=2 | Informal
| gīndi || joyadia || jijālšadia || jājalšūdia || jelādia || jījalūndia
| '''sāmīt''' || sāmīṣa<br/>seṣa || sāmīra<br/>sera || sāmīva || sāmirį || sāmibhan || sāminne || sāmirį<br/>seh || sāmibhan || sāminne || sāmibhan
|-
|-
! 3rd
! colspan=2 | Form. sup.
| gī || joyade || jijālšade || jājalšūde || jelāde || jījalūnde
| '''namīt''' || namīṣa<br/>nīṣa || namīra<br/>nira || namīva || namirį || namibhan || naminne || namirį<br/>nih || namibhan || naminne || namibhan
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
! colspan=2 | Form. equal
| jalikṣumi || gīnam || joyįm || jijālįm || jājalšūyįm || jelęm || jījalūdįm
| '''tamīt''' || tamīṣa<br/>tīṣa || tamīra<br/>tira || tamīva || tamirį || tamibhan || taminne || tamirį<br/>tih || tamibhan || taminne || tamibhan
|-
|-
! 2nd
! colspan=2 | Form. inf.
| jalioris || gīnes || joyašin || jijālkṣin || jājalšūšin || jelāšin || jījalūdašin
| '''ramīt''' || ramīṣa<br/>rīṣa || ramīra<br/>rira || ramīva || ramirį || ramibhan || raminne || ramirį<br/>rih || ramibhan || raminne || ramibhan
|-
|-
! 3rd
! Plural !! colspan=3 | 1st person
| jaliotīs || gī || joyāhai || jijāliāhai || jājalšūyāhai || jelāhai || jījalūdāhai
| '''amūvi''' || laih || lān || lumi || lemān || lenīs || lāra || lisām || lenīs || lelīm || lenīka
|}
|}


=====In compound verbs=====
====Honorific titles====
There are some compound verbs which are formed by a "meaning stem" + ''jalle''; they conjugate just like ''jalle'' does:
''→ See also: [[Chlouvānem/Names#Using_names|Chlouvānem names § Using names]]''
* ''pṛšcāñjalle'' "to like"<ref>More properly "to be pleasing", e.g. ''lunai loh pṛšcāmvi'' "tea is pleasing to me" → "I like tea".</ref> → present ''pṛšcāmū'', ''pṛšcāmvei'', ''pṛšcāmvi''... past ''pṛšcāmēk'', ''pṛšcāmēši'', ''pṛšcāmē''... perfect ''pṛšcāṃrem''... future ''pṛšcāñjalṣyam'' ; the same in other moods, e.g. necessitative present ''pṛšcāñjaluṣyu'', ''pṛšcāñjaluṣyi''...<br/>Note that in colloquial speech the form of ''jalle'' is omitted in the present indicative, e.g. ''pṛšcām'' is "to be pleasing" for all persons.
* ''najalle'' "to happen" morphologically conjugates like ''jalle'' but has some peculiarities:
** Like ''jalle'', there is no agent-, dative-, and instrumental-trigger voice, but the patient-trigger voice has a dative meaning - e.g. ''nañū'' "it happens to me".
** The basic, semantically patientive forms, are the interior ones (with a contracted stem ''nañ-j-ir''), and they only exist for the third persons - e.g. ''najire'' "it happens", ''najirde'' "they (dual) happen", ''najirāhe'' "they happen", and so on.
** It uses analytic constructions for most moods, e.g. ''najallenovake'' "can happen" > ''najallenovē'' "it can happen"; ''najalledaudike'' "to be wanted to happen" > ''najalledaudiute'' "I want it to happen" — forms such as the synthetic ''najelai'' or ''najæliašute'' are found only in archaic (mostly pre-Classical) texts or with other uses - as e.g. ''najelai'' being the most common word for "maybe".


====The honorific verb ''tilah''====
Chlouvānem uses many honorific titles, which are always used in non-familiar speech. The "honorific" adjective ''yamei'' is often added to many of them - especially ''lāma'' - and is mandatory in other ones.
The verb ''tilah'' is the only Chlouvānem verb which does not have an infinitive form and is only used, attached to the ''an-form'' of a particular verb, as a marker of politeness. Its use dates from the early part of the 5th millennium, as an adaptation of Ancient Kūṣṛmāṭhi ''tiluru'' (to obey) and, in the past, of ''nuyuru'' (to serve). Apart from the lack of an infinitive, it has some particularities, namely that it only conjugates in the three basic moods (indicative, subjunctive, and optative). The ''juniai'' are not marked on ''tilah'' but on the true verb (in ''an-form'') and it is also defective in lacking evidentials and consequentials (the form without ''tilah'' is used instead).
* '''lāma''' - used after the noun, it is the most common honorific title; almost every time someone is being addressed, ''lāma'' is used - the only exceptions being when it is already known another honorific should be used, or in familiar situations. It usually follows the given name alone (e.g. ''Namihūlša lāma''); if the matronymic is added (sometimes done in order to disambiguate), then ''lāma'' comes between matronymic and noun (e.g. ''Līṭhaljāyimāvi lāma Namihūlša''). All three names matronymic, surname, and given name together with ''lāma'' (e.g. ''Līṭhaljāyimāvi Kaleñchokah Namihūlša lāma'') are only used in very formal addressing from a list of nouns; should matronymic+noun be not enough to distinguish two people, simply surname+noun is used.
* '''tanta''' - used for people in a lower position, e.g. used towards one's employees or (usually from seventh class onwards) by teachers and professors towards their students. Also used by militars towards lower-ranked soldiers.
* '''suntam''' (regionally also ''sintam'') - used for people in a higher position in certain situations, most commonly towards older and more experienced colleagues (but not teachers or professors, nor work bosses if they're roughly the same age as the speaker).
* '''lallāmaha''' - an extremely formal honorific, used for public authorities and all Inquisitors. Most often used together with ''yamei''. Inquisitors may also be referred to as ''lallāmaha + <small>matronymic</small> + yamei + <small>given name</small> + murkadhāna (lāma)''
* '''jūlin''' - less formal than ''lāma'', used for people who work in one's home but are not part of the family.
* '''tallam''' - less formal than ''lāma'', used by men for unmarried women whom they know somewhat well. Currently less frequently used than it was up to about 10 years ago.
* '''jāmilšīreh''' - used in military contexts towards higher-ranked people, or by common people towards military commanders in service.
* '''udhyā(ras)''' - neutral but respectful title of address, often used when generally speaking and without knowing who the listener is. Sometimes used, when in a plural sense, in the form '''yamei dāvudhyāre'''. In its neutralness relative to rank, it can be compared with the Soviet-era use of ''товарищ''. It is also how high-ranked Inquisitors and most monks address the general public.<br/>Note that ''udhyāras'' is the direct form, ''udhyā'' the irregular vocative.
* '''pūrivāla''' - an impersonal term of address used in written language, towards unfamiliar people never met personally. Often used as ''yamei'' [name] ''pūrivāla''.
* '''cuca''' is not strictly an honorific, as it pertains to more colloquial forms of speech, but it works the same way. It has a diminutive and endearing meaning, not unlike Japanese ''-chan''. In formal speech, it is often used towards and when speaking about children.


Its conjugation is mostly regular but has some particularities:
=====Occupations commonly used as titles=====
* The indicative present exterior is as for ''ah-verbs'' but shortened: ''tilah - tilši - tilah - tilāhai - tilądia - tiląde - tilęm - tiląšin - tilah''; the present interior is as for all regular ''ah-verbs'' (''tilęru, tilęri, tilęre...'').
* '''camitorai''' — head of a company (usually as [matronymic] ''yamei'' [name] ''camitorai lāma'')
* The causative forms show haplology of *il-ild to ''ilьd'': ''tilьdu, tilьdi, tilьde...'' interior ''tilьdru, tilьdri, tilьdre...''
* '''kauchlærīn''' (voc.: ''kauchlærī'') — professor (in universities, seminaries, institutions, and work schools)
* The indicative past exterior uses a stem ''ny-'' in the singular and dual and just ''ni-'' in the plural: ''nyau - nyei - nyek - nyaram - nyares - nyadat - nināja - nineši - nīvē''; the interior and the causative are regular using ''ny-er-'', ''ny-eld(r)-'' (''nyerau, nyerei, nyerek...'' ''nyeldau, nyeldei, nyeldek...'' ''nyeldrau, nyeldrei, nyeldrek...'').
* '''tatnāmęlīn''' (voc.: ''tatnāmęlī'') — teacher (in first and basic schools)
* The perfect exterior has the stem ''nīl-'' and has a shortened 1PL and 2PL: ''nīlam - nīles - nīla - nīlara - nīlari - nīla - nīlьma - nīlьša - nīla''. The interior has ''nīlьr-'' (''nīlьram, nīlьres, nīlьrā...'') and the causative ''nīlьd-'' (''nīlьdam, nīlьdes, nīlьdā...'' ''nīlьdṛm, nīlьdṛs, nīlьdirā...'').
* The future is regular, but the endings (as well as the interior and the causative forms) all start with ''e'' instead of ''i'': ''tileṣyam, tileṣyes, tileṣya...'' Note that the causative forms have dissimilation of the stem to ''tireld-'' (''tireldiṣyam...'' ''tireldirṣyam...'').
* The subjunctive imperfective exterior is regular with the stem ''til-'' in the 1SG (''tilatiam'') and only ''t'' in the others (''tīsei, tīti...''). The interior has ''tiler-'' and the causative ''tireld-''.
* The subjunctive perfective exterior always has the stem ''t-'' (''tevitam, tevšei, tevite...''); the interior has ''tilьr-'' and the causative ''tilьd-'')
* The optative is completely regular, with the (regular) stem ''tilūy-''.


All voice affixes come before ''tilah'', as if the ''an-form'' were only a verbal prefix. The honorific verb is not used where there already is a honorific suppletive verb (cf. ''moṣite'' "you (honorific) ask" (verb ''muṣke'') → ''pardhite'' (verb ''pṛdhake''), not *muṣantetilši).
=====Official titles=====
Where not noted, the formula is [matronymic] ''yamei'' [name] [title] ''lāma''.


Examples of the use of ''tilah'':
* '''brausamailenya''' — Baptist — rendered as ''aveṣyotārire lallāmaha'' [matronymic] ''yamei'' [surname + given name] ''brausamailenia lāma''.
* ''nāmvegde'' ((s)he/it crushes) → ''nāmvantetilah''
* '''camimurkadhāna''' — Great Inquisitor — rendered as ''širē aveṣyotārire lallāmaha'' [matronymic] ''yamei'' [surname + given name] ''camimurkadhāna lāma''.
* ''lå'' (I go, walk) → ''lunantilah''
* '''camitorai''' — president (of diocesan parliaments or executives or of foreign countries). Rendered as ''aveṣyotārire'' [matronymic (if Chlouvānem)] ''yamei'' [name] ''camitorai lāma''.
* ''pūni'' (you work) → ''pūnantilši''
* '''plušamelīs''' (voc.: ''plušamelī'') — Prefect (head of an Office (''plušamila'') of the Inquisition). Rendered as ''aveṣyotārire'' [matronymic] ''yamei'' [name] ''plušamelī(s) lāma''.
* ''pupūṃsįm'' (we want to work) → ''pupūṃsantilęm''
* '''gatvā''' — leader/head/president/mayor — preceded by the genitive of the respective administration (''ṣramāṇa'' "province", ''lalka'' "circuit", ''hālgāra'' "district", ''marta'' "city"…).
* ''pū pūnīti'' (if (s)he/it works) → ''pū pūnantīti''
* '''hurdagīn''' — Head Monk (head of a monastery) — rendered as ''kaili brausire yamei [name] hurdagīn lāma'' (+ monastery name-<small>GEN</small>)<ref>Many head monks have their own unique titles based on their monastery. For example the head monk of the Vādhaṃšvāti Lake Monastery is not referred as ''[…] hurdagīn lāma vādhaṃšvāti ga gūltayi'' but as ''[…] laliājuniāmiti jāṇi camilālta lāma'', literally "Great Guardian of the Field of the Night Bloom".</ref>
* '''rākṣaṇa''' — Bishop (head of a diocese) — rendered as ''aveṣyotārire'' [matronymic] ''yamei'' [(surname +) name] ''rākṣaṇa lāma'' (+ diocese name-<small>GEN</small>).
* '''lallaplušamelīs''' (voc.: ''lallaplušamelī'') — High Prefect (head of the Table of Offices (''flušamaili eṇāh'', the executive branch of the Inquisition). Usually rendered as ''taili aveṣyotārire'' [matronymic] ''yamei'' [name] ''lallaplušamelī(s) lāma''.
* '''lallamurkadhāna''' — High Inquisitor (one of the 612 members of the Inquisitorial Conclave (''murkadhānumi lanedāmeh'', the legislative branch of the Inquisition). Usually rendered as ''aveṣyotārire'' [matronymic] ''yamei'' [name] ''lallamurkadhāna lāma''.
* '''ñæltryam''' — monk.
* '''nīrvakṣari''' (voc.: ''nīrvakṣarī'') — Eparch (head of an Eparchy).


In actual usage, ''tilah'' denotes respect towards the listener, and is used whenever the action being spoken of effects the listener in some way so, even in polite speech, not all verbs will use ''tilah'' - overusing it is a common error among people learning the language, not only foreigners but also young Chlouvānem people themselves.
Note that the full titles are used generally at the first mention only. For example, ''Martayināvi yamei murkadhāna Læhimausa lāma'' becomes afterwards either ''yamei murkadhāna'' or ''yamei Læhimausa lāma''. With the Great Inquisitor, this does not usually get shorter than ''širē aveṣyotārire yamei lallāmaha'' ([Her] Respectable Most Excellent Highness) or ''širē aveṣyotārire lallāmaha camimurkadhāna'' ([Her] Most Excellent Highness, the Great Inquisitor).


===Analytic constructions and auxiliary verbs===
===Correlatives===
Chlouvānem uses many analytic constructions - including auxiliary and compound verbs - in order to convey some shades of meaning. Most of these use either a participle or the infinitive as the form of the lexical verb:
Chlouvānem has a fairly regular system of correlatives, distinguishing ten types (proximal, medial, distal, interrogative, negative, assertive existential, elective existential, universal, positive alternative, and negative alternative) in eleven categories (attributive, thing, person, time, place, destination, origin, way, reason, quality, quantity).
* ''perfective subjunctive'' in the needed voice + ''lā'' (with) + ''jalle'' in the past or future tense: compound construction used for pluperfect and future perfect. It is not wrong to use it with a present tense, but the meaning does not change from the bare perfect.<br/> Note that, for the pluperfect, the bare perfect is often used instead, both in literature as in common speech.
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
** ''yųlētate lā ēk'' "I had eaten"
|-
** ''yųlētate lā jalṣyam'' "I will have eaten"
! Category ↓ / Type → !! Proximal !! Medial !! Distal !! Interrogative !! Negative !! Ass. exist. !! Elect. exist. !! Universal !! Positive altern. !! Negative altern.
* ''imperfective subjunctive'' in the needed voice + ''lā'' (with) + ''jalle'' in the needed tense: compound construction used for the progressive aspect in the three tenses (present, past, future). In the present, the form of ''jalle'' is omitted for the third person, or for all persons if a pronoun is present.
|-
** ''yųlatite lā ū'' "I am eating"
! Attributive
** ''yųlatite lā ēk'' "I was eating"
| rowspan=2 | ''nenē''<br/><small>(and others; see below)</small><br/>this (one) || rowspan=2 | ''nunū''<br/><small>(and others; see below)</small><br/>that (one) (near you) || rowspan=2 | ''nanā''<br/><small>(and others; see below)</small><br/>that (one) (over there) || rowspan=2 | ''yanū?''<br/>what?, which (one) ? || ''gu''<br/>no || ''sora''<br/>some || ''grāṇa''<br/>any || rowspan=2 | ''yaiva''<br/>every(thing) || ''viṣam''<br/>another, other || ''guviṣam''<br/>no other
** ''yųlatite lā jalṣyam'' "I will be eating"
|-
* ''infinitive'' + ''ñǣɂake'' (to be used to): compound construction used for a habitual action in present, past, or future tense. It is not used with motion verbs in the present, as the multidirectional verb already unambiguously has this meaning.
! Thing
** ''yaive prājamne yahikeñǣɂute'' "I am used to read every evening"
| ''gomi''<br/>nothing || ''sorami''<br/>something || ''grāṇami''<br/>anything || ''viṣāmi''<br/>something else || ''guviṣāmi''<br/>nothing else
** ''yaive prājamne yahikeñǣɂaṃte'' "I used to read every evening"
|-
** ''yaive prājamne yahikeñǣɂiṣyaṃte'' "I will be used to read every evening"
! Person
* ''infinitive'' + ''nartaflulke'' (to reach): to come to X, to end up X-ing, to result in X-ing
| ''·evita''<br/>this one || ''·utvita''<br/>that one (near you) || ''·ātvita''<br/>that one (over there) || ''yavita?''<br/>who? || ''guvita''<br/>no one || ''soraita''<br/>someone || ''grāmvita''<br/>anyone || ''yaivita''<br/>everyone || ''viṣvita''<br/>someone else || ''guviṣvita''<br/>no one else
** ''yųlakenartatefliven'' "(s)he ended up eating"
** ''lañšijildenartaflunirāhe'' "they ended up marrying each other"
* ''infinitive'' (or more formally ''perfective subjunctive'') + ''kitte'' (to put): to keep X-ed:
** ''valdekitē'' / ''uvaldēt kitē'' "it is kept opened"
* ''infinitive'' + either ''įstiāke'' (to hang from) or ''maitiāke'' (to be in front of): prospective aspect, to be about to X
** ''yųlakayįstetimu'' "I am about to eat"
** ''yahikemaitimē'' "it is about to be read"
* ''subjunctive'' + interior forms of ''męlike'' (to give): to do X in advance — it can also be interpreted as a (plu)perfect if with perfect subjunctive:
** ''yųlatite męliru'' "I eat in advance"
** ''yųlētate męlirau'' "I ate in advance" → "I had already eaten"
* ''infinitive'' + ''paṣmišake'' (to look further away): to let X
** ''sū yahikepaṣṭemešu'' "I let you read"
* ''infinitive'' + ''mālchake'' (to run (multidirectional)): to keep X-ing (less formal alternative to ''mai-'' prefixed verbs)
** ''tū yahikemālchute'' "I keep reading it" (synonym of ''tū maiteyašu'')
* ''infinitive'' + ''nūkkhe'' (to mount (unidirectional)): to be still X-ing:
** ''tatiākenūkhute'' "I'm still standing"
 
===Adverbs===
Adjectival verbs may be turned into adverbs (''khladaradhausire haloe'', pl. ''khladaradhausirāhe halenī'') by simply adding '''-ęe''' to the stem. Thus:
* ''tarlausake'' (scientific) → ''tarlausęe'' (scientifically, according to science)
* ''namęliausake'' (stakanovist) → ''namęliausęe'' (continuously; without any break)
* ''prātūkke'' (windy) → ''prātūkęe'' (windy; like the wind)
 
There are also some irregular adverbs, made from other speech parts:
* ''chlærūm'' (light) → ''chlære'' (easily) (but note its synonym ''chlærausęe'' from the related adjective ''chlærausis'' (easy))
* ''dilas'' (same) → ''diledile'' (exactly the same way; emphatic version of ''dilęe''<ref>''dilęe'' also has the other meaning of "the same", as in ''lili dilęe dadrāṃte'' "I have done the same". ''diledile'' does not have this other meaning.</ref> but more common.)
* ''ṣati'' (way, mode) suffixed to a possessive adjective forms ''liliāṣati'' (from my point of view; my way; in my opinion), ''sāmiāṣati'' (from your point of view; your way; in your opinion), ''demiāṣati'', ''tamiāṣati'', and so on.
 
====Underived adverbs====
Some adverbs are not derived from any other part of speech. They include:
* All adverbial correlatives;
* ''lære'' (yesterday), ''amyære'' (today), and ''menire'' (tomorrow)
* ''mådviṣe'' (before), ''kaminæne'' (now), and ''ħærviṣe'' (after)
* The various "adverbial particles" such as ''tælū'', ''dǣ'' (both "again"), ''nāṭ'', ''lǣh'' (both "already"), ''gudēya'' (anymore/no more), ''vivāmi'' (too much), ''mūji'' (almost), ''maibu'' (enough).
* Some adverbs formed by onomatopoeia or sound symbolism (and usually reduplicated) like ''rarāre'' (roaring) or ''tanetane'' (barefoot).
 
===Undeclinable adjective-like words===
A few common words may be used attributively just like adjectives, but they do not decline. Most of them end in either ''-a'' or ''-i'':
* ''cami'' - great, large (figurative), important
* ''lalla'' - high, higher, next
* ''hulābdān'' - good (and ''chlǣcæm'' (better))
* ''taili'' - many, much
* ''nanū'' - more
* ''kaili'' - most
* ''pṛšcām'' - pleasing
* ''ṣūbha'' - few, little
* ''yamei'' - "honorific" adjective
All numerals also belong to this category.
 
When used predicatively, they need a form of ''jalle'' following them; ''yamei'' is only ever used attributively.
 
Note that ''cami'', ''taili'', and ''kaili'', in some (but not all) Archaic Chlouvānem texts, have a singular-only declension based on the irregular one of ''ami'' (see the declensions of correlatives and possessives in the next section). Most probably this was an analogic feature of a few pre-Classical standardization Chlouvānem dialects of 2000 years ago.<br/>Particles such as ''maibu'' (enough) or ''vivāmi'' (too much/many) are semantically the same as these adjective-like words, but they are considered particles because they ''follow'' the noun they refer to (e.g. ''cūlli vivāmi virā'' "there are too many cars").
 
===Comparatives and superlatives===
Comparatives and superlatives are done in the same way in Chlouvānem. Comparatives are made by using either '''nanū''' (more) or '''ovet''' (less) in front of the adjective; the compared term is in ablative case; the superlative is formed by using '''yaivų''' (than all) as the compared term.
Adverbs use the same method (e.g. ''chlære'' (easily) → ''nanū chlære'' → ''yaivų nanū chlære''), but "than all" in superlatives is usually omitted, therefore they use ''nanū'' also with a superlative meaning.
 
This is used by both adjectival and non adjectival verbs, e.g. ''sąu nanū yæyute'' "I read more than you".
 
Forms expressing a continuous enhancement are made by deriving new verbs with the ''naš-'' prefix, e.g. ''yaiva pārṇame našñæñuchlire'' - (s)he becomes more beautiful each day.
 
Equatives are made by using '''e''' (like) (requiring essive case) instead of the ablative; optionally ''enūḍa'' (this much) may be added: ''sąsь e (enūḍa) yæyute'' "I read just as much as you". For "not as ... as", use ''gu taili'' (not as much) instead of ''enūḍa''.
 
====Irregular forms====
There are seven irregular adjectival verbs which are only used with synthetic comparatives, all synchronically suppletive:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! Positive !! Comparative !! Superlative
! Time
| ''emiya''<br/>now || ''utiya''<br/>then || ''ātiya''<br/>then (remote) || ''yamiya?''<br/>when? || ''gumiya''<br/>never || ''soramiya''<br/>sometime, somewhen || ''grāmiya''<br/>anytime, whenever || ''yaivmiya''<br/>always, everytime || ''viṣmiya''<br/>sometime else || ''guviṣmiya''<br/>never else
|-
|-
| ''ñikake'' (small) || rowspan=2 | ''isike'' (smaller; fewer, less) || rowspan=2  | ''iñekṣike'' (smallest; fewest, least)
! Place
| ''·ejulā''<br/>here || ''·uñjulā''<br/>there || ''·āñjulā''<br/>over there || ''yajulā?''<br/>where? || ''gujulā''<br/>nowhere || ''sorajulā''<br/>somewhere || ''grāñjulā''<br/>anywhere || ''yavijulā''<br/>everywhere || ''viñjulā''<br/>elsewhere || ''guviñjulā''<br/>nowhere else
|-
|-
| ''ṣubha'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (few, little)
! Destination
| ''·ejulyom''<br/>hither || ''·uñjulyom''<br/>thither || ''·āñjulyom''<br/> thither (remote) || ''yajulyom?''<br/>whither? || ''gujulyom''<br/>nowhither || ''sorajulyom''<br/>somewhither || ''grāñjulyom''<br/>anywhither || ''yavijulyom''<br/>everywhither || ''viñjulyom''<br/>elsewhither || ''guviñjulyom''<br/>nowhither else
|-
|-
| ''sūrṣake'' (large) || ''svaprake'' (larger) || ''sprauṣake'' (largest)
! Source
| ''·ejulų''<br/>hence || ''·uñjulų''<br/>thence || ''·āñjulų''<br/> thence (remote) || ''yajulų?''<br/>whence? || ''gujulų''<br/>nowhence ||  ''sorajulų''<br/>somewhence || ''grāñjulų''<br/>anywhence || ''yavijulų''<br/>everywhence || ''viñjulų''<br/>elsewhence || ''guviñjulų''<br/>nowhence else
|-
|-
| ''garpake'' (bad) || ''grāšcake'' (worse) || ''grauṣpake'' (worst)
! Manner
| ''elīce''<br/>thus, hereby || ''ūlīce''<br/>thereby || ''ālīce''<br/>thereby; that other way || ''yalīce?''<br/>how? || ''gulīce''<br/>no way || ''soralīce''<br/>somehow || ''grāṃlīce''<br/>anyhow || ''yaivlīce''<br/>everyway || ''viṣlīce''<br/>otherwise || ''guviṣlīce''<br/>no other way
|-
|-
| ''hulābdān'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (good) || ''chlǣcæm'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (better) || ''chlǣcækṣike'' (best)
! Reason
| ''emena''<br/>herefore || ''utmena''<br/>therefore || ''ātmena''<br/>therefore; for that other reason || ''yamenat?''<br/>why? || ''gumena''<br/>for no reason || ''soramena''<br/>somewhy || ''grāmena''<br/>whyever, for any reason || ''yaivmena''<br/>for every reason || ''viṣmena''<br/>for another reason || ''guviṣmena''<br/>for no other reason
|-
|-
| ''durḍhāvake'' (far) || ''duryāḍhivake'' (farther, further) || ''dudhorasike'' (farthest, furthest)
! Quality
| ''esmā''<br/>this kind || ''utsmā''<br/>that kind || ''ātsmā''<br/>that other kind || ''yasmāt?''<br/>which kind? || ''gusmā''<br/>no kind || ''sorasmā''<br/>some kind || ''grāṇismā''<br/>any kind || ''yavismā''<br/>every kind || ''viṣasmā''<br/>another kind || ''guviṣasmā''<br/>no other kind
|-
|-
| ''taili'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (many, much) || ''nanū'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (more) || ''kaili'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (most)
! Quantity
| ''enūḍa''<br/>this much || ''utnūḍa''<br/>that much || ''ātnūḍa''<br/>that much (remote) || ''yanūḍat?''<br/>how much? || ''gunūḍa''<br/>none || ''soraṇūḍa''<br/>some of it || ''grāṇūḍa''<br/>any much || ''yaivnūḍa''<br/>all of it || ''viṣṇūḍa''<br/>another quantity || ''guviṣṇūḍa''<br/>no other quantity
|}
|}


==Pronouns==
Note that in common speach ''ālīce'' and ''ūlīce'' as well as ''ātmena'' and ''utmena'' are basically interchangeable. The <small>QUALITY</small> correlatives may take an essive argument, e.g. ''lajlęs grāṇismā'' "any kind of chair".<br/><small>THING</small> and <small>PERSON</small> correlatives decline for case and, in the case of ''evita'', ''utvita'', and ''ātvita'', also for number (1h declension: ''evita'', acc. sg. ''evitu'', dir. pl. ''evitai'', dat. pl. ''evitesām''…). <small>QUALITY</small> and <small>QUANTITY</small> correlatives also decline for case.
Chlouvānem has a series of pronouns which are irregular when compared to other nouns, yet they follow a mostly similar pattern among themselves. As with nouns and adjectives, in Chlouvānem there is mostly no difference between possessive and demonstrative pronouns and adjectives. Note that ''pronouns'' here are defined as a morphological category, as there are many pronominal locutions or nouns acting as pronouns in the Chlouvānem honorific system, as well as nouns standing for pronouns, both in formal and extremely informal speech.


Standard Chlouvānem as spoken today uses the following morphological pronouns (not including those that follow nominal inflection):
Not to be confused with their literal English translations are ''yaivemibe'' (or ''yaiva emibe'') "each, every" (literally "everyone") - which is most often attributive only in Chlouvānem - and especially ''sora emibe'', literally "someone", which has a completely different meaning: ''sora emibe'' denotes "some single subjects, considered as single entities, hence inherently plural and taking plural verbs: ''sora emibe draikate'' "some single subjects did it" ≠ ''soraita dṛkte'' "someone did it".
* 1st person '''lili''' (sg.), '''lilše''' (dual), and '''main''' (pl.).
* 2nd person informal '''sāmi''' (sg.) and '''saše''' (dual).
* 2nd person formal superior '''nani''' (sg.; also used for 2nd plural, both informal and formal generic) and '''naiše''' (dual).

* 2nd person formal equal '''ravi''' (sg.) and '''raude''' (dual).
* 2nd person formal inferior '''kūri''' (sg.) and '''kūrḍe''' (dual).
* 3rd person '''tami''' (sg.), '''taṃše''' (dual), and '''toman''' (pl.).
* Reflexive '''demi''' (mandatory for 3rd person, commonly used also for 1st and 2nd).


The pronouns doubling as adjectives are:
Negatives, elective existentials, universals, and positive alternatives for thing and person correlatives may also take dual number:
* Three demonstratives, all declining for case only, not for number: proximal '''nenē'''; medial '''nunū'''; distal '''nanā'''.
: ''gomīt～guvitāt'' "neither";  
* The possessives: '''liliā''', '''meyā''', '''sāmiā''', '''naniā''', '''ravyā''', '''kūriā''', '''tamiā'''; '''tomiā''', '''tameṣyā''', ('''yaniā''').
: ''grāṇamīt～grāmvitāt'' "either";
: ''yaivāt～yaivitāt'' "both";  
: ''viṣāmāt～viṣvitāt'' "the other one".


Among younger speakers in some areas the Jade Coast, most notably in Līlasuṃghāṇa, Taitepamba, and Mileyīkhā, demonstratives and possessives are not inflected at all, e.g. ''lili nanā phēcamu mišau'' "I saw that cat" instead of standard ''lili nanau phēcamu mišau''.
Further correlatives not included in the above table:
 
: ''yambā?'' (whose?)
In addition, '''yani''' is an emphatic pronoun not properly part of common speech (''demi'' is used instead) but sometimes found in high style. Archaic Chlouvānem had a demonstrative series consisting of proximal '''ami''', medial '''uteni''', and distal '''āteni''', which declined in use throughout Classical times, when they were replaced by the newer ''nenē — nunū — nanā'' forms.
: ''smāmi'' (such a...) <small>(archaic, literary)</small>
 
''ami'' is still used regionally around the mid-course of the Lāmiejāya (an area in the Central Plain: roughly the whole of the diocese of Raharjātia, most of Jolenītra, Daikatorāma, Vādhātorama, and Namafleta, and parts of Mūrajātana, Perelkaša, Ryogiñjātia and far northern Sendakārva) where it has been repurposed as a definiteness marker for non-triggered arguments - Standard Chlouvānem usually topicalizes the argument or uses ''nanā'', or, colloquially, leaves it unmarked and only understandable by context; cf. "the tiger is seen by the wolf":
: ''<small>(Standard):</small> ēmīla nanye bāḍhmānæ mešē'', or ''bāḍhmān mæn ēmīla mēšē'', or ''ēmīla bāḍhmānæ mēšē''.
: ''<small>(Mid-Lāmiejāyi):</small> ēmīla amye bāḍhmānæ mešē''.


As mentioned before, Chlouvānem does not distinguish singular formal superior and plural "you", having the single pronoun ''nani'' for both. Unlike the similar situation in English, Chlouvānem still differentiates them by marking number on the verb, so for example "you (sg) work" is ''nani pūni'', and "you (pl) work" is ''nani pūnašin''. Originally, ''nani'' was only the 2nd person singular feminine pronoun (as shown by its cognates in other Lahob languages); in Archaic Chlouvānem the original plural pronoun ''nagin'' is attested, but we lack attestations of any form except the direct and the genitive (''nagyā'').
====Positional demonstratives====
Chlouvānem has a large number of demonstratives, as they are integrated with the system of [[Chlouvānem/Positional_and_motion_verbs#Positional_verbs_.28jalyadaradhaus.29|positional verbs]], combining a general proximal-medial-distal distinction with positional prefixes, further localizing them in space. Only a subset of 10 out of the 24 positional prefixes are used to build demonstratives; the ones with a ∅- prefix correspond to most of the unused ones, and may be translated as "this/that one in front/ahead/in the middle" when a disambiguation from another one is needed. The same ten prefixes (except for ''įs-'') are also used together with the <small>PERSON</small> series (with the same logic), and with the <small>PLACE</small>, <small>DESTINATION</small>, and <small>SOURCE</small> correlatives, which act as adverbial anaphoras of positional and motion verbs. This results in forms like ''kamyejulā'' "here, around" or ''māhāñjulyom'' "thither (remote), rightwards".


=== Personal pronouns ===
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan=4 | !! Direct !! Accusative !! Ergative !!  Genitive !! Translative !! Exessive !! Essive !!  Dative !! Ablative !! Locative !! Instrumental
|-
! rowspan=6 | Singular !! colspan=3 | 1st person
| '''lili''' || lū || lēyet || liliā || liñ || litь || lęsь || loh || ląu || lǣ || līp
|-
! rowspan=4 | 2nd person !! colspan=2 | Informal
| '''sāmi''' || sū || sēyet || sāmiā || sāñ || sātь || sąsь || soh || sąu || sǣ || šīp
|-
! colspan=2 | Form. sup.
| '''nani''' || nyū || nyēt || naniā || nyāñ || nyātь || nyąsь || nyoh || nyąu || nyǣ || nīp
|-
! colspan=2 | Form. equal
| '''ravi''' || rū || rēyet || ravyā || rāñ || rātь || rąsь || roh || rąu || rǣ || rīp
|-
! colspan=2 | Form. inf.
| '''kūri''' || kū || kūyet || kūriā || kūñ || kūtь || kųsь || kūroh || kųu || kūrǣ || kūrīp
|-
|-
! colspan=3 | 3rd person
! Prefix ↓ / Type → !! Proximal !! Medial !! Distal
| '''tami''' || tū || tēt || tamiā || tañ || tatь || tąsь || toh || tąu || tǣ || tīp
|-
|-
! colspan=4 | Reflexive pronoun
! ∅- (ahead)
| '''demi''' || diū || dēyit || demiā || deñ || detь || dęsь || doh || dąu || dǣ || dīp
| ''nenē''<br/>this one ahead || ''nunū''<br/>that one (near you) ahead || ''nanā''<br/>that one ahead
|-
|-
! rowspan=6 | Dual !! colspan=3 | 1st person
! ān- (above)
| '''lilše''' || lilut || liārat || lileṣyā || lilšās || lilšātь || lilšona || lilšoh || lilšų || lilšǣ || lilešī
| ''āninē''<br/>this one above || ''ānnū''<br/>that one (near you) above || ''ānnā''<br/>that one above
|-
|-
! rowspan=4 | 2nd person !! colspan=2 | Informal
! šu- (below)
| '''saše''' || sašut || sārat || sareṣyā || sarās || sašātь || sašona || sašoh || sašų || sašǣ || sarešī
| ''šunē''<br/>this one below || ''šūnū''<br/>that one (near you) below || ''šonā''<br/>that one below
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | Form. sup.
! įs- (hanging)
| '''naiše''' || naišut || nyārat || nanešā || naišās || naišātь || naišona || naišoh || naišų || naišǣ || nanešī
| ''įsinē''<br/>this one hanging || ''įsunū''<br/>that one (near you) hanging || ''įsanā''<br/>that one hanging
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | Form. equal
! na(ñ)- (inside)
| '''raude''' || raudut || rālat || ravedyā || raudās || raudātь || raudona || raudoh || raudų || raudǣ || ravedī
| ''najinē''<br/>this one inside || ''najunū''<br/>that one (near you) inside || ''najanā''<br/>that one inside
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | Form. inf.
! kau- (outside)
| '''kūrḍe''' || kūrḍut || kūrat || kūredyā || kūrḍās || kūrḍātь || kūrḍona || kūrḍoh || kūrḍų || kūrḍǣ || kūredī
| ''kaunē''<br/>this one outside || ''kaunū''<br/>that one (near you) outside || ''kaunā''<br/>that one outside
|-
|-
! colspan=3 | 3rd person
! kami- (around)
| '''taṃše''' || taṃšut || tārat || tameṣyā || taṃšās || taṃšātь || taṃšona || taṃšoh || taṃšų || taṃšǣ || tamešī
| ''kaminē''<br/>this one around || ''kamyunū''<br/>that one (near you) around || ''kamyanā''<br/>that one around
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Plural !! colspan=3 | 1st person
! pri- (behind)
| '''main''' || mū || mān || maiyā || maiñ || maitь || maisь || mayoh || mąu || mehǣ || menīk
| ''prinē''<br/>this one behind || ''prinū''<br/>that one (near you) behind || ''prinā''<br/>that one behind
|-
|-
! 2nd person !! colspan=2 | Informal
! vai- (beside; in the corner)<br/><small>(''sāṭ-'' for the main meaning)</small>
| '''nani''' || nyū || nyēt || naniā || nyāñ || nyātь || nyąsь || nyoh || nyąu || nyǣ || nīp
| ''vainē''<br/>this one beside || ''vayunū''<br/>that one (near you) beside || ''vayanā''<br/>that one beside
|-
|-
! colspan=3 | 3rd person
! vyā- (left)
| '''toman''' || tomau || tvān || tomiā || tomiñ || tomitь || tomesь || tomåh || tomąu || tomyǣ || tomenīk
| ''vyāɂinē''<br/>this one to the left || ''vyāɂunū''<br/>that one (near you) to the left || ''vyāɂanā''<br/>that one to the left
|-
|-
! colspan=4 | <small>Emphatic pronoun (archaic)</small>
! māha- (right)
| '''yani''' || yū || ēyit || yaniā || yañ || yatь || yąsь || yoh || yų || yǣ || īp
| ''māhenē''<br/>this one to the right || ''māhonū''<br/>that one (near you) to the right || ''māhānā''<br/>that one to the right
|}
|}
Note that, in colloquial speech, ''-ēyet'' forms are usually pronounced [ˈeːt], [ˈeɪ̯t], or [ˈeɦet], with the full form [ˈeːjet] only heard in careful speech.
The ''įs-'' forms may also be used for things lying on people's hands.
 
'''yavyāta''' (though often replaced by ''nani'') and '''yakaliyātam''' are used as formal second person plural pronouns; they are however nouns and decline as such (as singular 1-h and 1-m declension respectively, but they take plural verbs and adjectives). Various other nouns may be used as second- or third-person pronouns depending on the situation; see [[Chlouvānem/Morphology#Honorifics|the following section on honorifics]] for a list of them and their usage.
 
====Use of possessives====
Possessive adjectives are always used if they refer to an explicit topic, and in most cases (except those listed below) if the topic is only marked by the voice, e.g.:
* ''liliā glūkam mæn māminęltende fliven'' - my brother is in his 14<sub>12</sub>-th year (= is fifteen years old).
* ''ūnikire faliā cūlla viṣam ūnime vi'' - your red car is on the other road.
The voice-marked topic usually does not have a possessive if it belongs to a first- or second-person agent which is explicitely marked. Particularly, the words ''meinā'' (mother) and ''bunā'' (father) are almost always possessive-less. e.g.:
* ''ñæltah hånyadaikire furṣīnaviṣyu lēyet emęliosi'' - It is my sister I gave that wonderful poetry book to. — note how it is simply ''ñæltah'' and not ''liliā ñæltah'' because of the presence of the ergative pronoun ''lēyet''.
If the sentence is focussed on a verb-marked (i.e. with a dropped pronoun) agent, it is more common to use the possessive. In many colloquial varieties of Chlouvānem, there is a developing distinction between using the reflexive and the 1st- or 2nd- person forms, where the reflexive is more commonly (but still not exclusively!) used for alienable possession and the other for inalienable possession. Thus, "my sister" is more commonly ''liliā ñæltah'', while "my book" is more commonly ''demiā naviṣya'', at least in a sentence with a first person focus. The above example would become ''liliåh ñæltom hånyadaikire furṣīnaviṣyu emęliaṃte''; one could also stress the fact it's their own book and thus say ''liliåh ñæltom hånyadaikire demiau furṣīnaviṣyu emęliaṃte''.<br/>Still, even in this case, "mother" and "father" would still lack a possessive, as referring to someone else's mother or father would anyway need the honorific words ''nāḍima'' and ''tāmvāram'' respectively, instead of ''meinā'' and ''bunā''.


=== Correlatives ===
The forms for the <small>PERSON</small>, <small>PLACE</small>, <small>DESTINATION</small>, and <small>SOURCE</small> series are mostly formed through regular saṃdhi (with the partial exception of the ''na(ñ)-'' and ''vyā-'' prefixes):
Chlouvānem has a fairly regular system of correlatives, distinguishing ten types (proximal, medial, distal, interrogative, negative, assertive existential, elective existential, universal, positive alternative, and negative alternative) in eleven categories (attributive, thing, person, time, place, destination, origin, way, reason, quality, quantity).
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Category ↓ / Type → !! Proximal !! Medial !! Distal !! Interrogative !! Negative !! Ass. exist. !! Elect. exist. !! Universal !! Positive altern. !! Negative altern.
|-
|-
| Attributive || rowspan=2 | ''nenē''<br/>this (one) || rowspan=2 | ''nunū''<br/>that (one) (near you) || rowspan=2 | ''nanā''<br/>that (one) (over there) || rowspan=2 | ''yananū?''<br/>what?, which (one) ? || ''gu''<br/>no || ''sora''<br/>some || ''læti''<br/>any || rowspan=2 | ''yaiva''<br/>every(thing) || ''viṣam''<br/>another, other || ''guviṣam''<br/>no other
! Prefix ↓ / Base → !! ''·evita<br/>·ejulā<br/>·ejulyom<br/>·ejulų'' !! ''·utvita<br/>·uñjulā<br/>·uñjulyom<br/>·uñjulų'' !! ''·ātvita<br/>·āñjulā<br/>·āñjulyom<br/>·āñjulų''
|-
|-
| Thing || ''gvami''<br/>nothing || ''sorami''<br/>something || ''lætyami''<br/>anything || ''viṣāmi''<br/>something else || ''guviṣāmi''<br/>nothing else
! ∅- (ahead)
| ''evita'' || ''utvita'' || ''ātvita''
|-
|-
| Person || ''evita''<br/>this one || ''utvita''<br/>that one (near you) || ''ātvita''<br/>that one (over there) || ''yavita?''<br/>who? || ''guvita''<br/>no one || ''soraita''<br/>someone || ''lævita''<br/>anyone || ''yaivita''<br/>everyone || ''viṣvita''<br/>someone else || ''guviṣvita''<br/>no one else
! ān- (above)
| ''ānevita'' || ''ānutvita'' || ''ānātvita''
|-
|-
| Time || ''emiya''<br/>now || ''utiya''<br/>then || ''ātiya''<br/>then (remote) || ''yamiya?''<br/>when? || ''gumiya''<br/>never || ''soramiya''<br/>sometime, somewhen || ''lætmiya''<br/>anytime, whenever || ''yaivmiya''<br/>always, everytime || ''viṣmiya''<br/>sometime else || ''guviṣmiya''<br/>never else
! šu- (below)
| ''švevita'' || ''šūtvita'' || ''švātvita''
|-
|-
| Place || ''ejulā''<br/>here || ''uñjulā''<br/>there || ''āñjulā''<br/>over there || ''yajulā?''<br/>where? || ''gujulā''<br/>nowhere || ''sorajulā''<br/>somewhere || ''læjulā''<br/>anywhere || ''yavijulā''<br/>everywhere || ''viñjulā''<br/>elsewhere || ''guviñjulā''<br/>nowhere else
! na(ñ)- (inside)
| ''naivita'' || ''notvita'' || ''nātvita''
|-
|-
| Destination || ''ejulyom''<br/>hither || ''uñjulyom''<br/>thither || ''āñjulyom''<br/> thither (remote) || ''yajulyom?''<br/>whither? || ''gujulyom''<br/>nowhither || ''sorajulyom''<br/>somewhither || ''læjulyom''<br/>anywhither || ''yavijulyom''<br/>everywhither || ''viñjulyom''<br/>elsewhither || ''guviñjulyom''<br/>nowhither else
! kau- (outside)
| ''kāvevita'' || ''kāvutvita'' || ''kāvātvita''
|-
|-
| Source || ''ejulųu''<br/>hence || ''uñjulųu''<br/>thence || ''āñjulųu''<br/> thence (remote) || ''yajulųu?''<br/>whence? || ''gujulųu''<br/>nowhence ||  ''sorajulųu''<br/>somewhence || ''læjulųu''<br/>anywhence || ''yavijulųu''<br/>everywhence || ''viñjulųu''<br/>elsewhence || ''guviñjulųu''<br/>nowhence else
! kami- (around)
| ''kamyevitai'' || ''kamyutvitai'' || ''kamyātvitai''
|-
|-
| Manner || ''elīce''<br/>thus, hereby || ''ūlīce''<br/>thereby || ''ālīce''<br/>thereby; that other way || ''yalīce?''<br/>how? || ''gulīce''<br/>no way || ''soralīce''<br/>somehow || ''lælīce''<br/>anyhow || ''yaivlīce''<br/>everyway || ''viṣlīce''<br/>otherwise || ''guviṣlīce''<br/>no other way
! pri- (behind)
| ''pryevita'' || ''pryutvita'' || ''pryātvita''
|-
|-
| Reason || ''emena''<br/>herefore || ''utmena''<br/>therefore || ''ātmena''<br/>therefore; for that other reason || ''yamenat?''<br/>why? || ''gumena''<br/>for no reason || ''soramena''<br/>somewhy || ''lætmena''<br/>whyever, for any reason || ''yaivmena''<br/>for every reason || ''viṣmena''<br/>for another reason || ''guviṣmena''<br/>for no other reason
! vai- (beside, in the corner)
| ''vāyevita'' || ''vāyutvita'' || ''vāyātvita''
|-
|-
| Quality || ''esmā''<br/>this kind || ''utsmā''<br/>that kind || ''ātsmā''<br/>that other kind || ''yasmāt?''<br/>which kind? || ''gusmā''<br/>no kind || ''sorasmā''<br/>some kind || ''læsmā''<br/>any kind || ''yavismā''<br/>every kind || ''viṣasmā''<br/>another kind || ''guviṣasmā''<br/>no other kind
! vyā- (left)
| ''vyāɂevita'' || ''vyāɂutvita'' || ''vyāɂātvita''
|-
|-
| Quantity || ''enūḍa''<br/>this much || ''utnūḍa''<br/>that much || ''ātnūḍa''<br/>that much (remote) || ''yanūḍat?''<br/>how much? || ''gunūḍa''<br/>none || ''soraṇūḍa''<br/>some of it || ''lætnūḍa''<br/>any much || ''yaivnūḍa''<br/>all of it || ''viṣṇūḍa''<br/>another quantity || ''guviṣṇūḍa''<br/>no other quantity
! māha- (right)
| ''māhaivita'' || ''māhotvita'' || ''māhātvita''
|}
|}
 
Note that, in the <small>PERSON</small> series, the ''kami-'' forms are only used with a plural meaning, as reflected in the table above.
Note that in common speach ''ālīce'' and ''ūlīce'' as well as ''ātmena'' and ''utmena'' are basically interchangeable. The quality correlatives may take an essive argument, e.g. ''kadięs læsmā'' "any kind of chair".<br/>Thing and person correlatives decline for case and, in the case of ''evita'', ''utvita'', and ''ātvita'', also for number (1h declension: ''evita'', acc. sg. ''evitu'', dir. pl. ''evitai'', dat. pl. ''evitesām''…). Quality and quantity correlatives also decline for case.
 
Negatives, elective existentials, universals, and positive alternatives for thing and person correlatives may also take dual number:
: ''gvamīt～guvitāt'' "neither";
: ''lætyamīt～lævitāt'' "either";
: ''yaivāt～yaivitāt'' "both";
: ''viṣāmāt～viṣvitāt'' "the other one".
 
Further correlatives not included in the above table:
: ''yacāryā?'' (whose?)
: ''smāmi'' (such a...) <small>(archaic, literary)</small>


====Declensions of correlatives and possessives====
====Declensions of correlatives and possessives====
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
|-
|-
! rowspan=2 | Case || ā-paradigm !! ē-paradigm !! ū-paradigm !! t-paradigm
! rowspan=2 | Case || ā-paradigm !! ē-paradigm !! ū-paradigm !! t-paradigm
|-
|-
! <small>All possessives, ''nanā'', ''yacāryā?'',<br/> ''ami'', correlatives in ''-i''<ref>e.g. ''læti'', ''sorami''…</ref></small> !! <small>''nenē'' only</small> !! <small>''nunū'' only</small> !! <small>''yasmāt?'' and ''yanūḍat?''</small>
! <small>All possessives, ''nanā'' and other distals,<br/> ''yambā?'', ''ami'', correlatives in ''-i''<ref>e.g. ''sorami'', ''grāṇami''…</ref></small> !! <small>''nenē'' and other proximals</small> !! <small>''nunū'', and other medials, ''yanū?''</small> !! <small>''yasmāt?'' and ''yanūḍat?''</small>
|-
|-
! Direct<br/>Vocative  
! Direct<br/>Vocative  
| '''liliā''' || '''nenē''' || '''nunū''' || '''yasmāt'''
| '''lilyā''' || '''nenē''' || '''nunū''' || '''yasmāt'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| liliau || nenyu || nunūyu || yasmau
| lilyau || nenyu || nunūyu || yasmau
|-
|-
! Ergative
! Ergative
| lilie || nenye || nunūye || yasmātei
| lilye || nenye || nunūye || yasmātei
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| liliai || neniai || nunūyai || yasmai
| lilyai || neniai || nunūyai || yasmai
|-
|-
! Translative
! Translative
| liliān || nenēn || nunūn || yasmān
| lilyān || nenēn || nunūn || yasmān
|-
|-
! Exessive
! Exessive
| liliāt || nenēt || nunūt || yasmātat
| lilyāt || nenēt || nunūt || yasmātat
|-
|-
! Essive
! Essive
| liliąa || nenęe || nunųu || yasmātą
| lilyą || nenę || nunų || yasmātą
|-
|-
! Dative  
! Dative  
| liliåh || neneah || nunouh || yasmātom
| lilyåh || nenǣh || nunǣh || yasmātom
|-
|-
! Ablative  
! Ablative  
| liliąu || nenēhu || nunūvu || yasmąu
| lilyąu || nenēhu || nunūvu || yasmąu
|-
|-
! Locative  
! Locative  
Line 1,344: Line 1,072:
|}
|}


==Honorifics==
<!-- ==Honorifics==
===Honorific pronouns===
===Honorific pronouns===
====Second person====
====Second person====
The rules for second person pronouns are mostly fairly easy. There are usually two contexts: formal and informal.  
The rules for second person pronouns are mostly fairly easy. There are usually two contexts: formal and informal.  


Formal pronouns are three and (in contemporary Chlouvānem) invariable for gender, but they vary for relative rank instead: '''nani''' is used towards a superior, '''ravi''' towards one of the same rank, and '''kūri''' towards a lower ranked person (until around 6350, ''nani'' was strictly feminine and ''kūri'' strictly masculine, and the rules for all three varied also according to the relative genders). '''naiše''', '''raude''', and '''kūrḍe''' are their respective dual forms.<br/>
Plural second person pronouns are usually two: '''yakaliyātam''' is used towards the representative of a specifically defined group - an institution or a company -, while '''yavyāta''' (but also ''nani'') is used for less defined groups.
Formal pronouns are three and (in contemporary Chlouvānem) invariable for gender, but they vary for relative rank instead: '''nami''' is used towards a superior, '''tami''' towards one of the same rank, and '''ravi''' towards a lower ranked person (until around 6350, ''nani'' was strictly feminine and ''ravi'' strictly masculine, and the rules for all three varied also according to the relative genders). '''nanak''', '''tanak''', and '''raṇak''' are their respective dual forms.<br/>
Plural second person pronouns are usually two: '''yakaliyātam''' is used towards the representative of a specifically defined group - an institution or a company -, while '''yavyāta''' (but also, in not extremely formal styles, ''nami'') is used for less defined groups.


There are, however, more formal second-person pronouns with a limited use. All of these (here listed in Latin alphabetical order), unless noted, are morphologically nouns, but they are used with second person verbs anyway:

There are, however, more formal second-person pronouns with a limited use. All of these (here listed in Latin alphabetical order), unless noted, are morphologically nouns, but they are used with second person verbs anyway:

* '''aveṣyotariri nani''' (locution with the pronoun ''nani'') is sometimes used towards the highest ranked non-religious superiors, if they are several ranks ahead: examples include commanders of a military brigade or presidents of a company. However, ''nani'' is in most cases respectful enough; it is however invariably used in the set phrase ''lāliu naniau aveṣyotariri yaccechlašute nami'' "I humbly ask for your forgiveness".
* '''aveṣyotariri nami''' (locution with the pronoun ''nami'') is sometimes used towards the highest ranked non-religious superiors, if they are several ranks ahead: examples include commanders of a military brigade or presidents of a company. However, ''nami'' is in most cases respectful enough; it is however invariably used in the set phrase ''lālyu nanyau aveṣyotariri yaccechlašute nami'' "I humbly ask for your forgiveness".
* '''gopūrṭham''' is often used towards public/religious and military officials.
* '''gopūrṭham''' is often used towards public/religious and military officials.
* '''gopūrṭhami brausa''' (or '''yobrausa''') are used for the highest ranked Inquisitors, bishops, head monks, and the Baptist.
* '''gopūrṭhami brausa''' (or '''yobrausa''') are used for the highest ranked Inquisitors, bishops, head monks, and the Baptist.
Line 1,360: Line 1,088:
* '''yobrausa''' — see ''gopūrṭhami brausa'' above.
* '''yobrausa''' — see ''gopūrṭhami brausa'' above.




It is also important to note that it's increasingly common to simply use the vocative formula - given name plus ''lāma'' - instead of any pronoun in formal context: when speaking to a superior named Lārtāvi Vaihātiai ''Lælithiam'', in order to say a sentence like "have you already done (it)?", ''nani tū dadrās nāṭ dām?'' and ''Lælithiam lāma tū dadrās nāṭ dām?'' are both just as correct. The pronoun forms are more commonly used in other cases, particularly in the genitive.


It is also important to note that it's increasingly common to simply use the vocative formula - given name plus ''lāma'' - instead of any pronoun in formal context: when speaking to a superior named Lārtāvi Vaihātiai ''Lælithiam'', in order to say a sentence like "have you already done (it)?", ''nami nanau dadrāste nāṭ dām?'' and ''lælicham lāma nanau dadrāste nāṭ dām?'' are both just as correct. The pronoun forms are more commonly used in other cases, particularly in the genitive.<br/>Note that ''lāma'' itself does <small>NOT</small> decline: only the noun does – e.g. ''lælichamom lāma lę emęlya'' "it has been given by me to you/Mr. Lælithiam".


In '''informal''' contexts, the only basic morphological second-person pronoun is '''sāmi''', which has the dual form '''saše''' and the plural form '''nain'''. However, there may be even more informal contexts where other nouns may be used: the prototypical example is among siblings, where '''blikā''' (dual ''blikyon'', plural ''blikai''), an endearing term for girls (think of Japanese ''-chan'' or ''-tan'') is used as a pronoun for and among sisters — e.g. ''blikā meyom umuṣeste tane<ref>''tane'' is a colloquial contraction of ''dām'' (interrogative particle) and ''nane'' (emphatic tag question particle).</ref>?'' meaning "did you ask mum or not?"; as for all nouns standing for pronouns, this is not a vocative expression as it declines for case - e.g. ''blikom emęliaṃte nāṭ!'' "I've already given it to you!"; other such pro-nouns used among siblings are '''lorkhās''' (for and among brothers; literally "guy", can be rude outside this context), '''nājhali''' (non-binary equivalent to "girl" and "boy" — somewhat rarer as even in general use it's a more neutral term than either ''blikā'' or ''lorkhās''), and even '''samin''' (literally "kid"). [[Chlouvānem/Names#Informal_names_.28laltihalen.C4.AB.29|Informal names]] are also sometimes used instead of pronouns among siblings, and they're more often than not used that way among close friends and ''kaleyai''<ref>A ''kaleya'' is a "spiritual friend" in Chlouvānem culture — this word can be translated with "best friend", but it also evokes particular religious meanings.</ref>.
In '''informal''' contexts, the only basic morphological second-person pronoun is '''sāmi''', which has the dual form '''sanak''' and uses '''nami''' as the plural form (with plural agreement on verbs). However, there may be even more informal contexts where other nouns may be used: the prototypical example is among siblings, where '''blikā''' (dual ''blikāt'', plural ''blikai''), an endearing term for girls (think of Japanese ''-chan'' or ''-tan'') is used as a pronoun for and among sisters — e.g. ''blikā meyom umuṣeste tane<ref>''tane'' is a colloquial contraction of ''dām'' (interrogative particle) and ''nane'' (emphatic tag question particle).</ref>?'' meaning "did you ask mum or not?"; as for all nouns standing for pronouns, this is not a vocative expression as it declines for case - e.g. ''blikom emęliaṃte nāṭ!'' "I've already given it to you!"; other such pro-nouns used among siblings are '''lorkhās''' (for and among brothers; literally "guy", can be rude outside this context), '''nājhali''' (non-binary equivalent to "girl" and "boy" — somewhat rarer as even in general use it's a more neutral term than either ''blikā'' or ''lorkhās''), and even '''samin''' (literally "kid"). [[Chlouvānem/Names#Informal_names_.28laltihalen.C4.AB.29|Informal names]] are also sometimes used instead of pronouns among siblings, and they're more often than not used that way among close friends and ''kaleyai''<ref>A ''kaleya'' is a "spiritual friend" in Chlouvānem culture — this word can be translated with "best friend", but it also evokes particular religious meanings.</ref>.


====Third person====
====Third person====
In Chlouvānem, third person pronouns are basically never used when referring to people: '''tami''' can only be used as such in informal registers, and it is considered insulting to do so in formal speech. The name of the person referred to with the appropriate honorific title is used instead.
In Chlouvānem, the third person pronouns – which are the demonstrative sets, most commonly the distal ''nanā'' – are not used for people; the name of the person referred to with the appropriate honorific title is used instead.
 
===Honorific titles===
''→ See also: [[Chlouvānem/Names#Using_names|Chlouvānem names § Using names]]''
 
Chlouvānem uses many honorific titles, which are always used in non-familiar speech. The "honorific" adjective ''yamei'' is often added to many of them - especially ''lāma'' - and is mandatory in other ones.
* '''lāma''' - used after the noun, it is the most common honorific title; almost every time someone is being addressed, ''lāma'' is used - the only exceptions being when it is already known another honorific should be used, or in familiar situations. It usually follows the given name alone (e.g. ''Namihūlša lāma''); if the matronymic is added (sometimes done in order to disambiguate), then ''lāma'' comes between matronymic and noun (e.g. ''Līṭhaljāyimāvi lāma Namihūlša''). All three names matronymic, surname, and given name together with ''lāma'' (e.g. ''Līṭhaljāyimāvi Kaleñchokah Namihūlša lāma'') are only used in very formal addressing from a list of nouns; should matronymic+noun be not enough to distinguish two people, simply surname+noun is used.
* '''tanta''' - used for people in a lower position, e.g. used towards one's employees or (usually from seventh class onwards) by teachers and professors towards their students. Also used by militars towards lower-ranked soldiers.
* '''suntam''' (regionally also ''sintam'') - used for people in a higher position in certain situations, most commonly towards older and more experienced colleagues (but not teachers or professors, nor work bosses if they're roughly the same age as the speaker).
* '''lallāmaha''' - an extremely formal honorific, used for public authorities and all Inquisitors. Most often used together with ''yamei''. Inquisitors may also be referred to as ''lallāmaha + <small>matronymic</small> + yamei + <small>given name</small> + murkadhāna (lāma)''
* '''jūlin''' - less formal than ''lāma'', used for people who work in one's home but are not part of the family.
* '''telen''' - less formal than ''lāma'', used by men for unmarried women whom they know somewhat well. Currently less frequently used than it was up to about 10 years ago.
* '''jāmilšīreh''' - used in military contexts towards higher-ranked people, or by common people towards military commanders in service.
* '''dhārāti''' - neutral but respectful title of address, often used when generally speaking and without knowing who the listener is. Sometimes used, when in a plural sense, in the form '''yamei dau-dhārātīye'''. In its neutralness relative to rank, it can be compared with the Soviet-era use of ''товарищ''. It is also how high-ranked Inquisitors and most monks address the general public.
* '''pūrivāla''' - an impersonal term of address used in written language, towards unfamiliar people never met personally. Often used as ''yamei'' [name] ''pūrivāla''.
* '''cuca''' is not strictly an honorific, as it pertains to more colloquial forms of speech, but it works the same way. It has a diminutive and endearing meaning, not unlike Japanese ''-chan''. In formal speech, it is often used towards and when speaking about children.
 
====Occupations commonly used as titles====
* '''camitorai''' — head of a company (usually as [matronymic] ''yamei'' [name] ''camitorai lāma'')
* '''kauchlærīn''' (voc.: ''kauchlærī'') — professor (in universities, seminaries, institutions, and work schools)
* '''tatnāmęlīn''' (voc.: ''tatnāmęlī'') — teacher (in first and basic schools)
 
====Official titles====
Where not noted, the formula is [matronymic] ''yamei'' [name] [title] ''lāma''.


* '''brausamailenia''' — Baptist — rendered as ''aveṣyotārire lallāmaha'' [matronymic] ''yamei'' [surname + given name] ''brausamailenia lāma''.
Repetition of names is usually not considered strange in Chlouvānem, but there are a few ways to avoid excessive repetition. The most natural one is obviously to state the person once at the beginning as the topic and then have all following verbs agree with it through the trigger system.
* '''camimurkadhāna''' — Great Inquisitor — rendered as ''nanū aveṣyotārire lallāmaha'' [matronymic] ''yamei'' [surname + given name] ''camimurkadhāna lāma''.
* '''camitorai''' — president (of diocesan parliaments or executives or of foreign countries). Rendered as ''aveṣyotārire'' [matronymic (if Chlouvānem)] ''yamei'' [name] ''camitorai lāma''.
* '''plušamelīs''' (voc.: ''plušamelī'') — Prefect (head of an Office (''plušamila'') of the Inquisition). Rendered as ''aveṣyotārire'' [matronymic] ''yamei'' [name] ''plušamelī(s) lāma''.
* '''gatvā''' — leader/head/president/mayor — preceded by the genitive of the respective administration (''ṣramāṇa'' "province", ''lalka'' "circuit", ''hālgāra'' "district", ''marta'' "city"…).
* '''hurdagīn''' — Head Monk (head of a monastery) — rendered as ''kaili brausire yamei [name] hurdagīn lāma'' (+ monastery name-<small>GEN</small>)<ref>Many head monks have their own unique titles based on their monastery. For example the head monk of the Vādhaṃšvāti Lake Monastery is not referred as ''[…] hurdagīn lāma vādhaṃšvāti ga gērisi'' but as ''[…] laliājuniāmiti jāṇi camilālta lāma'', literally "Great Guardian of the Field of the Night Bloom".</ref>
* '''juṃša''' — Bishop (head of a diocese) — rendered as ''aveṣyotārire'' [matronymic] ''yamei'' [(surname +) name] ''juṃša lāma'' (+ diocese name-<small>GEN</small>).
* '''lallaflušamelīs''' (voc.: ''lallaflušamelī'') — High Prefect (head of the Table of Offices (''flušamaili eṇāh'', the executive branch of the Inquisition). Usually rendered as ''taili aveṣyotārire'' [matronymic] ''yamei'' [name] ''lallaflušamelī(s) lāma''.
* '''lallamurkadhāna''' — High Inquisitor (one of the 612 members of the Inquisitorial Conclave (''murkadhānumi lanedāmeh'', the legislative branch of the Inquisition). Usually rendered as ''aveṣyotārire'' [matronymic] ''yamei'' [name] ''lallamurkadhāna lāma''.
* '''ñæltryam''' — monk.
* '''ṭommīn''' (voc.: ''ṭommī'') — Eparch (head of an Eparchy).


Note that the full titles are used generally at the first mention only. For example, ''Martayināvi yamei murkadhāna Læhimausa lāma'' becomes afterwards either ''yamei murkadhāna'' or ''yamei Læhimausa lāma''. With the Great Inquisitor, this does not usually get shorter than ''nanū aveṣyotārire yamei lallāmaha'' ([Her] Respectable Most Excellent Highness) or ''nanū aveṣyotārire lallāmaha camimurkadhāna'' ([Her] Most Excellent Highness, the Great Inquisitor).
Especially in contemporary Chlouvānem, the rank-neutral ''udhyāras'' (cf. "Comrade") is increasingly commonly used as a generic third person pronoun, though only after stating the name before.


===Honorific particles===
===Honorific particles===
There are a few honorific particles - mostly of Ancient Kūṣṛmāthi origin - that are used to make names or nouns honorific:
There are a few honorific particles - mostly of Ancient Kūṣṛmāthi origin - that are used to make names or nouns honorific:
* '''īvai''' makes a verb humble, and is put after a verb, too.
* '''īvai''' makes a verb humble, and is put after a verb, too.
* '''nami''' denotes respect towards the trigger of the verb. It was common in the past alongside the honorific verb ''tilah'', but today it is not used except for a few set phrases (e.g. ''lālis yacē nami'' "please").
* '''nami''' denotes respect towards the trigger of the verb. It was common in the past alongside the honorific verb ''tilah'', but today it rarely used.
* '''yo-''' is a prefix for things pertaining to a honourable person, often used together with a verb with '''nami'''.
* '''yo-''' is a prefix for things pertaining to a honourable person, often used together with a verb with '''nami'''.
* '''dau-''' is a prefix that makes nouns honorific.
* '''dau-''' is a prefix that makes nouns honorific. -->


==Numerals (''mālendān'') ==
==Numerals (''māltsāk'') ==
Chlouvānem is one of the few human Calemerian languages - together with all other [[Lahob languages]] and a few ones of the southern hemisphere, as well as others like [[Qualdomelic#Numerals|Qualdomelic]] or vernaculars of the Inquisition which have had considerable Chlouvānem influence - with a pure duodecimal number system.
Chlouvānem is one of the few human Calemerian languages - together with all other [[Lahob languages]] and a few ones of the southern hemisphere, as well as others like [[Qualdomelic#Numerals|Qualdomelic]] or vernaculars of the Inquisition which have had considerable Chlouvānem influence - with a pure duodecimal number system.


Numbers (sg/pl. ''mālendān'') have six different forms: cardinal, ordinal, collective, distributive, adverbial/multiplicative, and fractionary. 1-4 have separate adverbial multiplicative forms, while all other ones have an invariable form used both as adverbial and 'adjectival' multiplicatives. Cardinals from 1 to Ɛ and their compounds decline for case (see below); collectives, multiplicatives, and fractionaries always decline, while ordinals are only declined if used without an accompanying noun. Distributives do not decline.
Numbers (sg ''māltsām'', pl. ''māltsāk'') have six different forms: cardinal, ordinal, collective, distributive, adverbial/multiplicative, and fractionary. 1-4 have separate adverbial multiplicative forms, while all other ones have an invariable form used both as adverbial and 'adjectival' multiplicatives. Cardinals from 1 to Ɛ and their compounds decline for case (see below); collectives, multiplicatives, and fractionaries always decline, while ordinals are only declined if used without an accompanying noun. Distributives do not decline.


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
|-
|-
! Digit<sub>12</sub> !! <small>Base 10</small> !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Collective !! Distributive !! Adv./Multiplicative !! Fractionary
! Digit<sub>12</sub> !! <small>Base 10</small> !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Collective !! Distributive !! Adv./Multiplicative !! Fractionary
Line 1,424: Line 1,119:
|-
|-
! 1
! 1
| 1 || '''emibe'''<br/>''emi'' || lahīla || emibhaicē || māgemibe <small>''(adv.)''</small><br/>emibervīm || lahīlvāṭ
| 1 || '''emibe'''<br/>''emi'' || lahīla || emibhaicē || māgemibe <small>''(adv.)''</small><br/>emibarvīm || lahīlvāṭ
|-
|-
! 2
! 2
| 2 || '''dani'''|| hælinaika || daniatām || danihaicē || māgdani <small>''(adv.)''</small><br/>danirvīm || hælinaivāṭ
| 2 || '''dani'''|| hælinaika || danyatām || danihaicē || māgdani <small>''(adv.)''</small><br/>danirvīm || hælinaivāṭ
|-
|-
! 3
! 3
Line 1,445: Line 1,140:
|-
|-
! 8
! 8
| 8 || '''tītya''' || tītyende || tītyatām || tītihaicē || tītyarvīm || tītyendvāṭ
| 8 || '''mbula''' || mbulende || mbulatām || mbulhaicē || mbularvīm || mbulendvāṭ
|-
|-
! 9
! 9
Line 1,481: Line 1,176:
|-
|-
! 18
! 18
| 20 || '''māmitītya''' || māmitītyende || māmitītyatām || māmitītihaicē || māmitītyarvīm || māmitītyendvāṭ
| 20 || '''māmimbula''' || māmimbulende || māmimbulyatām || māmimbulhaicē || māmimbularvīm || māmimbulendvāṭ
|-
|-
! 19
! 19
Line 1,493: Line 1,188:
|-
|-
! 20
! 20
| 24 || '''hælьmāmei''' || hælьmāminde || hælьmāmintām || hælьmāmeihaicē || hælьmāmairvīm || hælьmāmindvāṭ
| 24 || '''hælmāmei''' || hælmāminde || hælmāmintām || hælmāmeihaicē || hælmāmairvīm || hælmāmindvāṭ
|}
|}
As for the two forms for one, ''emi'' is used in disjunctive counting (e.g. count-ins or countdowns) while ''emibe'' is used elsewhere. Compounds always have the full form, i.e. forms such as *hælьmāmyemi do not exist.
As for the two forms for one, ''emi'' is used in disjunctive counting (e.g. count-ins or countdowns) while ''emibe'' is used elsewhere. Compounds always have the full form, i.e. forms such as *hælmāmyemi do not exist.<br/>Some compound words, especially technical and scientific ones, use [[Lällshag]] morphemes for the quantities from 1 to ᘔ (though from 5 onwards they're rarer): ''mån-''&nbsp;1, ''yūn-''&nbsp;2, ''lyāš-''&nbsp;3, ''alan-''&nbsp;4, ''tamb-''&nbsp;5, ''jiruṇ-'' or ''ciruṇ-''&nbsp;6, ''tulyæn-''&nbsp;7, ''neim-''&nbsp;8, ''šid-''&nbsp;9, ''abar-''&nbsp;ᘔ.


Numbers from 20<sub>12</sub> above are simply made by compounding teens and units with the appropriate saṃdhi changes, like 21<sub>12</sub> <small>(25<sub>10</sub>)</small> ''hælьmāmyemibe'', and then ''hælьmāmidani'', ''hælьmāmipāmvi'', and so on. Note that other compounds with 6 use -tulūɂa and not -vælka as in 16<sub>12</sub>.<br/>
Numbers from 20<sub>12</sub> above are simply made by compounding teens and units with the appropriate saṃdhi changes, like 21<sub>12</sub> <small>(25<sub>10</sub>)</small> ''hælmāmyemibe'', and then ''hælmāmidani'', ''hælmāmipāmvi'', and so on. Note that other compounds with 6 use -tulūɂa and not -vælka as in 16<sub>12</sub>.<br/>
The other dozens are:  
The other dozens are:  
: '''30''' <small>(36<sub>10</sub>)</small> pāmvimāmei
: '''30''' <small>(36<sub>10</sub>)</small> pāmvimāmei
Line 1,504: Line 1,199:
: '''60''' <small>(72<sub>10</sub>)</small> vælknihæla
: '''60''' <small>(72<sub>10</sub>)</small> vælknihæla
: '''70''' <small>(84<sub>10</sub>)</small> māmyāvælka (regionally ''chīcæmāmei'', particularly in the East)
: '''70''' <small>(84<sub>10</sub>)</small> māmyāvælka (regionally ''chīcæmāmei'', particularly in the East)
: '''80''' <small>(96<sub>10</sub>)</small> tītimāmei
: '''80''' <small>(96<sub>10</sub>)</small> mbulmāmei
: '''90''' <small>(108<sub>10</sub>)</small> mojemāmei
: '''90''' <small>(108<sub>10</sub>)</small> mojemāmei
: '''ᘔ0''' <small>(120<sub>10</sub>)</small> tåldimāmei
: '''ᘔ0''' <small>(120<sub>10</sub>)</small> tåldimāmei
Line 1,519: Line 1,214:
: '''600''' <small>(864<sub>10</sub>)</small> tulūnihæla
: '''600''' <small>(864<sub>10</sub>)</small> tulūnihæla
: '''700''' <small>(1008<sub>10</sub>)</small> chīcænihæla
: '''700''' <small>(1008<sub>10</sub>)</small> chīcænihæla
: '''800''' <small>(1152<sub>10</sub>)</small> tītinihæla
: '''800''' <small>(1152<sub>10</sub>)</small> mbulnihæla
: '''900''' <small>(1296<sub>10</sub>)</small> mojanihæla
: '''900''' <small>(1296<sub>10</sub>)</small> mojanihæla
: '''ᘔ00''' <small>(1440<sub>10</sub>)</small> tåldanihæla
: '''ᘔ00''' <small>(1440<sub>10</sub>)</small> tåldanihæla
Line 1,528: Line 1,223:
The other divisions - numbers over ƐƐ.ƐƐƐ<sub>12</sub> are based on groups of two digits: the two most commonly used ones in common speech are '''1.00.000''' <small>(248.832<sub>10</sub>)</small> - a ''raicē'' - and '''1.00.00.000''' <small>(35.831.808<sub>10</sub>)</small> - a ''lallaraicē''.  
The other divisions - numbers over ƐƐ.ƐƐƐ<sub>12</sub> are based on groups of two digits: the two most commonly used ones in common speech are '''1.00.000''' <small>(248.832<sub>10</sub>)</small> - a ''raicē'' - and '''1.00.00.000''' <small>(35.831.808<sub>10</sub>)</small> - a ''lallaraicē''.  


The next two groups have their separate words, but are quantities rarely used in common speech: '''1.00.00.00.000''' (12<sup>9</sup>) <small>(5.159.780.352<sub>10</sub>)</small> is a ''taiskaucis'' and '''1.00.00.00.00.000''' (12<sup>11</sup>) <small>(743.008.370.688<sub>10</sub>)</small> a ''lallataiskaucis''. The words ''khorādi'' (12<sup>7</sup>, i.e. synonym of lallaraicē), ''yaṣmūn'' (12<sup>11</sup>, i.e. lallataiskaucis), ''iriakas'' (12<sup>13</sup>), ''mairān'' or ''lalleriakas'' (12<sup>15</sup>), ''nirāvah'' (12<sup>17</sup>), and ''sṝva'' or ''lallanirāvah'' (12<sup>19</sup>) were introduced in Classical-era texts, but are almost never used today. However, they form the base for the scientific measurement system's prefixes.
The next two groups have their separate words, but are quantities rarely used in common speech: '''1.00.00.00.000''' (12<sup>9</sup>) <small>(5.159.780.352<sub>10</sub>)</small> is a ''taiskaucis'' and '''1.00.00.00.00.000''' (12<sup>11</sup>) <small>(743.008.370.688<sub>10</sub>)</small> a ''lallataiskaucis''. The words ''khorādi'' (12<sup>7</sup>, i.e. synonym of lallaraicē), ''yaṣmūn'' (12<sup>11</sup>, i.e. lallataiskaucis), ''iriakas'' (12<sup>13</sup>), ''mairāṇa'' or ''lalleriakas'' (12<sup>15</sup>), ''nirāvah'' (12<sup>17</sup>), and ''sṝva'' or ''lallanirāvah'' (12<sup>19</sup>) were introduced in Classical-era texts, but are almost never used today. However, they form the base for the scientific measurement system's prefixes.


Their non-cardinal forms are all regular, with ''-ende'' (''-inde'' after ''-m'' or for Ɛ<sub>12</sub>) for ordinals, ''-tām'' for collectives, ''-haicē'' for distributives, ''-rvīm'' for adverbials/multiplicatives (prefixed ''māg-'' for the separate adverbial forms), and ''-endvāṭ/-indvāṭ'' for the fractionaries. Compounds of 1-2 retain all irregular suppletive forms, e.g. ''hælьmāmilahīla'' 21<sub>12</sub>st (25<sub>10</sub>th); ''hælьmāmihælinaika'' 22<sub>12</sub>nd (26<sub>10</sub>th).
Their non-cardinal forms are all regular, with ''-ende'' (''-inde'' after ''-m'' or for Ɛ<sub>12</sub>) for ordinals, ''-tām'' for collectives, ''-haicē'' for distributives, ''-rvīm'' for adverbials/multiplicatives (prefixed ''māg-'' for the separate adverbial forms), and ''-endvāṭ/-indvāṭ'' for the fractionaries. Compounds of 1-2 retain all irregular suppletive forms, e.g. ''hælmāmilahīla'' 21<sub>12</sub>st (25<sub>10</sub>th); ''hælmāmihælinaika'' 22<sub>12</sub>nd (26<sub>10</sub>th).


Finally, there are few other cardinals commonly used in speech: ''vālьhælia'' 1½, ''vālьpāmvya'' 2½, ''vālьnęltia'' 3½, ''vālьšulca'' 4½, and ''vālьtulūya'' 5½. The forms ''vālьchīca'', ''vālьtītiya'', and ''vālьmojya'' are used in telling the time only and obsolete otherwise, while other similar forms are sparingly attested in older mathematical texts, but periphrastical constructions such as ''tulūɂa hælinaivāṭ no'' (or, sometimes, ''- vælka no'') are more commonly heard and used nowadays.
Finally, there are few other cardinals commonly used in speech: ''vālhælya'' 1½, ''vālpāmvya'' 2½, ''vālnęlca'' 3½, ''vālšulca'' 4½, and ''vāltulūya'' 5½. The forms ''vālchīca'', ''vālambulya'' (or ''vālumbulya''), and ''vālmojya'' are used in telling the time only and obsolete otherwise, while other similar forms are sparingly attested in older mathematical texts, but periphrastical constructions such as ''tulūɂa hælinaivāṭ no'' (or, sometimes, ''- vælka no'') are more commonly heard and used nowadays. A form that, however, is sometimes found up to the present day is ''vālhælnihæla'', meaning 160<sub>12</sub> (216<sub>10</sub>), i.e. one dozenal hundred and a half.


====Use of fractionary numbers====
====Use of fractionary numbers====
Fractionary numbers (except ''vālь-'' ones) are used to express non-integers just like any other quantity. Simple ones such as 0,6 (½) are the basic fractionary number - in this case ''hælinaivāṭ'' (note that, outside mathematics, ''daniāmita'' is the preferred term for "half", both in metaphorical (''liliā viṣam daniāmita'' "my other half") and non-metaphorical uses (''alāvi daniāmita'' "half of the bottle")); other examples are 0,3 (¼) ''nęltendvāṭ'' and 0,4 (⅓) ''pāmvendvāṭ''.<br/>
Fractionary numbers (except ''vāl-'' ones) are used to express non-integers just like any other quantity. Simple ones such as 0,6 (½) are the basic fractionary number - in this case ''hælinaivāṭ'' (note that, outside mathematics, ''danyāmita'' is the preferred term for "half", both in metaphorical (''lilyā viṣam danyāmita'' "my other half") and non-metaphorical uses (''alāvi danyāmita'' "half of the bottle")); other examples are 0,3 (¼) ''nęltendvāṭ'' and 0,4 (⅓) ''pāmvendvāṭ''.<br/>
With more complex fractions, the smallest part (negative power of twelve) is stated - the three commonly found are 1/12 (''māmindvāṭ''), 1/144 (''nihælendvāṭ''), and 1/1728 (''tildhaindvāṭ''). For example, 0,82 is ''tītimāmidani nihælendvāṭ'' and 0,7ᘔ6 is ''chīcænihælamāmimīraṃtulūɂa tildhaindvāṭ''; sometimes, "0, then" (mīram) may be added: ''ajrā mīram tītimāmidani nihælendvāṭ''.
With more complex fractions, the smallest part (negative power of twelve) is stated - the three commonly found are 1/12 (''māmindvāṭ''), 1/144 (''nihælendvāṭ''), and 1/1728 (''tildhaindvāṭ''). For example, 0,82 is ''mbulmāmidani nihælendvāṭ'' and 0,7ᘔ6 is ''chīcænihælamāmimīraṃtulūɂa tildhaindvāṭ''; sometimes, "0, then" (mīram) may be added: ''ajrā mīram mbulmāmidani nihælendvāṭ''.


With a non-fractionary portion that is not zero, instead of ''mīram'', ''smurā'' (full, integer) is used - e.g. 2,307 is usually said as ''dani smurā pāmvinihælchīka tildhaindvāṭ''.
With a non-fractionary portion that is not zero, instead of ''mīram'', ''smurā'' (full, integer) is used - e.g. 2,307 is usually said as ''dani smurā pāmvinihælchīka tildhaindvāṭ''.


====Declensions of cardinal numbers====
====Declensions of cardinal numbers====
Some cardinal numbers are declined for case, but this is usually only done in formal Chlouvānem. Informal Chlouvānem only declines ''emibe'', often with an analogical pattern based on '''2h''' (''-eh'') nouns. Only the numbers from '''1''' to '''Ɛ''' (but not their compounds) as well as ''nihæla'' and its compounds decline as such. ''tildhā'', ''(lalla)raicē'', and ''(lalla)taiskaucis'' are always declined, but they are fully nouns.
Some cardinal numbers are declined for case, but this is usually only done in formal Chlouvānem. In informal Chlouvānem, either only ''emibe'' is declined, or are all numerals up to ''vælden'', plus ''nihæla''. Compounds of these are usually not declined. The words ''tildhā'', ''(lalla)raicē'', and ''(lalla)taiskaucis'' are always declined, but they are fully nouns.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
|-
|-
! rowspan=2 | Case !! rowspan=2 | ''emibe'' !! i-paradigm !! a-paradigm !! en-paradigm
! rowspan=2 | Case !! rowspan=2 | ''emibe'' !! Dual paradigm !! i-paradigm !! a-paradigm !! en-paradigm
|-
|-
! <small>''dani'', ''pāmvi'', ''nęlte''</small> !! <small>5 to 10<ref>''chīka'' has the stem ''chīcæ-'' before consonants.</ref></small> !! <small>''vælden'' only</small>
! <small>''dani''</small> !! ''pāmvi'', ''nęlte''</small><ref>''nęlte'' has the stem ''nęlc-'' wherever ''pāmvi'' has ''-vy-'', i.e. accusatives ''pāmvyu, nęlcu''.</ref> !! <small>5 to 10<ref>''chīka'' has the stem ''chīcæ-'' before consonants.</ref></small> !! <small>''vælden'' only</small>
|-
|-
! Direct<br/>Vocative  
! Direct<br/>Vocative  
| '''emibe''' || '''dani''' || '''šulka''' || '''vælden'''
| '''emibe''' || '''dani''' || '''pāmvi''' || '''šulka''' || '''vælden'''
|-
|-
! Accusative
! Accusative
| emiyu || daniu || šulku || vældu
| emiyu || daneṣa || pāmvyu || šulku || vældu
|-
|-
! Ergative
! Ergative
| emeis || danies || šulkes || vældes
| emeis || daneya || pāmvyes || šulkes || vældes
|-
|-
! Genitive
! Genitive
| emibī || danь<ref>''pāmvi'' is unchanged; ''nęlte'' has the form ''nęlitь''.</ref> || šulki || vældi
| emibī || dañva || pāmvi<ref>''nęlte'' has the form ''nęlci''.</ref> || šulki || vældi
|-
|-
! Translative
! Translative
| emiban || danin || šulkan || vældanna
| emiban || danaus || pāmvin || šulkan || vældanna
|-
|-
! Exessive
! Exessive
| emibat || danit || šulkat || vældanta
| emibat || danebhan || pāmvit || šulkat || vældanta
|-
|-
! Essive
! Essive
| emibą || danią || šulkąa || vældąs
| emibą || danīgin || pāmvyą || šulką || vældąs
|-
|-
! Dative  
! Dative  
| emibå || daniå || šulkå || vældå
| emibå || danaus || pāmvyå || šulkå || vældå
|-
|-
! Ablative  
! Ablative  
| emiyų || danių || šulkų || vældų
| emiyų || danebhan || pāmvyų || šulkų || vældų
|-
|-
! Locative  
! Locative  
| emiye || danie || šulke || vælde
| emiye || danīgin || pāmvye || šulke || vælde
|-
|-
! Instrumental  
! Instrumental  
| emīp || danip || šulkip || vældampa
| emīp || danebhan || pāmvip || šulkip || vældampa
|}
|}


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'''Cardinal numerals''' may be used in two ways, depending on whether emphasis is given to the number or to the thing counted.
'''Cardinal numerals''' may be used in two ways, depending on whether emphasis is given to the number or to the thing counted.
* In the most common use, the counted thing is emphasized: the numeral is put '''before''' the noun and the noun is always '''singular''' (except for "two", see below) plus the appropriate case: e.g. ''emibe yujam'' (one lotus flower); ''dani māra'' (two mango fruits); ''pāmvi haloe'' (three names), ''vælden ñaiṭa'' (eleven stars), and so on.
* In the most common use, the counted thing is emphasized: the numeral is put '''before''' the noun and the noun is always '''singular''' (except for "two", see below) plus the appropriate case: e.g. ''emibe yujam'' (one lotus flower); ''dani māra'' (two mango fruits); ''pāmvi haloe'' (three names), ''vælden ñaiṭa'' (eleven stars), and so on.
* If emphasis is given to the number, then the counted thing comes first, and, if it should be in direct, ergative, or accusative case, it is in '''genitive singular''' instead; the semantic direct, ergative, or accusative case is taken by the numeral itself if it is one, two, three, or compounds. Examples: ''yujami emibe'' (one lotus flower), ''māri dani'' (two mango fruits), ''halenies pāmvi'' (three names), ''ñaiṭi vælden'' (eleven stars). In other cases, the noun follows the semantic case (but is always singular anyway), e.g. ''marti pāmvi'' (three cities) but ''marte pāmvye'' (in the three cities).<br/>This form is increasingly less common in everyday use.
* If emphasis is given to the number, then the counted thing comes first, and, if it should be in direct, ergative, or accusative case, it is in '''genitive singular''' instead; the semantic direct, ergative, or accusative case is taken by the numeral itself if it is one, two, three, or compounds. Examples: ''yujami emibe'' (one lotus flower), ''māri dani'' (two mango fruits), ''haleni pāmvi'' (three names), ''ñaiṭi vælden'' (eleven stars). In other cases, the noun follows the semantic case (but is always singular anyway), e.g. ''marti pāmvi'' (three cities) but ''marte pāmvye'' (in the three cities).<br/>This form is increasingly less common in everyday use.
* "Two" may be used with either singular or dual number: ''dani māra'' or ''māri dani'' are both as correct as ''dani mārāt'' and ''māreva dani'' - note that the dual number alone, without the numeral, has the same meaning. Outside of literary texts, it is however more common to specify "two" with the numeral.
* "Two" may be used with either singular or dual number: ''dani māra'' or ''māri dani'' are both as correct as ''dani mārāt'' and ''māreva dani'' - note that the dual number alone, without the numeral, has the same meaning; the dual form alone does not give particular emphasis to the number, while using the numeral, at least in formal styles, already gives more emphasis (intermediate to the two abovementioned forms). Outside of literary texts, it is however more common to specify "two" with the numeral.
 
Note, though, the structure "''nihæle'' + genitive of a noun + a cardinal numeral", used for expressing percentage (dozenally), e.g. ''nihæle laili hælmāmei'' "20% of people".


'''Ordinal numerals''' are regular attributive adjective-like words that precede nouns - e.g. ''hælinaika kita'' "second house". They do not decline if are used together with a noun, but they can also be used alone (e.g. ''hælinaika'' "the second one"), in which case they decline for case and number, as if they were ''-eh'' nouns (''-a'' for 1st and 2nd), e.g. ''mojendesām ukulate'' "it has been told to those in ninth position".
'''Ordinal numerals''' are regular attributive adjective-like words that precede nouns - e.g. ''hælinaika kita'' "second house". They do not decline if are used together with a noun, but they can also be used alone (e.g. ''hælinaika'' "the second one"), in which case they decline for case and number, as if they were ''-eh'' nouns (''-a'' for 1st and 2nd), e.g. ''mojendesām ukulate'' "it has been told to those in ninth position".


'''Collective numerals''' (which decline as regular ''-ām'' nouns) are most commonly found with the meaning of "a group consisting of X ...", therefore implying greater cohesiveness than using the cardinal number implies. A common example of the subtle meaning change is between the sentences ''chīka lalāruṇa togāhaite'' (with a cardinal) and ''chīcætām lalāruṇa togāhaite'' (with a collective): both mean "seven ''lalāruṇai'' hit", but in the latter sentence the action is implied to be a coordinate act of all seven animals, while in the former they either hit randomly or the coordination of the action is not specified (or not specification-worthy). This is also the most common meaning with pluralia tantum, as commonly heard with ethnonyms (which are all plural only in Chlouvānem), e.g. ''šulkatām chlǣvānem'' "[a group of] five Chlouvānem people".<br/>
'''Collective numerals''' (which decline as regular ''-ām'' nouns) are most commonly found with the meaning of "a group consisting of X ...", therefore implying greater cohesiveness than using the cardinal number implies. A common example of the subtle meaning change is between the sentences ''chīka lalāruṇa togāhaite'' (with a cardinal) and ''chīcætām lalāruṇa togāhaite'' (with a collective): both mean "seven ''lalāruṇai'' hit", but in the latter sentence the action is implied to be a coordinate act of all seven animals, while in the former they either hit randomly or the coordination of the action is not specified (or not specification-worthy). This is also the most common meaning with pluralia tantum, as commonly heard with ethnonyms (which are all plural only in Chlouvānem), e.g. ''šulkatām chlǣvānem'' "[a group of] five Chlouvānem people".<br/>
They can also be found, context-dependent, used with the meaning of "all X of..." - in a sentence such as e.g. ''tītyatām lejīn dilu liju lilejlaikate'' "all eight singers wanted to sing the same song" - or with the meaning of "X sets of" with singularia tantum - e.g. ''pāmvyatām hærṣūs'' "three pairs of lips" (but note that colloquial Chlouvānem increasingly often uses the cardinals here, e.g. ''pāmvi hærṣūs'').<br/>
They can also be found, context-dependent, used with the meaning of "all X of..." - in a sentence such as e.g. ''mbulatām lejīn dilu liju lilejlaikate'' "all eight singers wanted to sing the same song" - or with the meaning of "X sets of" with singularia tantum - e.g. ''pāmvyatām hærṣūs'' "three pairs of lips" (but note that colloquial Chlouvānem increasingly often uses the cardinals here, e.g. ''pāmvi hærṣūs'').<br/>
The collective numerals for 0 and 1 (''ajrāṇṭām'' and ''leilintām'' respectively) are not included in the table above because they do not exist in practical use; however, they are sporadically found in poetry and literature, referring to people and with the meaning of "a group where only one/no one is ...", e.g. ''ajrāṇṭām tadhusmausīn'' "a group where no one is honest". Similarly, collectives for ''vālь-'' numbers (e.g. ''vālьpāmvyantām'' "a group consisting of 2½ ...") exist, but are virtually unused. ''daniatām'', like ''dani'', may be use together with either a singular or a dual noun.
The collective numerals for 0 and 1 (''ajrāṇṭām'' and ''emibutām'' respectively) are not included in the table above because they do not exist in practical use; however, they are sporadically found in poetry and literature, referring to people and with the meaning of "a group where only one/no one is ...", e.g. ''ajrāṇṭām tadhusmausīn'' "a group where no one is honest". Similarly, collectives for ''vāl-'' numbers (e.g. ''vālpāmvyantām'' "a group consisting of 2½ ...") exist, but are virtually unused. ''danyatām'', like ''dani'', may be use together with either a singular or a dual noun.


In some cases, the choice between a collective and a cardinal is stylistic. While for example concepts such as "we are..." or "I have ... children" do normally use the collective (e.g. ''tulūɂatām ñæltah jalim'' "we are six sisters/a group of six reciprocal brothers and sisters"; ''lili mæn nęltitām samin'' "I have four children"), even if using a cardinal isn't wrong, in a sentence such as "there are X people" both versions are found, with the collective-using sentence (e.g. ''dvārma vælditāmą lilęs virā'' "in the room there are eleven people") being perceived as more formal than the more colloquially heard cardinal-using version (i.e. ''dvārma vældąs lilęs virā'').
In some cases, the choice between a collective and a cardinal is stylistic. While for example concepts such as "we are..." or "I have ... children" do normally use the collective (e.g. ''tulūɂatām ñæltah jalim'' "we are six sisters/a group of six reciprocal brothers and sisters"; ''lili mæn nęltitām nūrya'' "I have four children"), even if using a cardinal isn't wrong, in a sentence such as "there are X people" both versions are found, with the collective-using sentence (e.g. ''dvārma vælditāmą lilęs virā'' "in the room there are eleven people") being perceived as more formal than the more colloquially heard cardinal-using version (i.e. ''dvārma vældąs lilęs virā'').


'''Distributive numerals''' are indeclinable adjective-like words, and have the meaning of "X each": ''pāmvihaicē titē męliāhai'' "three pens each are given"; ''lili liliā ñæltah no tulūɂihaicē kolecañi alau ulgutarate'' "my sister and I have bought six bottles of kvas each" — note in both sentences the use of singular number in ''titē'' (pencil) and ''alūs'' (acc. ''alau'') "bottle", just like after cardinal and collective numerals.
'''Distributive numerals''' are indeclinable adjective-like words, and have the meaning of "X each": ''pāmvihaicē titē męlyāhai'' "three pens each are given"; ''lili lilyā ñæltah no tulūɂihaicē karjhañī alau ulgutarate'' "my sister and I have bought six bottles of kvas each" — note in both sentences the use of singular number in ''titē'' (pencil) and ''alūs'' (acc. ''alau'') "bottle", just like after cardinal and collective numerals.


'''Adverbial numerals''' are adverbs with the meaning of "X times" and '''multiplicative numbers''' are adjective-like words (that can also be used alone) with the meaning of "X times as large"; numbers from 1 to 4 have both forms, while all other ones (except 0) have only the multiplicative one, which is used for both meanings. Examples: ''pāmvirvīm yąloe'' "triple meal/a meal three times as large"; ''āsena māgdani'' "twice a month"; ''āsena tītyarvīm'' "eight times a month".<br/>
'''Adverbial numerals''' are adverbs with the meaning of "X times" and '''multiplicative numbers''' are adjective-like words (that can also be used alone) with the meaning of "X times as large"; numbers from 1 to 4 have both forms, while all other ones (except 0) have only the multiplicative one, which is used for both meanings. Examples: ''pāmvirvīm yąloe'' "triple meal/a meal three times as large"; ''āsena māgdani'' "twice a month"; ''āsena mbularvīm'' "eight times a month".<br/>
Zero only has an adverbial form (''māgajrā''), which is however only used in reading multiplications and powers, e.g. 3 * 0 ''māgajrā pāmvi'', 9<sup>0</sup> ''māgajrā demǣ moja''.
Zero only has an adverbial form (''māgajrā''), which is however only used in reading multiplications and powers, e.g. 3 * 0 ''māgajrā pāmvi'', 9<sup>0</sup> ''māgajrā demǣ moja''.


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===Basic maths===
===Basic maths===
* 1 + 2 = 3
* 1 + 2 = 3
: emibe ''nanū'' dani pāmviå ''lunade'' (1.<small>DIR</small>. more. 2.<small>DIR</small>. 3-<small>DAT</small>. go.<small>MONODIR-IND.PRES-3DU.EXTERIOR-AGENTIVE</small>) — rule: A<sup>DIR</sup> ''nanū'' B<sup>DIR</sup> (''nanū'' ...) C<sup>DAT</sup> ''lunade'' (two addends) / ''lunāhai'' (3+ addends)
: emibe ''širē'' dani pāmvyå ''lunade'' (1.<small>DIR</small>. more. 2.<small>DIR</small>. 3-<small>DAT</small>. go.<small>MONODIR-IND.PRES-3DU.EXTERIOR-AGENTIVE</small>) — rule: A<sup>DIR</sup> ''širē'' B<sup>DIR</sup> (''širē'' ...) C<sup>DAT</sup> ''lunade'' (two addends) / ''lunāhai'' (3+ addends)
* 3 - 2 = 1
* 3 - 2 = 1
: pāmvi ''isan'' dani emibå ''lunade'' (3.<small>DIR</small>. minus. 2.<small>DIR</small>. 1-<small>DAT</small> go.<small>MONODIR-IND.PRES-3DU.EXTERIOR-AGENTIVE</small>) — rule: A<sup>DIR</sup> ''isan'' B<sup>DIR</sup> (''isan'' ...) C<sup>DAT</sup> ''lunade'' (two addends) / ''lunāhai'' (3+ addends)
: pāmvi ''isan'' dani emibå ''lunade'' (3.<small>DIR</small>. minus. 2.<small>DIR</small>. 1-<small>DAT</small> go.<small>MONODIR-IND.PRES-3DU.EXTERIOR-AGENTIVE</small>) — rule: A<sup>DIR</sup> ''isan'' B<sup>DIR</sup> (''isan'' ...) C<sup>DAT</sup> ''lunade'' (two addends) / ''lunāhai'' (3+ addends)
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: ''māgdani'' pāmvi tulūɂå ''liven'' (2.<small>ADV.MULTIP</small>. 3.<small>DIR</small>. 6-<small>DAT</small>. go.<small>MONODIR-IND.PRES-3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENTIVE</small>) — rule: <small>MULTIPLICATIVE.(ADV)-</small>B A<sup>DIR</sup> C<sup>DAT</sup> ''liven''
: ''māgdani'' pāmvi tulūɂå ''liven'' (2.<small>ADV.MULTIP</small>. 3.<small>DIR</small>. 6-<small>DAT</small>. go.<small>MONODIR-IND.PRES-3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENTIVE</small>) — rule: <small>MULTIPLICATIVE.(ADV)-</small>B A<sup>DIR</sup> C<sup>DAT</sup> ''liven''
* 6 : 2 = 3
* 6 : 2 = 3
: ''hælinaivadęs'' tulūɂa pāmviå ''liven'' (2.<small>FRACTION-ESS</small>. 6.<small>DIR</small> 3-<small>DAT</small>. go.<small>MONODIR-IND.PRES-3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENTIVE</small>) — rule: <small>FRACTIONARY-</small>B<sup>ESS</sup> A<sup>DIR</sup> C<sup>DAT</sup> ''liven''
: ''hælinaivadęs'' tulūɂa pāmvyå ''liven'' (2.<small>FRACTION-ESS</small>. 6.<small>DIR</small> 3-<small>DAT</small>. go.<small>MONODIR-IND.PRES-3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENTIVE</small>) — rule: <small>FRACTIONARY-</small>B<sup>ESS</sup> A<sup>DIR</sup> C<sup>DAT</sup> ''liven''
* 6<sup>2</sup> = 30 (36<sub>10</sub>)
* 6<sup>2</sup> = 30 (36<sub>10</sub>)
: ''māgdani demǣ'' tulūɂa pāmvimāmei ''liven'' (2.<small>ADV.MULTIP</small>. <small>REFL.GEN-LOC</small>. 6.<small>DIR</small>. 30<sub>12</sub>. go.<small>MONODIR-IND.PRES-3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENTIVE</small>) — rule: <small>MULTIPLICATIVE.(ADV)-</small>B ''demǣ'' A<sup>DIR</sup> C<sup>DAT</sup> ''liven''
: ''māgdani demǣ'' tulūɂa pāmvimāmei ''liven'' (2.<small>ADV.MULTIP</small>. <small>REFL.GEN-LOC</small>. 6.<small>DIR</small>. 30<sub>12</sub>. go.<small>MONODIR-IND.PRES-3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENTIVE</small>) — rule: <small>MULTIPLICATIVE.(ADV)-</small>B ''demǣ'' A<sup>DIR</sup> C<sup>DAT</sup> ''liven''
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* Things named with numbers (''tulūɂās'' "[tram/bus/etc] number 6");
* Things named with numbers (''tulūɂās'' "[tram/bus/etc] number 6");
* <small>''(in the plural)''</small> Year dozens (''vælknihælē'' "the 60<sub>12</sub>s = the 3860<sub>12</sub>s);
* <small>''(in the plural)''</small> Year dozens (''vælknihælē'' "the 60<sub>12</sub>s = the 3860<sub>12</sub>s);
* <small>''(in the plural)''</small> Age ranges by the dozen (''hælьmāmeyē'' "20<sub>12</sub>ies" = the age range from the start of one's 20<sub>12</sub>th year to the end of one's 2Ɛth);
* <small>''(in the plural)''</small> Age ranges by the dozen (''hælmāmeyē'' "20<sub>12</sub>ies" = the age range from the start of one's 20<sub>12</sub>th year to the end of one's 2Ɛth);
* School marks - note that there's no uniform system in the Inquisition (''nęltayas'' "a grade 4" (passing grade in the most widespread system for non-higher education in the Inquisition, ranging from 1 (''emibayas''), worst, to 7 (''chīkās''), best));
* School marks - note that there's no uniform system in the Inquisition (''nęltayas'' "a grade 4" (passing grade in the most widespread system for non-higher education in the Inquisition, ranging from 1 (''emibayas''), worst, to 7 (''chīkās''), best));
* A group of X people - a reification of collective numerals (''pāmvyas'' "a trio").
* A group of X people - a reification of collective numerals (''pāmvyas'' "a trio").


Note that there are some terms which use numerals as roots but aren't considered reified numbers (also because of their rather inconsistent meanings); the most common examples include ''daniāmita'' (half) and ''māmyāmita'' (dozen).
Note that there are some terms which use numerals as roots but aren't considered reified numbers (also because of their rather inconsistent meanings); the most common examples include ''danyāmita'' (half) and ''māmyāmita'' (dozen).


===Units of Measurement===
===Units of Measurement===
Chlouvānem units of measurement (''lęlgīs'', pl. ''lęlgais'') are divided in popular units (''leilausirena lęlgais'') and scientific units (''tarlausirena lęlgais''). Scientific units, while understood, are rarely found outside of scientific contexts if corresponding popular units exist, while popular units are found in daily usage. Popular units follow however a measurement standard introduced in 3E 566 <small>(798<sub>10</sub>)</small> and updated several times in the following two centuries, in order to give a single understood measure for all units whose names and definitions varied across the many countries of the Chlouvānem cultural space.<br/>It is also to be noted that Calemerian scientific units have internationally unified definitions for their base units but are substantially different between the Western and the Eastern world as Western countries use them with a decimal system, while the Eastern countries (the Inquisition, most of the former Kaiṣamā, and Greater Skyrdagor) use them with a duodecimal system.
Chlouvānem units of measurement (''lęlgīs'', pl. ''lęlgais'') are divided in popular units (''leilausirena lęlgais'') and scientific units (''tarlausirena lęlgais''). Scientific units, while understood, are rarely found outside of scientific contexts if corresponding popular units exist, while popular units are found in daily usage. Popular units follow however a measurement standard introduced in the year 36Ɛ7 <small>(6187<sub>10</sub>)</small> and updated several times in the following two centuries, in order to give a single understood measure for all units whose names and definitions varied across the many countries of the Chlouvānem cultural space.<br/>It is also to be noted that Calemerian scientific units have internationally unified definitions for their base units but are substantially different between the Western and the Eastern world as Western countries use them with a decimal system, while the Eastern countries (the Inquisition, most of the former Kaiṣamā, and Greater Skyrdagor) use them with a duodecimal system.


====Length====
====Length====
Units in ''italics'' are popular divisions used in speech and not usually written. The ''nīnas'' has its own abbreviation but it is nowadays rarely used, and most often written as ''2 vā'' even if spoken as ''nīnas''.
The ''tyuta'', ''nakūrum'', and ''garaṇa'' are known but rarely used; the ''vālpāmvyās'' is rarely written as a separate measure, but isn't uncommon in speech.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
|-
|-
! Short !! Name !! Meaning/name origin !! Equivalent to !! Metric system (approx.)
! Short !! Name !! Meaning/name origin !! Equivalent to !! Metric system (approx.)
|-
|-
! thi
! lūj
| thiḍa || <small>Point, tip</small> || 1/12 liv || ~1.20255 mm
| lūjla <small>(ABL)</small> || <small>Point, tip</small> || ⅛ tyu || ~3.09639 mm
|-
|-
! liv
! tyu
| livuka || <small>Short (dialectal)</small> || ⅙ de || ~1.44305 cm
| tyuta || <small>Short (dialectal)</small> || ⅓ ka || ~2.47711 cm
|-
|-
! de
! ka
| dera || <small>Finger (in A.Kūṣṛmāṭhi)</small> || ⅓ vā || ~8.65833 cm
| katis || <small>Finger</small> || ⅓ mā || ~7.43133 cm
|-
|-
! vā
! mā
| vāriṇa || <small>Span</small> || ¼ pā || 25.975 cm
| '''mākoba''' || <small>Span</small> || ''(base unit)'' || 22.294 cm
|-
|-
! <small>nī</small>
| <small>nīnas</small> || <small>Knee</small> || <small>½ pā</small> || 51.95 cm
|-
|-
! pā
! pā
| '''pājya''' || <small>Leg</small> || ''(base unit)'' || 103.9 cm
| pājya || <small>Leg</small> || 4 mā || 89.176 cm
|-
! bru
| brujñya || <small>Fathom</small> || 2+½ pā || 2.5975 m
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 |
! vāl
| <small>vyaṣojrī nęltendvāṭ</small> || <small>Quarter of ''vyaṣojrā''</small> || <small>¼ vya — 90 (108<sub>10</sub>) bru</small> || 280.53 m
| vālpāmvyās<br/>vālpāmvya pājya || <small>Two and a half legs</small> || 2+½ pā || 2.2294 m
|-
|-
| <small>vyaṣojrī pāmvendvāṭ</small> || <small>Third of ''vyaṣojrā''</small> || <small>⅓ vya — 100 (144<sub>10</sub>) bru</small> || 374.04 m
! nak
| nakūrum || <small>Rod</small> || 8 pā || 7.13408 m
|-
|-
| <small>vyaṣojrī hælinaivāṭ</small> || <small>Half ''vyaṣojrā''</small> || <small>½ vya — 160 (216<sub>10</sub>) bru</small> || 561.06 m
! cān
| cāṃtrūh || <small>Section (A. Yodhvaši)</small> || 140 (192<sub>10</sub>) pā || 171.21792 m
|-
|-
! vya
! vai
| vyaṣojrā || <small>Plough</small> || 300 <small>(432<sub>10</sub>)</small> bru || 1122.12 m — 1.11212 km
| vaiṣrya || <small>Plough</small> || 8 cān<br/>ᘔ80 <small>(1536<sub>10</sub>)</small> pā || 1369.7434 m — 1.36974 km
|-
|-
! gar
! gar
| garaṇa || <small>Hour</small> || 6+⅓ vya || 7106.76 m — 7.10676 km
| garaṇa || <small>Hour</small> || 34 <small>(40<sub>10</sub>)</small> cān || 6848.72 m — 6.84872 km
|}
|}


====Area====
<!-- ====Area====
The ''våṇṭa'' may or may not be written as a separate measure. A measure of 1 ''jāṇa'' and 700 ''doṃryai'' may be written as ''1 jā.700 (do)'' (most commonly) or as ''1 jā.1.100 (do)''.
The ''våṇṭa'' may or may not be written as a separate measure. A measure of 1 ''jāṇa'' and 700 ''dvāmāryai'' may be written as ''1 jā.700 (dvā)'' (most commonly) or as ''1 jā.1.100 (dvā)''.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
|-
|-
! Short !! Name !! Meaning/name origin !! Equivalent to !! Metric system (approx.)
! Short !! Name !! Meaning/name origin !! Equivalent to !! Metric system (approx.)
Line 1,680: Line 1,374:
|-
|-
! dar
! dar
| dariā || <small>unknown; name first used in the Near East</small> || 60 <small>(72<sub>10</sub>)</small> sǣ || 3,740.4 cm<sup>2</sup>
| daryā || <small>unknown; name first used in the Near East</small> || 60 <small>(72<sub>10</sub>)</small> sǣ || 3,740.4 cm<sup>2</sup>
|-
|-
! re
! re
| relya || <small>Carpet</small> || 3 dar || ~1.12212 m<sup>2</sup>
| relya || <small>Carpet</small> || 3 dar || ~1.12212 m<sup>2</sup>
|-
|-
! do
! dvā
| doṃrya || <small>ultimately from ''doman'' (room)</small> || 4 re || ~4.48848 m<sup>2</sup>
| dvāmārya || <small>ultimately from ''dvārma'' (room)</small> || 4 re || ~4.48848 m<sup>2</sup>
|-
|-
! vå
! vå
| våṇṭa || <small>probably from a Tamukāyi word meaning "fence(d)"</small> || 600 <small>(864<sub>10</sub>)</small> do — ½ jā || ~3,878.0467 m<sup>2</sup>
| våṇṭa || <small>probably from a Tamukāyi word meaning "fence(d)"</small> || 600 <small>(864<sub>10</sub>)</small> dvā — ½ jā || ~3,878.0467 m<sup>2</sup>
|-
|-
! jā
! jā
Line 1,699: Line 1,393:


====Weight (and mass)====
====Weight (and mass)====
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
|-
|-
! Short !! Name !! Meaning/name origin !! Equivalent to !! Metric system (approx.)
! Short !! Name !! Meaning/name origin !! Equivalent to !! Metric system (approx.)
Line 1,729: Line 1,423:


====Volume====
====Volume====
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
|-
|-
! Short !! Name !! Meaning/name origin !! Equivalent to !! Metric system (approx.)
! Short !! Name !! Meaning/name origin !! Equivalent to !! Metric system (approx.)
|-
|-
! sjē
! src
| sejyēh || <small>dimin. from ''segen'' (spoon)</small> || ½ seg || ~5.78704 mL
| ṣærcañīh || <small>dimin. from ''ṣarus'' (spoon)</small> || ½ ṣar || ~5.78704 mL
|-
|-
! seg
! ṣar
| segen || <small>Spoon</small> || ⅓ cel || ~11.57407 mL
| ṣarus || <small>Spoon</small> || ⅓ cel || ~11.57407 mL
|-
|-
! cel
! cel
| celia || <small>Small glass</small> || ⅙ lun || ~34.72222 mL
| celya || <small>Small glass</small> || ⅙ lun || ~34.72222 mL
|-
|-
! lun
! lun
Line 1,762: Line 1,456:
* the ''ręnah'' ("jar, urn", '''rę'''), equivalent to 6 pur (~5.625 L).
* the ''ręnah'' ("jar, urn", '''rę'''), equivalent to 6 pur (~5.625 L).


The ''egimbladuldāvi'' (egd) is a unit used for measuring engine displacement: 1 egd equals ⅙ val, that is ~0.10416667 L (~104.16667 cc).
The ''egimbladuldāvi'' (egd) is a unit used for measuring engine displacement: 1 egd equals ⅙ val, that is ~0.10416667 L (~104.16667 cc). -->


====Temperature====
====Temperature====
Temperature measuring in the Chlouvānem world uses the ''Jahārāṭha'' scale (shortened '''ºj'''; named after scientist Ṣastirāvi Jahārāṭha ''Nukthalin''), which is fixed with a zero degree at water freezing temperature at sea level. 100 ºj is the rough boiling temperature of water, but, being a duodecimal scale, it is 100<sub>12</sub> (144<sub>10</sub>), thus 1 ºj equals 25/36 of a degree Celsius, or 1 ºC = 1.44 ºj.<br/>The median body temperature of a Calemerian human (which is slightly lower than for Earthly humans) is of 41 ºj <small>(49<sub>10</sub>)</small>, thus  ~34.0278 ºC.
Temperature measuring in the Chlouvānem world uses the ''Jahārāṭha'' scale (shortened '''ºj'''; named after scientist Ṣastirāvi Jahārāṭha ''Nukthalin''), which is fixed with a zero degree at water freezing temperature at sea level. 100 ºj is the rough boiling temperature of water, but, being a duodecimal scale, it is 100<sub>12</sub> (144<sub>10</sub>), thus 1 ºj equals 25/36 of a degree Celsius, or 1 ºC = 1.44 ºj.<br/>The median body temperature of a Calemerian human (which is slightly lower than for terrestrial humans) is of 41 ºj <small>(49<sub>10</sub>)</small>, thus  ~34.0278 ºC.


====Time====
====Time====
→ ''See also: [[Chlouvānem/Calendar_and_time#The_Chlouvānem_calendar|Chlouvānem Calendar and time § the Chlouvānem calendar]]
→ ''See also: [[Chlouvānem/Calendar_and_time#The_Chlouvānem_calendar|Chlouvānem Calendar and time § the Chlouvānem calendar]]
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
|-
|-
! English !! Chlouvānem !! Equivalent to !! rough Earthly approximation
! English !! Chlouvānem !! Equivalent to !! rough Earthly approximation
Line 1,777: Line 1,471:
|-
|-
! Day
! Day
| pārṇam || 28<sub>12</sub> (32<sub>10</sub>) hours || ~35 hours
| lairē || 28<sub>12</sub> (32<sub>10</sub>) hours || ~35 hours
|-
|-
! Hour
! Hour
| garaṇa || 3 hælьmāmyai<br/>60<sub>12</sub> (72<sub>10</sub>) railai || ~65 min ~37 sec
| garaṇa || 3 hælmāmyai<br/>60<sub>12</sub> (72<sub>10</sub>) railai || ~65 min ~37 sec
|-
|-
! <small>''group of "minutes"''</small>
! <small>''group of "minutes"''</small>
| hælьmāmya || 20<sub>12</sub> (24<sub>10</sub>) railai || ~21 min ~52 sec
| hælmāmya || 20<sub>12</sub> (24<sub>10</sub>) railai || ~21 min ~52 sec
|-
|-
! "Minute"
! "Minute"
Line 1,801: Line 1,495:
|}
|}


==Particles (''remīn'')==
====Other units====
Traditional Chlouvānem grammar only recognizes a single part of speech called "particles" (''remīn'', literally "helper(s)") which includes conjunctions, postpositions, and interjections. However, these three are recognized as subsets of particles - here translated as "conjunctive particles" (''natemālāhai remīn''), "accompanying particles", i.e. postpositions (''ūtimāhai remīn''), and "exclamatory particles" (''pigdilanah nali remīn''), as is also a further fourth subgroup called "adverbial particles" (''khladaradhausirāhe remīn'').
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
|-
! !! Chlouvānem !! Symbol !! rough Earthly approximation
|-
! frequency
| lūnaji || lnj || ~0.526704 Hz
|-
! voltage
| chulgān || chg || 1 V
|}
 
==Particles (''remīk'')==
Traditional Chlouvānem grammar only recognizes a single part of speech called "particles" (''remīn'', literally "helper(s)") which includes conjunctions, postpositions, and interjections. However, these three are recognized as subsets of particles - here translated as "conjunctive particles" (''natemālāhai remīn''), "accompanying particles", i.e. postpositions (''ūtimāhai remīn''), and "exclamatory particles" (''pigdilanah nali remīn'').
 
Many Chlouvānem particles are grammaticalized usages of other words, some of them no longer being used in their original meaning in contemporary use (e.g. ''varve'').


===Conjunctive particles===
===Conjunctive particles===
Conjunctive particles typically may not stand alone and do not modify (i.e. require a particular case) nouns they're attached to - with the exception of ''væse''. They are:
Conjunctive particles may not stand syntactically alone and, with a few exceptions, don't require any particular case of a noun. Most of them function, or are also used, as conjunctions between sentences.
* '''golat''' — on the other hand, whereas (less common than ''maip'')
 
* '''jahān''' — anyway (conjunction or second position adverb)
* '''lai''' — inclusive or
* '''lai''' — inclusive or
* '''lasь''' — and (incomplete listings, i.e. "X and Y and Z and so on"; <small>see ''no'' below for the use.</small>)
* '''las''' — and (in incomplete listings, cf. ''no'' and ''sama''); it follows the noun it refers to, and in listings with more than two nouns it follows every noun except for the first. Not used to conjoin sentences.
* '''maip''' — on the other hand, whereas (more common than both ''golat'' and ''vādvyeṣi'')
* '''lenta''' — "together (with)", adverbial or postpositive, requiring genitive case in the latter usage. When pospositive, it is more emphatic than ''lā''. Adverbially, ''gimmālsiṭ'' is more common.
* '''mailiven''' — so, thus, therefore (grammaticalized use of <small>go_forward.UNIDIR.PRES.IND.EXP.3SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR.</small>)
* '''mbu''' — exclusive or
* '''mbu''' — exclusive or
* '''menni''' — because, for, as
* '''mešē''' — given that (grammaticalized use of <small>see.PRES.IND-EXP-3SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR.</small>)
:: If there is a following main clause, then it's the last word in the subordinate of reason (this use is usually synonymous to the consequential secondary verbal mood of cause, e.g. ''aganą lā įstiāk menni yųlakepañcekte'' "as (s)he was hungry, (s)he started eating" = ''aganą lā įstiānairek yųlakepañcekte''); if it's just a lone sentence (an answer), then it is usually at the ''second'' place in the sentence, after the verbal trigger (e.g. ''tami menni yuyųlsegde'' "because (s)he wants to eat").
* '''najelai''' — maybe. Originally the archaic potential form of ''najalle'' (to happen). Sentence-final, requires a verb in the subjunctive mood, e.g. ''yahatite najelai'' "maybe I'll read it".
* '''najelai''' — maybe. Originally the archaic potential form of ''najalle'' (to happen). Requires a verb in the subjunctive mood.
* '''nānim''' — almost; if used with nouns, requires essive case.
* '''nanū''' — also, too (only between sentences; <small>see ''tora'' below</small>). Actually a different use of the adverb meaning "more" (comparative of ''taili'' "many, much").
* '''ni''' — but (in second position)
* '''natte''' — until. Requires a noun in translative case (or dative case for places, meaning "as far as")<ref>Compare ''ājvan natte'' "until dawn" and ''līlasuṃghāṇa kahērimaila ga keikom natte'' "as far as Līlasuṃghāṇa Kahērimaila Station".</ref> or a verb in the subjunctive.
* '''no''' — and (in complete listings, cf. ''las''); same placement as ''las''. Also used to conjoin sentences, but ''sama'' is preferred, especially when there are different subjects (triggered arguments).
* '''ni''' — but
* '''nyąu''' — because, for, as (cf. ''tī''); ''amyąu'' in the Classical era, i.e. the ablative of the former demonstrative ''ami''.
* '''no''' — and (between nouns and denoting a complete listing; use ''lasь'' for incomplete listings). It follows the noun it refers to, and in listings with more than two nouns it follows every noun except the first. It (and ''lasь'') can also translate "and" between verbs, but ''sama'' is preferred between sentences, especially with different subjects (e.g. ''yąlute molute no'' "I eat and drink", either ''mēlitu yąlute kolecañu molute no'' or ''mēlitu yąlute sama kolecañu molute'' "I eat curry and drink kvas", but most often ''mēlitu yąlute sama liliā ñæltah kolecañu molegde'' "I eat curry and my sister drinks kvas". Note that ''mēlitu yąlute liliā ñæltah kolecañu molegde no'' is still correct, but mostly found in literary or very formal language).
:: Used sentence-finally: ''aganą lā įstyāk nyąu yųlake pañcekte'' "as (s)he was hungry, (s)he started eating." In lone sentences, e.g. answers, ''tī'' is preferred: ''aganą lā tī įstyāk'' "because (s)he was hungry."
* '''sama''' —  and (between sentences). Shortened to '''sam''' before vowel-initial words.
* '''paṣe''' — furthermore
* '''tī''' — because, for, as
* '''pū''' — if (and '''pūmbu''' "whether") - see [[Chlouvānem/Syntax#Conditional_sentences|Chlouvānem syntax § Conditional sentences]]
:: Unlike ''menni'' (which it is an exact synonym of), ''tī'' is always in second place, cf. ''aganą lā tī įstiāk yųlakepañcekte'' (in this case, note that no other word can intervene between the "accompanying particle" ''lā'' and the noun it is attached to).
* '''sama''' ('''sam''' before vowels) — and (between sentences only, cf. ''las'' and ''no'')
* '''tora''' — also, too; used both as a conjunctive particle (even if ''nanū'' is more common) and as an adverbial one, in the latter case always before the verb (and any non-subject pronoun). (e.g. ''tora tū uyųlaṃte'' "I've eaten that too").
* '''širē''' — also, too (only between sentences, cf. ''tan''). A different use of the adverb meaning "more".
* '''vādvyeṣi''' — on the other hand, whereas (more formal than both ''golat'' and ''maip'')
* '''tadye''' — despite that (between sentences), cf. ''tatta''.
* '''væse''' — while, in the meantime. Requires a subjunctive mood verb or a noun in essive (or, depending on the meaning, exessive or translative) case.
* '''tan''' — also, too; used adverbially and between sentences (where, however, ''širē'' is more common).
 
* '''tatta''' — despite, even though; requires a noun in the essive case or a subjunctive verb (e.g. ''gu talunīs ša tatta dadrā'' "even though you didn't come, it has been done."). Colloquially, it is also used anaphorically, instead of ''tadye''; however, it is considered bad style in formal language.
The numerous particles in the Chlouvānem language have various uses, including coordinating conjunctions, semantic, and pragmatic particles. Most of them (except a few conjunctions) follow the word they modify. Here they are listed in Latin alphabetical order:
* '''varve''' — instead of; requires genitive case or subjunctive mood. Originally the locative singular of ''varva'' "form", no longer used in contemporary Chlouvānem.
* '''dam''' is an interrogative particle, put after the verb: ''dalьtah væl dam?'' "is it a fish?".
** '''samvarve''' — on the other hand, whereas
* '''e''' translates "like"; it requires essive case with nouns (in formal speech; while bare essive most properly has the meaning "as X" instead of "like X", colloquially it is used both ways) and subjunctive mood with realis verbs (other moods are used for their meaning).
* '''vivāmi''' — "too much", adverbial or postpositive, requiring genitive case in the latter usage.
* '''eri''' means "even", marking a positive emphasis and used with positive sentences (e.g. ''hūnakumi dældān eri dældire'' "(s)he even speaks Hūnakumi<ref>Language of an ethnic minority (but titular ethnicity) in the diocese of Hūnakañjātia.</ref>")
* '''væse''' — while, in the meantime; "during (the)" with nouns. Requires a verb in the subjunctive mood or a noun in the essive (or, meaning-dependant, exessive or translative) case.
* '''ga''' is an adpositive particle, used to join nouns in noun phrases (usually titles; the only exceptions being honorifics), such as ''Līlasuṃghāṇa ga marta'' (Līlasuṃghāṇa city, or "city of Līlasuṃghāṇa") or ''Tāllahāria ga maita'' (Tāllahāria river).
* '''gāri''' means "not even", being the opposite of ''eri'', marking a negative emphasis in negative sentences (e.g. ''hulābdān chlǣvānumi dældān gāri gu dældire ša'' "(s)he doesn't even speak correct Chlouvānem")
* '''golat''' translates "meanwhile" or "on the other hand".
* '''gu(n) — ša''' is a circumfix around verbs used to negate it, e.g. ''gu yuyųlsegde ša'' "(s)he doesn't want to eat"). Note that the ''ša'' element is omitted if the verb is attributive.
* '''laha''' means "only, just", e.g. ''lārvājuṣui laha flå'' "I'm only going to the temple".
* '''lā''' (arch. ''lapi'') means "with", in the comitative sense, requiring essive case. Similarly, '''udvī''' means "without", with the same case (e.g. ''liliąa ñæltęs lā'' "with my sister"; ''liliąa ñæltęs udvī'' "without my sister").
* '''lǣh''' translates "already", with a noun in essive case or a verb in the semantically correct mood.
* '''mei''' and '''go''' are the Chlouvānem words for "yes" and "no" respectively; their use is however different from English, as they are used according to the polarity of the question: ''mei'' answers "yes" to affirmative questions and "no" to negative questions; ''go'' answers "no" to affirmative questions and "yes" to negative questions.
* '''mūji''' translates "almost", "more or less"
* '''mæn''' [[Chlouvānem#Use of the topic|marks the topic]] which otherwise has no role in the sentence (often used inside larger conversations, e.g. ''lili mæn yulte kåmbe'' (mine/as for me (echoing a previous sentence), [it is] in the bright yellow backpack; OR: as for me, [I keep it] in...)).
* '''nali''', when used with a noun in direct case, marks the benefactive argument in any voice except benefactive-trigger. When used with a verb in subjunctive mood, it means "in order to", with a nuance of hope (when compared to the bare subjunctive, which already has that meaning).
* '''nānim''' translates "almost", with a noun in essive case or a verb in the semantically correct mood.
* '''pa''' translates "on, of, about; concerning, on the subject of", and requires a noun direct case or a verb in subjunctive mood.
* '''ras''' marks the antibenefactive argument outside of antibenefactive-trigger voice, or "to avoid X" with a subjunctive mood verb.
* '''tælū''' means "again".


===Accompanying particles (i.e. postpositions)===
These particles can never stand alone, do not conjoin sentences, and nearly always require a particular noun case.


<!-- ===Adverbial particles===
* '''bīs''' — between; from ... until, in expressions of time. Comes after both nouns in essive case: ''šurājęs nyūramyęs bīs'' "between [[Contionary:šurājah|Šurājah]] and [[Contionary:nyūramyah|Nyūramyah]]".
Adverbial particles are a "catch-all" category -->
* '''bisikita''' — except for; requires subjunctive mood or essive case. Grammaticalized usage of <small>put_aside-EXP-IND.PERF.3.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>. (e.g. ''nītedarāhai lailąs bisikita nalunya upulsma'' "entrance is forbidden, except for involved people" → "authorized personnel only")
* '''glidemæh''' translates "only" or "alone".
* '''dam''' — interrogative particle in polar questions, put after the verb (e.g. ''daltah vi dam?'' "is it a fish?")
* '''lenta''' means "together (with)"; when used as a particle, it requires a noun in genitive case - e.g. ''lili buneyi lenta'' "I, together with my older sister".
* '''e''' — like. Requires essive case with nouns and subjunctive mood with verbs.
* '''maibu''' translates "enough"; it requires a noun in genitive case or a verb in the indicative mood.
* '''ga''' — adpositive particle, used to join nouns in noun phrases (usually titles or proper names, but not honorifics), e.g. ''Līlasuṃghāṇa ga marta'' "Līlasuṃghāṇa city" or ''Tāllahārya ga maita'' "Tāllahārya river".
* '''udvī''' translates "without"; it requires a noun in essive case or a verb in subjunctive mood.
*: Mostly in poetry (for metrical reasons), or Archaic and Early Classical Chlouvānem prose (e.g. in the Lileṃsasarum, or many Yunyalīlti holy books), ''ga'' is used to conjoin attributive verbs to nouns, e.g. ''lei imiša ga švas'' "the animal seen by me". Already in parts of the Lileṃsasarum the decading usage of the particle in this sense is to be noted, as often it is only used to conjoin exterior verbs to nouns, but not interior ones.
* '''gu(n) ~ ša''' — negative circumposition used around verbs, e.g. ''gu yuyųlsegde ša'' "(s)he does not want to eat". The first element is ''gun'' before vowels; the ''ša'' element is omitted if the verb is attributive.
* '''lā''' — with (comitative); requires essive case (e.g. ''lilyą ñæltęs lā'' "with my sister"). The Archaic Chlouvānem form was ''lapi''.
* '''lut''' — used with expressions of time: means "ago" if used with ablative case (''nęlcų heirų lut'' "four years ago"), "for/since" if with essive case (''nęlcą heiręs lut'' "for four years").
* '''mei''' and '''go''' — "yes" and "no", used according to the polarity of the question; i.e. ''mei'' denotes the statement is true ("yes" to affirmative questions, "no" to negative questions), while ''go'' denotes the statement is false ("no" to affirmative questions, "yes" to negative questions).
* '''mæn''' — [[Chlouvānem/Syntax#Use of the topic|marks a topic which otherwise has no role in the sentence]].
* '''nali''' — benefactive marker, used with a noun in direct case; marks the benefited argument when the verb is not in benefactive-trigger voice. If used with a subjunctive verb, means "in order to", with a nuance of hope (the bare subjunctive already carries the "in order to" meaning).
* '''nin''' — after, with ablative or subjunctive (''nęlcų heirų nin'' "after four years")
* '''pa''' — on, of, concerning, on the subject of, about. Requires a direct case noun (e.g. ''vāṇatarlā pa naviṣya'' "book about botany") or a subjunctive mood verb (e.g. ''šūñjulā drētte pa nīdhāḍirdya'' "the two of us are talking about what (s)he did down there").
* '''ras''' — antibenefactive marker, used with a noun in direct case; marks the anti-benefited argument when the verb is not in antibenefactive-trigger voice. If used with a subjunctive verb, means "to avoid X".
* '''sām''' — different meanings depending on case:
:: ablative, in expressions of time: "in ... time" (at the end of a certain period), or "by": ''nęlcų heirų sām'' "in four years' time, four years for now"; ''šurājų sām'' "by [[Contionary:šurājah|Šurājah]]";
:: translative (rarely essive), in expressions of time: "in/for/until" (within, during a certain period): ''nęltin heiran sām'' "for the coming four years" (or ''nęlcą heiręs sām''); ''ājvan sām'' "until dawn";
:: dative case, with places: "until, as far as": ''līlasuṃghāṇa ṣrāvamaila ga keikom sām'' "as far as Līlasuṃghāṇa Ṣrāvamaila Station")
:: subjunctive verb: "until": ''primęlirī sām'' "until he/she/it comes back".
* '''šut''' — before, with ablative or subjunctive (''nęlcų heirų šut'' "four years before").
* '''vādį''' — without, with essive or subjunctive. Unlike English, it cannot be used anaphorically.


==="Paired" particles===
===Correlative particles===
Chlouvānem does not have "paired" particles as English does, because they are translated in different ways:
Chlouvānem does not have correlative conjunctions as English does, because they are translated in different ways:
* "both... and..." is translated by the adverb '''peimęe''' (the same), either in the form "X Y no peimęe" or in "X ..., Y peimęe":
* English "both... and..." is most commonly translated as ''X Y no tan'' ("X, and also Y"), e.g. ''jādāh lañekaica no tan nanau draikate'' "both Jādāh and Lañekaica did that".
:: ''jādāh lañekaica no peimęe tū draikate'' – both Jādāh and Lañekaica did it.
*: Alternatively, the forms ''X Y no peiṃsiṭ'' ("X, and the same for Y") or ''X ..., Y peiṃsiṭ'' ("X ..., and Y the same") are also widespread, e.g. ''jādāh lañekaica no peiṃsiṭ nanau draikate''; ''nāneh lei uyųla, māra peiṃsiṭ'' "I have eaten both the bread and the mango".
:: ''nāniu uyųlaṃte : māru peimęe'' – I have eaten both the bread and the mango.
* English "neither... nor..." is translated by the same structures as "both... and...", but negative. In the most common usage, ''tan'' is omitted:
* "neither... nor..." requires the sentence to be built in a different way, namely "not X, and also not Y", where "also not" is translated in two different ways: 1) by the particle '''gūta''' (more formal); or 2) with the adverb ''peimęe'' - therefore building a sentence that is exactly like the "both X and Y" but negative.
*: ''jādāh lañekaica no (tan) nanau gu draikate ša'' "neither Jādāh nor Lañekaica did that"; ''nāneh lei gun uyųla ša, māra peiṃsiṭ'' "I have eaten neither the bread nor the mango".
:: ''jādāh tū gu dṛkte ša : lañekaica gūta'' – neither Jādah nor Lañekaica did it. Literal translation: Jādāh didn't do it, and Lañekaica also [didn't].
:: ''nāniu gu uyųlaṃte ša : māru peimęe'' – I have eaten neither the bread nor the mango. Literally: I haven't eaten the bread, and the same for the mango.
* "either... or..." is easily translated by the exclusive or (''mbu''). It is commonly only used after the second term, but it can be put after every term for emphasis:
* "either... or..." is easily translated by the exclusive or (''mbu''). It is commonly only used after the second term, but it can be put after every term for emphasis:
:: ''jādāh (mbu) lañekaica mbu tū dṛkte'' – either Jādah or Lañekaica did it. (note the singular verb)
*: ''jādāh (mbu) lañekaica mbu nanau dṛkte'' – either Jādah or Lañekaica did it. (note the singular verb)


===Emphatic particles===
===Emphatic particles===
A few particles are used (usually sentence-finally) in order to convey particular feelings of the speaker about the statement:
A few particles are used (usually sentence-finally) in order to convey particular feelings of the speaker about the statement:
* '''å''' expresses either surprise (at the beginning of a sentence) or that the fact is considered annoying (at the end), e.g. ''å viṣęe dadrāte'' "wow, (s)he's done it again!" / ''viṣęe dadrā å'' "oh no, (s)he's done it again!"
* '''anā''' is an introductory particle (e.g. "so")
* '''dā''' gives the sentence, especially a command or a proposition, an informal tone - cf. German "mal" or Italian "un po'", e.g. ''najire tū mešute dā'' "I'll just see what happens"; ''peithos dā'' "just calm down and take a walk around here."
* '''å''' expresses either surprise (at the beginning of a sentence) or that the fact is considered annoying (at the end), e.g. ''å vikṣiṭ dadrāte'' "wow, (s)he's done it again!" / ''vikṣiṭ dadrā å'' "oh no, (s)he's done it again!"
* '''dā''' gives the sentence, especially a command or a proposition, an informal tone - cf. German "mal" or Italian "un po'", e.g. ''najire nanau mešute dā'' "I'll just see what happens"; ''peithos dā'' "just calm down and take a walk around here."
* '''e''' is a basic declarative particle when used word-finally, and is often used as an introduction (much like "you know, ...") or as a generic filler.
* '''e''' is a basic declarative particle when used word-finally, and is often used as an introduction (much like "you know, ...") or as a generic filler.
* '''nane''' is a tag question, e.g. ''camiyūs vali dam nane?'' "you're from Cami, aren't you?"
* '''eri''' means "even", marking a positive emphasis (e.g. ''hūnakumi dhāḍan eri dhāḍire'' "(s)he even speaks Hūnakumi<ref>Language of an ethnic minority (but titular ethnicity) in the diocese of Hūnakañjaiṭa.</ref>")
* '''naihā''' is a tag question much like ''nane'', but is used when the speaker is in doubt and/or expects a contradictory answer, e.g. ''flære draute dam naihā?'' "did I do it yesterday, or...?"
* '''gāri''' means "not even", being the opposite of ''eri'', marking a negative emphasis (e.g. ''hulābdān chlǣvānumi dhāḍan gāri dhāḍire'' "(s)he doesn't even speak correct Chlouvānem")
* '''nā''', a generic filler (cf. "I mean"), often combined with ''e''. e.g. ''nā (e) nenēt nāṭ tarliru!'' "I mean, I already know this!"
* '''nane''' is a tag question, e.g. ''camiyūs vi dam nane?'' "you're from Cami, aren't you?"
* '''nimā''' is an introductory particle, same as ''anā''.
* '''naihā''' is a tag question much like ''nane'', but is used when the speaker is in doubt and/or expects a contradictory answer, e.g. ''lære draute dam naihā?'' "did I do it yesterday, or...?"
* '''pos''' is a filler with a meaning similar to ''tau'', but it is more properly translated as emphasizing that the speaker considers the statement as a general truth or a widely accepted thing, e.g. ''ālīce jeldegde pos'' "yeah, everybody knows (s)he acts that way/does that kind of things."
* '''pos''' is a filler with a meaning similar to ''tau'', but it is more properly translated as emphasizing that the speaker considers the statement as a general truth or a widely accepted thing, e.g. ''ālīce jeldegde pos'' "yeah, everybody knows (s)he acts that way/does that kind of things."
* '''sāṭ''' expresses the speaker's doubt about the honesty of the expressed action, e.g. ''tamie tamiu draukæ sāṭ'' "(s)he did it for me, but I don't believe that's what (s)he really wanted" or "as if (s)he really did it for me!"
* '''sāṭ''' expresses the speaker's doubt about the honesty of the expressed action, e.g. ''tamye tamyu draukæ sāṭ'' "(s)he did it for me, but I don't believe that's what (s)he really wanted" or "as if (s)he really did it for me!"
* '''tau''' emphasizes that the fact expressed is considered obvious, and is fairly colloquial, e.g. ''lārvājuṣe ēk tau'' "huh, I was at the temple, nothing else"; ''kitui vasau tau'' "I drove home [what else could I do?]"
* '''tau''' emphasizes that the fact expressed is considered obvious, and is fairly colloquial, e.g. ''lārvājuṣe ēk tau'' "huh, I was at the temple, nothing else"; ''kitui vasau tau'' "I drove home [what else could I do?]"
* '''tva''' puts strong emphasis on a declarative sentence; it is fairly colloquial and not polite, and thus avoided in formal speech, e.g. ''nenēyu daudiute tati ukulaṃte tva!'' "damn, I said I want that, shut up!"
* '''tva''' puts strong emphasis on a declarative sentence; it is fairly colloquial and not polite, and thus avoided in formal speech, e.g. ''nenēyu daudyute tati ukulaṃte tva!'' "damn, I said I want that, shut up!"


==Derivational morphology - Vāmbeithausire maivāndarāmita==
==Derivational morphology (''vāmbeithausire maivāndarāmita'')==
Chlouvānem has an extensive system of derivational morphology, with many possibilities of deriving words from verbal roots and even from other nouns.
Chlouvānem has an extensive system of derivational morphology, with many possibilities of deriving words from verbal roots and even from other nouns.
===Compounds===
Chlouvānem, like Sanskrit, has four main types of compound words (''tadmaiva'', pl. ''tadmaivai''), called in Chlouvānem grammar ''emibądanīs'' (dvandva), ''ṭvādaradhausire tadmaiva'' (avyayībhāva), ''nīdhvakādhūs'' (tatpuruṣa), and ''kaudhvakādhūs'' (bahuvrīhi).
====Dvandva (''emibądanīs'')====
The first type of compounds is ''emibądanīs'' type (also called ''no ga tadmaiva''), corresponding to dvandva compounds. In ''emibądanais'', all words in the compound are taken with the concrete idea they represent. As hinted to by the alternative name, these compounds effectively substitute an "X Y no" (X and Y), compressing it into a single word.
: ''tēneh ukyā no'' "a branch and a trunk" → ''tēnayukyāt'' "branch and trunk"
Dvandva compounds are formed by removing the direct case ''-s'' or ''-h'' marker from the word, lengthening all resulting final vowels (i.e. for all words not ending in ''-oe, -ai, -m'', or ''-n''), and joining with saṃdhi the second word; the second word is then inflected in the dual (if the word semantically refers to two things) or in the plural (if it refers to three or more things - see the next example).
: ''tēneh nūlyai no'' "a branch and leaves" → ''tēnēnūlyai'' "branch(es) and leaves"
Note that, if the dvandva is plural, there is no indication of how many elements of each component are present:
: ''lalāruṇāt voltām no'' "two lalāruṇai (<small>DU</small>) and a sheep (<small>SG</small>)" → ''lalāruṇāvoltāk'' "lalāruṇai and sheep" (<small>PL</small>)
: ''lalāruṇai voltām no'' "lalāruṇai (<small>PL</small>) and a sheep (<small>SG</small>)" → ''lalāruṇāvoltāk'' "lalāruṇai and sheep" (<small>PL</small>)
: ''lalāruṇa voltāk no'' "a lalāruṇa (<small>SG</small>) and sheep (<small>PL</small>)" → ''lalāruṇāvoltāk'' "lalāruṇai and sheep" (<small>PL</small>)
The identification of how many individual lalāruṇai and sheep is lost in the compound, however, we know from the plural number that there must be at least three animals; otherwise, the dvandva would be dual:
: ''lalāruṇa voltām no'' "a lalāruṇa (<small>SG</small>) and a sheep (<small>SG</small>)" → ''lalāruṇāvoltīvā'' "lalāruṇai and sheep" (<small>DU</small>)
Dvandva made of three or more elements can, obviously, only be plural:
: ''lalāruṇa voltām no jorai no'' "a lalāruṇa, a sheep, and a goat" → ''lalāruṇāvoltāñjorāye'' "lalārunai, sheep, and goats"
In the most formal registers of Chlouvānem, it is not uncommon to find dvandva compounds made of several elements:
: ''lācāh kraṣṭāmita no lillāmita no demigretas no lelyēmita no'' "love, fidelity, devotion, sacrifice, and family" → ''lācākraṣṭāmitālillāmitādemigretālelyēmitai'' "love, fidelity, devotion, sacrifice, and family"
====Avyayībhāva (''ṭvādaradhausire tadmaiva'')====
Avyayībhāva compounds, in Chlouvānem ''ṭvādaradhausirāhe tadmaivai'' ("adverbial compounds"), are not as productive as the other types and, in fact, except for a few words they're mostly limited to Archaic and Classical Chlouvānem; despite being based on the latter, modern Chlouvānem does not use them productively (but see ''nīpenai'' below).<br/>These compounds generally have a first element which is a particle (or a verbal prefix), and the second element is a noun which is either left uninflected in the direct singular or, more commonly, in the two Archaic Chlouvānem adverbializing cases: the instrumental plural or the locative singular.
: ''sam + jildas'' "after + act" → *sañjildas → ''sañjilde'' "consequently"
: ''naš(e) + sṝva'' "full, complete + extent" → *nakṣṝva → ''nakṣṝve'' "as much as possible"
: ''væse + vāyam'' "while + image, form" → ''væsvāyam'' or ''væsvāyaṃrīka'' "thus, therefore"
: ''paṣ(e) + vāyam'' "beyond + image, form" → ''paṣvāyam'' "in addition, furthermore"
: ''maibu + jallas'' "enough + condition" → *maibujallas → ''maibujalle'' "as needed"
: ''nī'' + ''penai'' "within + net" → ''nīpenai'' "online" (generally considered the only modern Chlouvānem avyayībhāva)
A particular kind of avyayībhāva is the ''-ṣati'' class, whose particularity derives from having a first element which is a declinable word (a possessive determiner); however, they're still adverbs and therefore uninflected:
: ''lilyā ṣati'' "my way" → ''lilyāṣati'' "from my point of view; in my opinion; my way"
: ''sāmyā ṣati'' "your way" → ''sāmyāṣati'' "from your point of view; in your opinion; your way"
====Tatpuruṣa (''nīdhvakādhūs'')====
Tatpuruṣa compounds (''nīdhvakādhūs'' "with meaning inside", pl. ''nīdhvakādhaus'') are likely the most common overall in Chlouvānem, and are the preferred way of crafting new words. These are endocentric compounds, the last element, the head of the compound, is modified by the previous element(s), which can be of any part of speech. Usually, the tatpuruṣa replaces genitive "X of Y", agentive "X which does Y", benefactive "X for Y", locative "X in Y", instrumental "X with Y", or sometimes copular structures "X which is (also) Y" (corresponding to Sanskrit karmadhāraya compounds) or "X made of Y".<br/>
The determining elements are generally uninflected.
: ''vāṇumi tarlā'' "study of plants" → ''vāṇatarlā'' "botany"
: ''vāṇatarlom kaminairīveyē lila'' "a person studying botany" (semantic agent) → ''vāṇatarlālila'' "botanist"
: ''mordhē cūlla'' "carriage that flies" → ''mordhacūlla'' "airplane"
: ''aṣṭre nali hatsunā'' "brush for teeth" → ''aṣṭṛhatsunā'' "toothbrush"
: ''nanāye līlta'' "path in the jungle" → ''nanailīlta'' "jungle path"
: ''nijogāp konanah'' "shooting with bow" → ''nijogākonanah'' "archery"
: ''munnęs ḍūṇā'' "a telephone which is a computer" → ''munnaḍūṇā'' "smartphone"
: ''javilenīs mayābi'' "wine made from apples" → ''javilmayābi'' "cider"
====Bahuvrīhi (''kaudhvakādhūs'')====
Bahuvrīhi compounds (''kaudhvakādhūs'' "with meaning outside", pl. ''kaudhvakādhaus'') are also quite common Chlouvānem words; they are exocentric compounds where none of the elements is the head of the compound, or, all elements are qualifiers. They replace structures like "[someone/something] with X which is/are Y" or "[sm/st] whose X is/are Y"; it could even be generalized to "[sm/st] whose [tatpuruṣa compound]":
: ''murkire dhānęs lā lila'' "person with black hands" → ''murkadhāna'' "Inquisitor"
: ''yųlgis nali javyęs lā dvārma'' "room with fire for food" → ''yųljavyāh'' "kitchen"<ref>Synchronically, this analysis is correct; however, this word was likely first crafted as a tatpuruṣa, i.e. "a fire for food" (''yųlgis nali javyāh''), before kitchens were rooms.</ref>


===Nouns===
===Noun-forming morphemes===
'''-a''' (unstressed) or '''-ā''' (stressed) is a common derivative to make basic words from verbal roots. It does not have any fixed meaning, though it's always pretty close to the root. Nouns with the unstressed suffix and an ablautable vowel usually belong to the ablauting declension. '''ṛ''' in a root is always strengthened to middle-grade.<br/>
'''-a''' (unstressed) or '''-ā''' (stressed) is a common derivative to make basic words from verbal roots. It does not have any fixed meaning, though it's always pretty close to the root. Nouns with the unstressed suffix and an ablautable vowel usually belong to the ablauting declension. '''ṛ''' in a root is always strengthened to middle-grade.<br/>
* ''dṛ'' (to do, to make) → ''dara'' (activity)<br/>
* ''dṛ'' (to do, to make) → ''dara'' (activity)<br/>
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'''-as''' is another common derivative, without fixed meaning, but usually denoting objects or things done by acting. It is used to derive positions from positional verbs.<br/>
'''-as''' is another common derivative, without fixed meaning, but usually denoting objects or things done by acting. It is used to derive positions from positional verbs.<br/>
* ''tug'' (to beat) → ''tugas'' (beat)<br/>
* ''tug'' (to beat) → ''tugas'' (beat)<br/>
* ''jlitiā (jlitim-)''  (be to the right of) → ''jlitimas'' (right)<br/>
* ''māhatyā (māhatim-)''  (be to the right of) → ''māhatimas'' (right)<br/>
* ''āntiā (āntim-)'' (be above, be on) → ''āntimas'' (part above)
* ''āntyā (āntim-)'' (be above, be on) → ''āntimas'' (part above)


'''-ūm''' is another derivative without fixed meaning, overlapping with ''-as''.<br/>With a few roots whose vowel is ''-o-'', ''-un'' is used instead.
'''-ūm''' is another derivative without fixed meaning, overlapping with ''-as''.
* ''lgut'' (to buy) → ''lgutūm'' (something bought)
* ''lgut'' (to buy) → ''lgutūm'' (something bought)
* ''peith'' (to go, walk (multidirectional)) → ''peithūm'' (walk)
* ''peith'' (to go, walk (multidirectional)) → ''peithūm'' (walk)
* ''yālv'' (to be sweet (taste)) → ''yālvūm'' (sweet taste)
* ''yālv'' (to be sweet (taste)) → ''yālvūm'' (sweet taste)
* ''storg'' (<small>offices, factories:</small> to be open, to work) → ''storgun'' (working hours)


'''-laukas''' is a singulative suffix, denoting either a single thing of a collective noun, or a single constituent of a broader act. Unlike the previous ones, it is most commonly applied to other nouns.<br/>
'''-(u)kāram''' is a singulative suffix, denoting either a single thing of a collective noun, or a single constituent of a broader act. Unlike the previous ones, it is most commonly applied to other nouns.<br/>In modern coinings, it is also used to denote a division of something.
* ''lun'' (to go, walk (monodirectional)) → ''luṃlaukas'' (step)<br/>
* ''lun'' (to go, walk (monodirectional)) → ''lulkāram'' (step)
* ''lil'' (to live) (or ''liloe'' (life)) → ''lillaukas'' (moment, instant)<br/>
* ''lil'' (to live) (or ''liloe'' (life)) → ''lilukāram'' (moment, instant)
* ''daša'' (rain) → ''dašilaukas'' (raindrop)
* ''daša'' (rain) → ''dašukāram'' (raindrop)
* ''araṣa'' (atom) → ''araṣkāram'' (subatomic particle)


'''-anah''', with middle-grade ablaut if possible, denotes an act or process, or something closely related to that.<br/>
'''-anah''', with middle-grade ablaut if possible, denotes an act or process, or something closely related to that.<br/>
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* ''lgut'' (to buy) → ''lgotanah'' (shopping)
* ''lgut'' (to buy) → ''lgotanah'' (shopping)


'''-yāva''' with lengthening denotes a quality.<br/>
'''-na''' ('''-ra''' after ''t'' or ''d''; '''-iyāna''' after ''Cy'', '''-uvāna''' after ''Cv'') with lengthening denotes a quality.<br/>
* ''māl'' (to keep together) → ''mālyāva'' (union)<br/>
* ''māl'' (to keep together) → ''mālna'' (union)<br/>
* ''hælvē'' (fruit) → ''šaulvyāva'' (fertility) (morphemically //hьaulvyava//)<br/>
* ''hælvē'' (fruit) → ''šaulviyāna'' (fertility) (morphemically //hyaulviyāna//)<br/>
* ''blut'' (to clean) → ''blūtyāva'' (cleanliness)
* ''åbdv'' (to swell, blow up) → ''åbduvāna'' (swollenness, bloatiness)
* Lengthening is absent if the word is derived from an ''-aus-'' adjectival verb (e.g. ''chlærausake'' ((to be) easy) → ''chlærausyāva'' (easiness)) and in a few exceptions (e.g. ''lalla'' (high) → ''lalliyāva'' (highness, superiority)). ''taugyāva'' (life) has ''au'' because it's derived from ''taugikā'' (heart) and not the bare root ''tug'' (to beat).
* ''blut'' (to clean) → ''blūtra'' (cleanliness)
* Inverse-ablaut roots have the reduced vowel as a prefix, much like in causative verbs (e.g. ''vald'' (to (be) open) → ''uvaldyāva'' (opening, state of being open)).
* Lengthening is absent if the word is derived from an ''-aus-'' adjectival verb (e.g. ''chlæraus-'' ((to be) easy) → ''chlærausna'' (easiness)) and in a few exceptions.
* Inverse-ablaut roots have the reduced vowel as a prefix (e.g. ''vald'' (to (be) open) → ''uvaldra'' (opening, state of being open)).


'''-išam''' has the same meaning as ''-yāva'', but it's rarer.<br/>
'''-išam''' has the same meaning as ''-na'', but it's rarer.<br/>
* ''yųlniltas'' (edible) → ''yųlniltešam'' (edibility)
* ''yųlniltas'' (edible) → ''yųlniltešam'' (edibility)
* ''yālv'' (to be sweet (taste)) → ''yālvišam'' (sweetness)
* ''yālv'' (to be sweet (taste)) → ''yālvišam'' (sweetness)
* ''ñailūh'' (ice) → ''ñailūvišam'' (coldness)
* ''ñailūh'' (ice) → ''ñailūvišam'' (coldness)
* ''nevь'' (to model, to give a form) → ''nevīšam'' (plastic) (This word underwent a meaning shift from "modellability" to a common material with that quality, replacing the derived form ''nevīšandhūs'' previously used. "Modellability" is ''niavyāva'' in contemporary Chlouvānem.)
* ''nevy'' (to model, to give a form) → ''nevīšam'' (plastic) (This word underwent a meaning shift from "modellability" to a common material with that quality, replacing the derived form ''nevīšandhūs'' previously used. "Modellability" is ''nyaviyāna'' in contemporary Chlouvānem.)


'''-āmita''' (''-ьāmita'' when used with nouns with thematic ''e'' or ''i''), often with high-grade ablaut, is another suffix forming quality nouns, but it is often more abstract, being translatable with suffixes like English ''-ism''.<br/>
'''-āmita''' (''-yāmita'' when used with nouns with thematic ''e'' or ''i''), often with high-grade ablaut, is another suffix forming quality nouns, but it is often more abstract, being translatable with suffixes like English ''-ism''.<br/>
* ''lalteh'' (friend (female)) → ''laltiāmita'' (friendship)<br/>
* ''lalteh'' (friend (female)) → ''laltyāmita'' (friendship)<br/>
* ''ēmīla'' (tiger) → ''ēmīlāmita'' (nobility (quality); most important people in society<ref>Chlouvānem society lacked a true noble class; this term applies to the most influential people in society. Tigers are considered among the noblest animals.</ref>)<br/>
* ''ēmīla'' (tiger) → ''ēmīlāmita'' (nobility (quality); most important people in society<ref>Chlouvānem society lacked a true noble class; this term applies to the most influential people in society. Tigers are considered among the noblest animals.</ref>)<br/>
* ''ñæltah'' (sister (for a male)) → ''ñæltāmita'' (brotherhood)
* ''ñæltah'' (sister (male's)) → ''ñæltāmita'' (brotherhood)


'''-endān''' (''-indān'' after voiced stops, and ''-innān'' after '''d'''), with middle-grade ablaut, has various generic and sometimes unpredictable meanings, though typically instrumental.
'''-tsām''' ('''-utsām''' after ''ñ, š'', and voiced stops except ''d(h)''), with middle-grade ablaut, has various generic and sometimes unpredictable meanings, though typically instrumental.
* ''māl'' (to keep together) → ''mālendān'' (number)
* ''māl'' (to keep together) → ''māltsām'' (number)
* ''lij'' (to sing) → ''lejindān'' (choir)
* ''lij'' (to sing) → ''lejutsām'' (choir)
* ''dæld'' (to speak) → ''dældinnān'' (voice)
* ''dhāḍ'' (to speak) → ''dhāḍutsām'' (voice)
* ''kul'' (to say) → ''kultsām'' (word) (irregular lack of middle-grade ablaut)


'''-rṣūs''' (''-ṛṣūs'' after a consonant) denotes a tool, namely something used in doing an action.
'''-rṣūs''' (''-ṛṣūs'' after a consonant) denotes a tool, namely something used in doing an action.
* ''yaud'' (to catch) → ''yaudṛṣūs'' (trap)
* ''yaud-'' (to catch) → ''yaudṛṣūs'' (trap)
* ''miš'' (to see) → ''meširṣūs'' (eye <small>''(literary, rare)''</small>)<ref>Middle-grade ablaut is specific to this root.</ref>
* ''miš-'' (to see) → ''meširṣūs'' (eye <small>''(literary, rare)''</small>)<ref>Middle-grade ablaut is specific to this root.</ref>
* ''hær'' (to kiss) → ''hærṣūs'' (lips (pair of))
* ''nail-'' (to kiss) → ''nailṛṣūs'' (lips (pair of))


'''-gis''' denotes something used ''for'' doing an action, not always synonymous with ''-rṣūs''. ''-t-gis'' becomes ''-ñjis''.
'''-gis''' denotes something used ''for'' doing an action, not always synonymous with ''-rṣūs''. ''-t-gis'' becomes ''-ñjis''.
* ''mešīn'' (eye) → ''mešīlgis'' (glasses (pair of))
* ''mešīn'' (eye) → ''mešīlgis'' (glasses (pair of))
* ''tug'' (to beat) → ''tulgis'' (drumstick)
* ''tug-'' (to beat) → ''tulgis'' (drumstick)
* ''lgut'' (to buy) → ''lguñjis'' (money, currency)
* ''lgut-'' (to buy) → ''lguñjis'' (money, currency)


'''-oe''' (with middle-grade ablaut) often denotes a result, but has lots of various meanings.
'''-oe''' (with middle-grade ablaut) often denotes a result, but has lots of various meanings.
* ''hal'' (to call) → ''haloe'' (name, noun)
* ''hal-'' (to call) → ''haloe'' (name, noun)
* ''peith'' (to go, walk (multidirectional)) → ''peithoe'' (development; the way something is carried out)
* ''mbiṇḍh-'' (to go, walk (multidirectional)) → ''mbiṇḍhoe'' (development; the way something is carried out)
* ''yųl'' (to eat) → ''yąloe'' (meal)
* ''yųl-'' (to eat) → ''yąloe'' (meal)


'''-īn''' plus middle grade-ablaut denotes a doer (roughly equivalent to English ''-er''); usually it is a person, but not always.
'''-īn''' plus middle grade-ablaut denotes a doer (roughly equivalent to English ''-er''); usually it is a person, but not always.
* ''bhi'' (to take care of; to care for) → ''bhayīn'' (someone who takes care; guardian)
* ''bhi-'' (to take care of; to care for) → ''bhayīn'' (someone who takes care; guardian)
* ''tug'' (to beat) → ''togīn'' (heart)
* ''tug-'' (to beat) → ''togīn'' (heart)
* ''lgut'' (to buy) → ''lgotīn'' (buyer)
* ''lgut-'' (to buy) → ''lgotīn'' (buyer)
 
'''-āršis''' is a mostly non-productive agentive suffix like ''-īn'', surviving in a few ancient forms as well as some colloquial pejoratives:
* ''lęk-'' (to measure) → ''lękāršis'' (surveyor, inspector)
* ''dhīl-'' (to be idle) → ''dhīlāršis'' (lazy ass (pejor.))
* ''ēreša'' (teardrop) → ''ērešāršis'' (crybaby (pejor.))


'''-āvi''' denotes something derived from X. It is also used in forming matronymics.
'''-āvi''' denotes something derived from X. It is also used in forming matronymics.
* ''lameṣa'' (coconut palm) → ''laṃṣāvi'' (coconut)
* ''lameṣa'' (coconut palm) → ''laṃṣāvi'' (coconut)
* ''mešanah'' (sight) → ''mešanąvi'' (knowledge)
* ''mešanah'' (sight) → ''mešanąvi'' (knowledge)
* ''yųl'' (to eat) → ''yųlāvi'' (strength <small>''(literary, rare)''</small>)
* ''yųl-'' (to eat) → ''yųlāvi'' (strength <small>''(literary, rare)''</small>)
* It is also used with surnames of writers, usually as a plurale tantum, in order to derive words meaning "the works of...", e.g. ''yukahināryāvi'' "the works of Lileikhurāvi Yukahināri ''Mæmihūmya''".


'''-āmis''', with lengthening, means "made of X".
'''-āmis''', with lengthening, means "made of X".
* ''tāmira'' (rock, stone) → ''tāmirāmis'' (stone tool)
* ''tāmira'' (rock, stone) → ''tāmirāmis'' (stone tool)
* ''tarlā'' (knowledge, science) → ''tārlāmis'' (wisdom)
* ''tarlā'' (knowledge, science) → ''tārlāmis'' (wisdom)
* ''lil'' (to live) → ''līlāmis'' (a blissful place)
* ''lil-'' (to live) → ''līlāmis'' (a blissful place)
* Words ending in a final long vowel (plus either ''h'', ''s'', or ''m'') do not lengthen any vowel in a previous syllable (e.g. ''ñariāh'' (mountain) → ''ñariāmis'' (mountainous area)).
* Words ending in a final long vowel (plus either ''h'', ''s'', or ''m'') do not lengthen any vowel in a previous syllable (e.g. ''ñaryāh'' (mountain) → ''ñaryāmis'' (mountainous area)).


'''-ikā''' has various meanings, often somewhat abstract, intensive, or related to highly valued things/roles.
'''-ūneh''' ('''-īneh''' after stems in -Cy-, '''-ēneh''' for nouns in ''-ē''), with middle grade ablaut (rarely strong grade), has various meanings, often somewhat abstract, intensive, or related to highly valued things/roles.
* ''daša'' (rain) → ''dāšikā'' (monsoon) (irregular lengthening)
* ''daša'' (rain) → ''dašūneh'' (monsoon)
* ''hær'' (to kiss) → ''hærikā'' (love <small>''(literary, rare)''</small>)
* ''nail-'' (to kiss) → ''nailūneh'' (love <small>''(literary, rare)''</small>)
* ''lalāruṇa'' (giant domestic lizard) → ''lalārauṇikā'' (knight mounting a ''lalāruṇa'')
* ''yaiva'' (all) + ''lairē'' (day) → ''yaivlairēṇeh'' (everyday life)
* ''lalāruṇa'' (giant domestic lizard) → ''lalārauṇūneh'' (knight mounting a ''lalāruṇa'')


'''-dhūs''' means "having X".
'''-dhūs''' means "having X".
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* ''Līlasuṃghāṇa'' → ''līlasuṃghāṇyūs''
* ''Līlasuṃghāṇa'' → ''līlasuṃghāṇyūs''
* ''Cami'' → ''camiyūs''
* ''Cami'' → ''camiyūs''
* ''Galiākina'' → ''galiākyūs''
* ''Ajāɂilbādhi'' → ''ajāɂilbādhyūs''


'''-yadnis''' is a rare synonym of ''-yūs'', typically used with ''-is'', ''-im'', ''-ai'', and a few ''-ih'' toponyms:
'''-mana''' ('''-ana''' after ''CC'' clusters) is often found with the meaning of "that has to be X"; usually, a synonymous word may be formed by ''-s'' derivation from a necessitative stem, but some ''-mana'' words have their own specialized meaning:
* ''Yāmbirhālih'' → ''yāmbirhālyadnis'' (the form ''yāmbirhāliyūs'' is also found)
* ''ṭvur-'' (to believe) → ''ṭvurmaṇa'' (miracle)
* ''miš-'' (to see) → ''mišmana'' (attraction) (also ''memikṣūs'')
* ''tṛl-'' (to know, understand) → ''tṛlmana'' (rule) (not synonymous with ''tartṛlsūs'', meaning "needed knowledge, prerequisite")


'''-(g)arim''' is often found with the meaning of "that has to be X"; usually, a synonymous word may be formed by ''-s'' derivation from a necessitative stem, but some ''-(g)arim'' words have their own specialized meaning:
'''-yai''' (often with lengthening) forms nouns with the meaning of "pertaining to", generally applied to nouns denoting inanimate (but usually concrete) concepts. Such nouns are found in literature with an anaphorical use.<br/>It is commonly found in Chlouvānem surnames. In chemistry, it denotes binary compounds, usually with a dvandva stem.
* ''vvlur-'' (to believe) → ''vvlurgarim'' (miracle)
* ''vīhatam'' (farm) → ''vīhātyai'' (farmer; farm's)
* ''miš-'' (to see) → ''mišarim'' (attraction) (also ''memikṣūs'')
* ''svāṣṭa'' (armor) → ''svāṣṭyai'' (armored knight)
* ''tṛl-'' (to know, understand) → ''tṛlgarim'' (rule) (not synonymous with ''tartṛlsūs'', meaning "needed knowledge, prerequisite")
* ''bilumbida'' (sodium) + ''talyelīm'' (chlorine) → ''bilumbītalyelīyai'' (sodium chloride)


'''-ьai''' (often with lengthening) forms nouns with the meaning of "pertaining to", generally applied to nouns denoting inanimate (but usually concrete) concepts. Such nouns are found in literature with an anaphorical use.<br/>It is commonly found in Chlouvānem surnames. In chemistry, it denotes binary compounds, usually with a dvandva stem.
'''-ceh''', '''-cænah''', and '''-cañīh''' (all often with palatalization of the last consonant) are three different (but with roughly the same meaning) diminutive-forming suffixes; some of them have developed distinct meanings. They can also be compounded, as in '''-cæñ-cañīh''':
* ''vīhatam''(farm) → ''vīhātiai'' (farmer; farm's)
* ''nūrya'' (child) → ''nūricænah'' (little child)
* ''svāṣṭa'' (armor) → ''svāṣṭyai'' (armored knight)
* ''ēmīla'' (tiger) → ''ēmīlcañīh'' (cat)
* ''bilumbida'' (sodium) + ''talielīm'' (chlorine) → ''bilumbītalielīyai'' (sodium chloride)
* ''pǣka'' (taste) → ''pǣcicænah'' (hors d'œuvre, entrée)


'''-ceh''', '''-cænah''', and '''-cañēh''' (all often with palatalization of the last consonant) are three different (but with roughly the same meaning) diminutive-forming suffixes; some of them have developed distinct meanings. They can also be compounded, as in '''-cæñ-cañēh''':
Similarly, '''-rarā''' (a likely Laiputaši borrowing) is used as an augmentative, but is only found in informal styles.
* ''samin'' (child) → ''samiñcænah'' (little child)
* ''dårṣa'' (cool, nice) → ''dårṣararā'' (fantastic)
* ''ēmīla'' (tiger) → ''ēmīlcañēh'' (cat)
* ''jāmṝṣa'' (dam) → ''jāmṝṣararā'' (a huge dam)
* ''pǣka'' (taste) →''pǣcicænah'' (hors d'œuvre, entrée)
* ''alūs'' (bottle) → ''alūrarā'' (a big bottle)


===Verbs===
===Verb-forming morphemes===
Denominal verbs, in Chlouvānem, are not formed with derivational suffixes; a "light verb" is attached to the semantic root instead; the semantic root remains invariable but the light verb is conjugated (as a prefixed one). The light verb used are especially ''dṛke'' (to do, make), but also ''jilde'' (to do an action), ''jānake'' (to feel (physical)), and ''gyake'' (to be). Some examples:
Denominal verbs, in Chlouvānem, are not formed with derivational suffixes; a "light verb" is attached to the semantic root instead; the semantic root remains invariable but the light verb is conjugated (as a prefixed one). The light verb used are especially ''dṛke'' (to do, make), but also ''jilde'' (to do an action), ''jānake'' (to feel (physical)), and ''gyake'' (to be). Some examples:
* ''āmaya'' (collection) → ''āmayadṛke'' (to collect)
* ''āmaya'' (collection) → ''āmayadṛke'' (to collect)
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The other basic derived formation is the frequentative verb, formed with reduplication (with a long vowel) and '''-ve(y)-''' (''-vi(y)-'' in the past tense<ref>Ex.: ''dṝdaveyute'' "I repetitively do" vs. ''dṝdaviyaute'' "I repetitively did"</ref>). ''-ṛ'' reduplicates as ''ṝ'', but becomes ''a'' in the root.<br/>Due to the common use of this form in modern Chlouvānem, some grammarians consider it as an inflectional category instead of a derivation. Note though that for motion verbs only multidirectional ones have a frequentative form (with iterative meaning); the multidirectionals already act as frequentative forms of the monodirectionals.
The other basic derived formation is the frequentative verb, formed with reduplication (with a long vowel) and '''-ve(y)-''' (''-vi(y)-'' in the past tense<ref>Ex.: ''dṝdaveyute'' "I repetitively do" vs. ''dṝdaviyaute'' "I repetitively did"</ref>). ''-ṛ'' reduplicates as ''ṝ'', but becomes ''a'' in the root.<br/>Due to the common use of this form in modern Chlouvānem, some grammarians consider it as an inflectional category instead of a derivation. Note though that for motion verbs only multidirectional ones have a frequentative form (with iterative meaning); the multidirectionals already act as frequentative forms of the monodirectionals.
* ''dṛ-'' (to do) → ''dṝdave-'' (to repetitively do)
* ''dṛ-'' (to do) → ''dṝdave-'' (to repetitively do)
* ''na-jalь-'' (to happen) → ''najājlive-'' (to keep happening; to regularly happen, to occur)<ref>The verb "to happen" does not exist as an iterative.</ref> (''jalь-'' reduplicates as ''jā-jli-'', with the ''i'' from the root ''y'').
* ''na-jaly-'' (to happen) → ''najājlive-'' (to keep happening; to regularly happen, to occur)<ref>The verb "to happen" does not exist as an iterative.</ref> (''jaly-'' reduplicates as ''jā-jli-'', with the ''i'' from the root ''y'').
* ''-jalь-'' (to be) + various prefixes → ''bījājlive-'' (to cease to be); ''galajājlive-'' (to remain in one place; to visit; to keep being)
* ''-jaly-'' (to be) + various prefixes → ''bījājlive-'' (to cease to be); ''galajājlive-'' (to remain in one place; to visit; to keep being)
* ''tvorg-'' (to fear) → ''totvargve-'' (to fear over and over again) (''tvo-'' reduplicates as ''to-'' instead of ''tva-'').
* ''tvorg-'' (to fear) → ''totvargve-'' (to fear over and over again) (''tvo-'' reduplicates as ''to-'' instead of ''tva-'').
* ''låvy-'' (to slip) → ''laulavive-'' (to slip around here and there) (''-å-'' reduplicates as ''-au-'' and becomes ''a'' in the root).
* ''låvy-'' (to slip) → ''laulavive-'' (to slip around here and there) (''-å-'' reduplicates as ''-au-'' and becomes ''a'' in the root).
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Frequentative perfect stems have the ablauted vowel in the reduplication and a long one in the root (cf. ''miš-'', bare frequentative ''mīmišve-'', perfect frequentative ''memīšve-''); both vowels are long for non-ablauted stems (cf. ''nāmv-'', ''nānamve-'', ''nānāmve-'').<br/>
Frequentative perfect stems have the ablauted vowel in the reduplication and a long one in the root (cf. ''miš-'', bare frequentative ''mīmišve-'', perfect frequentative ''memīšve-''); both vowels are long for non-ablauted stems (cf. ''nāmv-'', ''nānamve-'', ''nānāmve-'').<br/>
Inverse ablauting roots have similar rules: the bare frequentative uses the reduplication of the nonreduced root and the reduced vowel in the root itself (''vald-'' → va-uld-ve- → ''voldve-''); the frequentative perfect is like the normal frequentative of other verbs, with the long vowel in the reduplication only (''vald-'' → ''vāvaldve-'').
Inverse ablauting roots have similar rules: the bare frequentative uses the reduplication of the nonreduced root and the reduced vowel in the root itself (''vald-'' → va-uld-ve- → ''voldve-''); the frequentative perfect is like the normal frequentative of other verbs, with the long vowel in the reduplication only (''vald-'' → ''vāvaldve-'').
In many cases, frequentatives are used with an iterative meaning; the latter, if needed for disambiguation, may be specified by the particle ''dīdān''.


====Adjectival verbs====
====Adjectival verbs====
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* ''lgut'' (to buy) → ''lgutniltake'' (buyable) → ''ulgutniltake'' (not buyable)
* ''lgut'' (to buy) → ''lgutniltake'' (buyable) → ''ulgutniltake'' (not buyable)


'''-ṣeni-ke''' (morph. ''senь-ke'', all root verbs) translates "having X as a quality", usually added to nouns, or "X-like" in some cases; it may be synonymous with the ''-dhūs'' derivative. ''u-'' and ''i-'' stems (thus ''-uh'', ''-ih'', ''-us''...) lengthen that vowel before the suffix.
'''-ṣeni-ke''' (morph. ''seny-ke'', all root verbs) translates "having X as a quality", usually added to nouns, or "X-like" in some cases; it may be synonymous with the ''-dhūs'' derivative. ''u-'' and ''i-'' stems (thus ''-uh'', ''-ih'', ''-us''...) lengthen that vowel before the suffix.
* ''rahēlah'' (health) → ''rahēlṣenike'' (healthy)
* ''rahēlah'' (health) → ''rahēlṣenike'' (healthy)
* ''nakṣuma'' (music) → ''nakṣuṃṣenike'' (having a musical talent)
* ''nakṣuma'' (music) → ''nakṣuṃṣenike'' (having a musical talent)
* ''meimairuh'' (emerald) → ''meimairūṣenike'' (emeraldine, emerald-like)
* ''migmairuh'' (emerald) → ''migmairūṣenike'' (emeraldine, emerald-like)


====Compound verbs====
====Compound verbs====
Chlouvānem uses compound verbs as its main method of deriving verbs from nouns. Such "verbs" are actually a nominal root which does not decline followed by a conjugating verb. The verb used influences the meaning that the compound will have:
Chlouvānem uses compound verbs as its main method of deriving verbs from nouns. Such "verbs" are actually a nominal root which does not decline followed by a conjugating verb. The verb used influences the meaning that the compound will have:
* ''dṛke'' (to do) is probably the most commonly used, and may have a meaning of using something (denoted by the nominal root) to treat something else (cf. ''bikṣurdṛke'' "to deodorize" < ''bikṣurga'' "deodorant"), of moving or acting like the nominal root (''yināṃdṛke'' "to protect" < ''yinām'' "protection"), or of simply having or creating something (''āmayadṛke'' "to collect" < ''āmaya'' "collection").
* ''dṛke'' (to do) is probably the most commonly used, and may have a meaning of using something (denoted by the nominal root) to treat something else (cf. ''bikṣurdṛke'' "to deodorize" < ''bikṣurga'' "deodorant"), of moving or acting like the nominal root (''yināṃdṛke'' "to protect" < ''yinām'' "protection"), or of simply having or creating something (''āmayadṛke'' "to collect" < ''āmaya'' "collection").
* ''kitte'' (to put) is used for a meaning of addition of the nominal root or its characteristics to something (cf. ''nanūkkitte'' "to add salt" < ''nanūkah'' "salt).
* ''kitte'' (to put) is used for a meaning of addition of the nominal root or its characteristics to something (cf. ''nāmṛkitte'' "to add salt" < ''nāṃra'' "salt).
* ''męlike'' (to give) is sometimes used with the same meaning as ''kitte'' (cf. ''juniāmęlike'' "to plant flowers" < ''juniā'' "flower").
* ''męlike'' (to give) is sometimes used with the same meaning as ''kitte'' (cf. ''junyāmęlike'' "to plant flowers" < ''junyā'' "flower").
* ''jilde'' (to act) is used for subjects "emitting" or "giving off" something (cf. ''lāhajilde'' "to judge" < ''lāham'' "judgement"), also for subjects possessing (''dhokajilde'' "to mean" < ''dhokam'' "meaning") or undergoing something (''lañšijilde'' "to marry" < ''lañši'' (arch.) braid, wedding), and also for weather phenomena<ref>Rain, specifically, is more commonly used as the subject of the verb ''buñjñake'', meaning "to run" for water (in Chl. rain runs just like a river does).</ref> (''dašajilde'' "to rain" < ''daša'' "rain").
* ''jilde'' (to act) is used for subjects "emitting" or "giving off" something (cf. ''lāhajilde'' "to judge" < ''lāham'' "judgement"), also for subjects possessing (''dhokajilde'' "to mean" < ''dhokam'' "meaning") or undergoing something (''lañšijilde'' "to marry" < ''lañši'' (arch.) braid, wedding), and also for weather phenomena<ref>Rain, specifically, is more commonly used as the subject of the verb ''buñjñake'', meaning "to run" for water (in Chl. rain runs just like a river does).</ref> (''dašajilde'' "to rain" < ''daša'' "rain").
* ''gyake'' (to be) is used, like in one meaning of ''dṛke'', for moving or acting like the nominal root. Typically, it is more for states than actions (the prototypical and most common example is ''pṛšcāṃgyake'' "to be pleasing" < ''pṛšcām'' "something pleasing"<ref>The word ''pṛšcām'' alone is almost never used in contemporary Chlouvānem.</ref>).
* ''gyake'' (to be) is used, like in one meaning of ''dṛke'', for moving or acting like the nominal root. Typically, it is more for states than actions (the prototypical and most common example is ''pṛšcāṃgyake'' "to be pleasing" < ''pṛšcām'' "something pleasing"<ref>The word ''pṛšcām'' alone is almost never used in contemporary Chlouvānem.</ref>).
* ''jānake'' (to feel) has a meaning partially overlapping with ''gyake'' (and ''dṛke''), particularly marking the "feeling" of a (usually uncontrollable) condition (''jålkhajānake'' "to be cold" < ''jålkha'' "cold").
* ''jānake'' (to feel) has a meaning partially overlapping with ''jalle'' (and ''dṛke''), particularly marking the "feeling" of a (usually uncontrollable) condition (''jålkhajānake'' "to be cold" < ''jålkha'' "cold").
* ''milke'' (to take) has a varied range of meaning: getting or gathering something (''vīrādhmilke'' "to adopt" < ''vīrādhen'' "orphan";  ''mailьlut(a)milke'' "to take advantage" < ''mailьluta'' "advantage"), also the opposite, taking something away (cf. ''rantamilke'' "to peel (fruits)" < ''rantas'' "peel"), and also overlapping partially with ''kitte'' and ''męlike'' in marking the addition of something or, more, properly, the act of bringing something (''prātamilke'' "to get windy; (''figur.'') to accelerate" < ''prātas'' "wind" - cf. ''prātajilde'' "to be windy").
* ''milke'' (to take) has a varied range of meaning: getting or gathering something (''vīrādhmilke'' "to adopt" < ''vīrādhen'' "orphan";  ''mailьlut(a)milke'' "to take advantage" < ''mailьluta'' "advantage"), also the opposite, taking something away (cf. ''rantamilke'' "to peel (fruits)" < ''rantas'' "peel"), and also overlapping partially with ''kitte'' and ''męlike'' in marking the addition of something or, more, properly, the act of bringing something (''prātamilke'' "to get windy; (''figur.'') to accelerate" < ''prātas'' "wind" - cf. ''prātajilde'' "to be windy").
* ''bismilke'' (to take away) and ''bīdṛke'' (to destroy) are used, more commonly than ''milke'', for the meaning of removing or taking something away: (''ssūbismilke'' "to calm down" < ''ssūgis'' "something that worries"; ''lilembīdṛke'' "(''euphem.'') to kill" < ''liloe'' "life").
* ''bismilke'' (to take away) and ''bīdṛke'' (to destroy) are used, more commonly than ''milke'', for the meaning of removing or taking something away: (''ssūbismilke'' "to calm down" < ''ssūgis'' "something that worries"; ''lilembīdṛke'' "(''euphem.'') to kill" < ''liloe'' "life").
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* ''ān- 〜 yana-'' - on, above
* ''ān- 〜 yana-'' - on, above
* ''šu- 〜 šer-'' - under, below
* ''šu- 〜 šer-'' - under, below
* ''khl- 〜 kelь-'' - between
* ''ṭvā- 〜 ṭus-'' - between
* ''gin- 〜 ją-'' - among
* ''gin- 〜 ją-'' - among
* ''nī- 〜 ani-'' - within/from within inside
* ''nī- 〜 ani-'' - within/from within inside
* ''ū(b)- 〜 yom-'' - close to
* ''ū(b)- 〜 yom-'' - close to
* ''bis- 〜 bara-'' - far, away
* ''bis- 〜 bara-'' - far, away
* ''tad- 〜 tasi-'' - attached to; against
* ''tad-'' <small>(''tata-'' before '''l''')</small> ''〜 tasi-'' - attached to; against
* ''įs- 〜 hos-'' - hanging
* ''įs- 〜 įṣu-'' - hanging
* ''na(ñ)- 〜 neni-'' - inside
* ''na(ñ)- 〜 nani-'' - inside
* ''kau- 〜 kuvi-'' - outside
* ''kau- 〜 kuvi-'' - outside
* ''viṣ- 〜 vyeṣa-'' - opposite; somewhere else
* ''viṣ- 〜 vyeṣa-'' - opposite; somewhere else
* ''kami- 〜 kįla-'' - around
* ''kami- 〜 kara-'' - around
* ''prь- 〜 paro-'' - behind
* ''pri- 〜 prā-'' - behind
* ''mai- 〜 mīram-'' - in front of
* ''mai- 〜 mīram-'' - in front of
* ''vai- 〜 vǣ-'' - in a corner; bordering; at the limit
* ''vai- 〜 vǣ-'' - in a corner; bordering; at the limit
Line 2,094: Line 1,871:
* ''māha- 〜 mege-'' - right
* ''māha- 〜 mege-'' - right
* ''pid-'' - facing (positional only)
* ''pid-'' - facing (positional only)
* ''nalь-'' - towards the center; inwards; convergent movement
* ''nal-'' - towards the center; inwards; convergent movement
* ''vād-'' - away from the center; outwards; divergent movement
* ''vād-'' - away from the center; outwards; divergent movement


Line 2,110: Line 1,887:
* ''yā-'' - too much
* ''yā-'' - too much
* ''iva-'' - completely, also intensive
* ''iva-'' - completely, also intensive
* ''nare-'' - applicative (''nar-'' before another prefix)
* ''nare-'' - applicative (''nar-'' before another prefix, cf. the common form ''narta-'' for "to reach"-verbs)
* ''min-'' - transitivizer of intransitive verbs
* ''min-'' - transitivizer of intransitive verbs


====Other prefixes====
====Other prefixes====
* ''o-'' - before, pre-, proto-, preceding (''os-'' before vowels)
* ''o-'' - before, pre-, proto-, preceding (''os-'' before vowels)
* ''tailь-'' - multi-, pluri-
* ''tail-'' - multi-, pluri-
* ''emib(u)-'' or ''tūt(u)-'' - one, mono-, uni-, homo-
* ''emib(u)-'' or ''tūt(u)-'' - one, mono-, uni-, homo-
* ''lani-'' - same, fellow
* ''lani-'' - same, fellow
Line 2,122: Line 1,899:


===Specific terms===
===Specific terms===
Derivational terms considered "specific" are those mostly found in certain jargons. Some of these are applied directly to an Ancient Kūṣṛmāthi root instead of a Chlouvānem one:
Derivational terms considered "specific" are those mostly found in certain jargons. Some of these are applied directly to a Lällshag root instead of a Chlouvānem one:


Used in politics and/or the arts:
Used in politics and/or the arts:
* '''-nædani''' has two main meanings: ''-ism'' (as in a doctrine) in a political sense, and ''-esque'' in the arts, cf. ''yaivcārṇædani'' "communism" (< ''yaiva'' "all", ''cār-'' "to have"), or ''lanæmiainædani'' "in the style of writer Nariejūramāvi Lanæmiai ''Mæmihomah''".
* '''-nātra''' has two main meanings: ''-ism'' (as in a doctrine) in a political sense, and ''-esque'' in the arts, cf. ''yaivcārṇātra'' "communism" (< ''yaiva'' "all", ''cār-'' "to have"), or ''lānūṣurṇātra'' "in the style of writer Naryejūramāvi Lānūṣurah ''Mæmihomah''".
** '''-nædǣnah''' is the term for a person that follows such a doctrine or style, cf. ''yaivcārṇædǣnah'' "communist"; ''lanæmiainædǣnah'' "someone whose writing is Lanæmiaiësque".
** '''-nātryūs''' (← ''-nātra-yūs'') is the term for a person that follows such a doctrine or style, cf. ''yaivcārṇātryūs'' "communist"; ''lānūṣurṇātryūs'' "someone whose writing is Lānūṣuraësque".
** Note that ''lija'' and ''lejīn'' (lit. "song" and "singer") were formerly alternatives to these. They notably remain in ''nāɂahilūṃlija'' "politico-religious doctrine inspired by Great Inquisitor Kælahīmāvi Nāʔahilūma ''Martayinām''; Yunyalīlti religious extremism" and ''nāɂahilūṃlejīn'', as well as in ''arāmilija'' "pacifism".
** Note that ''lija'' and ''lejīn'' (lit. "song" and "singer") were formerly alternatives to these. They notably remain in ''nāɂahilūṃlija'' "politico-religious doctrine inspired by Great Inquisitor Kælahīmāvi Nāɂahilūma ''Martayinām''; Yunyalīlti religious extremism" and ''nāɂahilūṃlejīn'', as well as in ''arāmilija'' "pacifism".


Used for medical terminology:
Used for medical terminology:
* '''-gulas''' usually translates "-philia" or "-mania", particularly in medical contexts, e.g. ''ryukagulas'' "masochism" from ''ryuka'' "pain".
* '''-gulas''' usually translates "-philia" or "-mania", particularly in medical contexts, e.g. ''ryukagulas'' "masochism" from ''ryuka'' "pain".
** '''-gulašåliē''' is the related term for someone who has that (thus "-philiac" or "-maniac"), e.g. ''ryukagulašåliē'' "masochist".
** '''-gulašålyē''' is the related term for someone who has that (thus "-philiac" or "-maniac"), e.g. ''ryukagulašålyē'' "masochist".
* '''-ræṣka''' is a generic term used in medicine for names of illnesses or conditions affecting health, e.g. ''nalekiræṣka'' "obesity" from Lällshag ''naleki'' "fat"; ''vrayegårlæṣka'' "dysphagia" (note dissimilation of -rr-) from ''vre-'' (bad) and ''egåram'' (stomach).
* '''-rauga''' is a generic term used in medicine for names of illnesses or conditions affecting health, e.g. ''gåtnirauga'' "obesity" from ''gåtnake'' "to vomit"; ''skañcrauga'' "insomnia" from ''skañcake'' (to be awake at night).
** '''-ræṣkanis''' is the term for someone affected by a ''rauga'', e.g. ''nalekiræṣkanis'' "obese", ''vrayegårlæṣkanis'' "dysphagic".
** '''-raugotis''' is the term for someone affected by a ''-rauga'', e.g. ''skañcraugotis'' "insomniac".
* '''-ītsun''' is a rarer alternative to ''-rauga'', e.g. ''vrayobulītsun'' "asplenia" (''vre-'' (bad) + ''obula'' (spleen)), or ''lagukītsun'' "paralysis" (the latter with the root of Lällshag ''gahoke'' (still)).
* '''-ītsun''' is a rarer alternative to ''-ræṣka'', e.g. ''vrayobulītsun'' "asplenia" (''vre-'' (bad) + ''obula'' (spleen)), or ''lagukītsun'' "paralysis" (the latter with the root of Lällshag ''gahoke'' (still)).
** '''-ītsunis''' is the corresponding term for affected organisms, e.g. ''vrayobulītsunis'' "aspleniac", ''lagukītsunis'' "paralyzed".
** '''-ītsunis''' is the corresponding term for affected organisms, e.g. ''vrayobulītsunis'' "aspleniac", ''lagukītsunis'' "paralyzed".
* '''-yūtan''' is used for inflammatory diseases, cf. "-itis", like ''ṇīṭyūtan'' (dermatitis) or ''āḍhyāsnūliyūtan'' (meningitis).
* '''-måkṣan''' is used for inflammatory diseases, cf. "-itis", like ''ṇīṭmåkṣan'' (dermatitis) or ''āḍhyāsnūlimåkṣan'' (meningitis).


===Compounding===
====Compounding====
* '''tarlā''' (knowledge) is used as the head element of compounds, with a meaning like ''-logy'' in English. Sometimes the meaning is only abstracted (see second example) or has changed with time (see third example):
* '''tarlā''' (knowledge) is used as the head element of compounds, with a meaning like ''-logy'' in English. Sometimes the meaning is only abstracted (see second example) or has changed with time (see third example):
** ''bhælā'' (land) → ''bhælātarlā'' (geography)
** ''babhrām'' (land) → ''babhrātarlā'' (geography)
** ''niañ-'' (to count, to enumerate) → ''niañatarlā'' (mathematics)
** ''smoḍ-'' (to count, to enumerate) → ''smoṇḍarlā'' (mathematics)
** ''ladragyalah'' (inn) → ''ladragyaltarlā'' (economics)
** ''ladragyalah'' (inn) → ''ladragyaltarlā'' (economics)
==See also==
* [[Chlouvānem/Syntax|Chlouvānem syntax]]
* [[Chlouvānem/Positional and motion verbs|Chlouvānem positional and motion verbs]]
* [[Chlouvānem/Exterior and interior verbs|Chlouvānem exterior and interior verbs]]


== Notes ==
== Notes ==


[[Category:Chlouvānem]]
[[Category:Chlouvānem]]

Latest revision as of 13:12, 2 September 2021

Chlouvānem is a highly inflected language with a synthetic morphology. Five parts of speech are traditionally distinguished: nouns, verbs, pronouns, numerals, and particles. Throughout the page there will be references to the topics treated in the pages on Chlouvānem syntax, positional and motion verbs, and exterior and interior verbs.

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Nouns (halenī)

→ See Lahob languages § Morphology for diachronical tables and comparisons with sister languages.
→ See also Chlouvānem syntax § Noun phrase for discussion of case usage.

The Chlouvānem noun (haloe, pl. halenī) is highly inflected - it declines for:


  • Three numbers:
Singular (emibausire smoḍūm)
Dual (danyausire smoḍūm)
Plural (tailyausire smoḍūm)
  • Twelve cases:

Direct (daradhūkire dirūnnevya)
Vocative (halausire dirūnnevya)

Accusative (dṛṣokire dirūnnevya)
Ergative (darinūkire dirūnnevya)
Genitive (cārūkire dirūnnevya)

Translative (najamarcūkire dirūnnevya)

Exessive (nanijamarcūkire dirūnnevya)
Essive (jalausire dirūnnevya)
Dative (męlyausire dirūnnevya)
Ablative (tųlunūkire dirūnnevya)
Locative (yuñcūkire dirūnnevya)
Instrumental (drausire dirūnnevya)

There are a few nouns which lack number; a few are singularia tantum and lack a plural (e.g. hærūm lips), other ones are plural only - most notably these include all ethnicities (e.g. chlǣvānem, which is also an irregular plural). The singular is made by using the genitive form attributed to lila (person), e.g. chlǣvānumi lila (a Chlouvānem).

Chlouvānem does not have grammatical gender, and there are only a few natural gender terms. There are thirteen different noun declensions, but most of them only have few small differences. Chlouvānem declensions are predictable from the ending of the direct case noun, and they're categorized depending on their endings as s-, m-, or h-nouns[1]: inside these broad categories, different declensions are distinguished by the thematic vowel of the suffix: a, u, or i for s- and m-nouns, and a, e, u, i for h-nouns.

S-nouns - Sasą lā halenī

There are some traits which are common to all nominal declensions: the vocative is only distinct in the singular; in the dual there is also no distinction between translative and dative, essive and locative, and between exessive, ablative, and instrumental. In the plural, the exessive and ablative also share the same form, as do the essive plural and the ergative dual.

1-s (-as, -ās)
Case Singular Dual Plural
Direct prātas
"wind"		 prātāt prāte
Vocative prātau
Accusative prātu prātāṣa prataih
Ergative prātei prātāya prātān
Genitive prāti prāteva prātumi
Translative prātan prātaus prātāmān
Exessive prātat prātābhan prātenīs
Essive prātą prātigin prātāya
Dative prātom prātaus prātasām
Ablative prātų prātābhan prātenīs
Locative prāte prātigin prātilīm
Instrumental prātap prātābhan prātenīka

2-s (-us, -ūs)
Case Singular Dual Plural
Direct haɂrus
"squid"		 haɂrūt haɂraus
Vocative haɂru
Accusative haɂravu haɂrūṣa haɂravih
Ergative haɂrave haɂrūya haɂrūn
Genitive haɂravi haɂragva haɂrǣmi
Translative haɂrun haɂrugus haɂromān
Exessive haɂrut haɂrobhan haɂruṇīs1
Essive haɂrą haɂrugin haɂrūya
Dative haɂravom haɂrugus haɂrusām
Ablative haɂrų haɂrobhan haɂruṇīs1
Locative haɂrave haɂrugin haɂrulīm
Instrumental haɂrup haɂrobhan haɂruṇīka1

3-s (-is, -īs)
Case Singular Dual Plural
Direct ḍhogis
"monument"		 ḍhogīt ḍhogais
Vocative ḍhogi
Accusative ḍhogayu ḍhogīṣa ḍhogaih
Ergative ḍhogaye ḍhogīya ḍhogīn
Genitive ḍhogayi ḍhogajña ḍhogyumi
Translative ḍhogin ḍhogigus ḍhogemān
Exessive ḍhogit ḍhogebhan ḍhogenīs
Essive ḍhogę ḍhogigin ḍhogīya
Dative ḍhogayom ḍhogigus ḍhogisām
Ablative ḍhogyų ḍhogebhan ḍhogenīs
Locative ḍhogaye ḍhogigin ḍhogilīm
Instrumental ḍhogip ḍhogebhan ḍhoginīka

Table notes:

  1. The ending is -unīs/-unīka; the n → ṇ shift is a case of regular saṃdhi.

Also note that modern borrowings ending in [s] typically add a further case ending, e.g. Skyrdagor valtasz (nunatak) becomes Chlouvānem valtasas (same meaning), declining as valtasau, valtasu, valtasei...

M-nouns - Mamą lā halenī

1-m (-am, -ām)
Case Singular Dual Plural
Direct yujam
"lotus"		 yujivā yujāk
Vocative yujā
Accusative yujamu yujmes yujmaih
Ergative yujmæ yujmyan yujamūn
Genitive yujami yujmeva yujaṃrān
Translative yujaman yujmį yujamān
Exessive yujamat yujabhan yujmenīs
Essive yujmą yujmenne yujmyan
Dative yujamom yujmį yujaṃsām
Ablative yujamų yujabhan yujmenīs
Locative yujaṃrye yujmenne yujmilīm
Instrumental yujamap yujabhan yujaṃrīka

2-m (-um, -ūm)
Case Singular Dual Plural
Direct tūlum
"worm"		 tūlvivā tūlūk
Vocative tūlve
Accusative tūlumu tūlves tūluyih
Ergative tūluga tūlvyan tūlumūn
Genitive tūlumi tūlveva tūluṃrān
Translative tūluman tūlvį tūlumān
Exessive tūlumat tūlubhan tūlvenīs
Essive tūlų tūlunne tūlvyan
Dative tūlumom tūlvį tūluṃsām
Ablative tūlumų tūlubhan tūlvenīs
Locative tūluṃrye tūlunne tūlulīm
Instrumental tūlumap tūlubhan tūluṃrīka

3-m (-im, -īm)
Case Singular Dual Plural
Direct jāyim
"girl"		 jāyīvā jāyīk
Vocative jāyī
Accusative jāyimu jājñes1 jāyīh
Ergative jājña1 jāyiyan jāyimūn
Genitive jāyimi jājñeva1 jāyiṃran
Translative jāyiman jāyį jāyimān
Exessive jāyimat jāyibhan jājñenīs1
Essive jāyį jāyinne jāyiyan
Dative jāyimom jāyį jāyiṃsam
Ablative jāyimų jāyibhan jājñenīs1
Locative jāyiṃrye jāyinne jāyilīm
Instrumental jāyimap jāyibhan jāyiṃrīka

{ Table notes:

  1. Such forms with -jñ- are underlyingly -y-y- (e.g. jāy-y-es → jājñes).

H-nouns - Hahą lā halenī

1-h (-a, -ā, (-ah, -āh), -o1)
Case Singular Dual Plural
Direct māra
"mango"		 mārāt mārai
Vocative māre
Accusative māru mārāṣa māraih
Ergative mārei mārāra mārān
Genitive māri2 māreva mārumi
Translative māran mārarį māremān
Exessive mārat mārabhan mārenīs
Essive māręs māranne mārāra
Dative mārom mārarį māresām
Ablative mārų mārabhan mārenīs
Locative māre māranne mārelīm
Instrumental mārap mārabhan mārenīka

2-h (-ē, -eh, -ǣh3)
Case Singular Dual Plural
Direct javileh
"apple"		 javilyāt javilyai
Vocative javilei
Accusative javilyu javilēṣa javileih
Ergative javilei javilyāra javilyān
Genitive javili javileva4 javilyumi
Translative javilen javilerį javilemān
Exessive javilet javilebhan javilenīs
Essive javilęs javilenne javilyāra
Dative javilyom javilerį javilesām
Ablative javilyų javilebhan javilenīs
Locative javilye javilenne javilelīm
Instrumental javilep javilebhan javilenīka

3-h (-uh, -ūh, -u5)
Case Singular Dual Plural
Direct ñaɂuh
"fruit skin"		 ñaɂūt ñaɂūvi
Vocative ñaɂū
Accusative ñaɂunu ñaɂūṣa ñaɂuyih
Ergative ñaɂuyei ñaɂura ñaɂun
Genitive ñaɂuyi ñaɂuva ñaɂūmi
Translative ñaɂun ñaɂurį ñaɂumān
Exessive ñaɂut ñaɂubhan ñaɂunīs
Essive ñaɂųs ñaɂunne ñaɂura
Dative ñaɂuvom ñaɂurį ñaɂusām
Ablative ñaɂuvų ñaɂubhan ñaɂunīs
Locative ñaɂuve ñaɂunne ñaɂulīm
Instrumental ñaɂup ñaɂubhan ñaɂunīka

4-m (-ih, -īh, -i6)
Case Singular Dual Plural
Direct ghārṭih
"arrow"		 ghārṭīt ghārṭeyi
Vocative ghārṭī
Accusative ghārṭyu ghārṭīṣa ghārṭeyih
Ergative ghārṭyei ghārṭira ghārṭin
Genitive ghārṭīyi ghārṭiva ghārṭyumi
Translative ghārṭin ghārṭirį ghārṭimān
Exessive ghārṭit ghārṭibhan ghārṭinīs
Essive ghārṭįs ghārṭinne ghārṭira
Dative ghārṭyom ghārṭirį ghārṭisām
Ablative ghārṭyų ghārṭibhan ghārṭinīs
Locative ghārṭye ghārṭinne ghārṭilīm
Instrumental ghārṭip ghārṭibhan ghārṭinīka

1-h (h-paradigm)
Case Singular Dual Plural
Direct raiṇah
"(piece of) cloth"		 raiṇāt raiṇai
Vocative raiṇe
Accusative raiṇu raiṇāṣa raiṇaih
Ergative raiṇei raiṇāra raiṇān
Genitive raiṇi2 raiṇeva raiṇumi
Translative raiṇan raiṇarį raiṇamān
Exessive raiṇat raiṇabhan raiṇenīs
Essive raiṇęs raiṇanne raiṇāra
Dative raiṇom raiṇarį raiṇasām
Ablative raiṇų raiṇabhan raiṇanīs
Locative raiṇe raiṇanne raiṇalīm
Instrumental raiṇap raiṇabhan raiṇanīka

The h-paradigm used by nouns in -ah and -āh is substantially identical to the regular 1-h one, except for the exessive, dative, ablative, locative, and instrumental plural which have -a- instead of -e- as a linking vowel and, for some nouns, the genitive singular (see table note 2).

Table notes:

  1. -o nouns are mostly toponyms of Toyubeshian origins; they decline like -a nouns, with their ending being treated as *-a-u, with the -a part of the stem; e.g. Paramito, locative Paramitai (underlying form Paramit-a-e).
  2. -ya, and -yā nouns form the genitive singular in -ei (e.g. lalyā "night" → lalei). Nouns in -yah, and -yāh, however, have the regular ending (e.g. yamyah "fog" → yamyi).
  3. All -ǣh nouns are of Lällshag origin, and are mostly toponyms (like Laikunanǣh), with some exceptions like the two lunar days kælyaunænǣh and yeicapænǣh. Note that such nouns have their genitive singular in -ǣyi and not in -ī.
  4. In older texts -eiva (e.g. javileiva), today only used in literature for an archaïzing effect or to mark a character speaking with a Northern Plain pronunciation (where this form survives in the spoken language).
  5. Mostly regional Western words of Dabuke origin.
  6. Non-productive with borrowings, but common in native words.

Special declensions

Ablaut declension
Case Singular Dual Plural
Direct lila
"person"		 lilāt lelyē
Vocative
Accusative lilu lilāṣa lelyu
Ergative lilei lilāra lelyei
Genitive leli lileva laili
Translative lilan lilarį lelyan
Exessive lilat lilabhan lelyat
Essive liląs lilanne lailąs
Dative lilom lilarį lelyom
Ablative lilų lilabhan lelyų
Locative lile lilanne laile
Instrumental lilap lilabhan lelyap

-oe declension
Case Singular Dual Plural
Direct haloe
"name"		 halenāt halenī
Vocative
Accusative halenu halenāṣa halenaih
Ergative halenei halenāya halenān
Genitive haleni halemva haloemi
Translative halenan halenaus haloemān
Exessive halenat haloebhan haloenīs
Essive halen haloegin halenāya
Dative halenom halenaus haloesām
Ablative halenų haloebhan haloenīs
Locative halenye haloegin halenilīm
Instrumental halenap haloebhan haloenīka

-ai declension
Case Singular Dual Plural
Direct lunai
"tea"		 lunaiva lunāye
Vocative
Accusative lunāyu lunāyes lunāyaih
Ergative lunǣ lunāyēn lunāyūn
Genitive lunāyi lunaiva lunāyān
Translative lunain lunāyį lunaimān
Exessive lunait lunaibhan lunǣnīs
Essive lunąis lunainne lunāyēn
Dative lunāyom lunāyį lunaisām
Ablative lunāyų lunaibhan lunǣnīs
Locative lunāye lunainne lunailīm
Instrumental lunaip lunaibhan lunainīka

The ablaut declension is in the singular (except for the vocative and essive) and dual the same as the 1-h one, including the -ei rule for the genitive singular (e.g. rinya "ceiling", gen.sg. renei), except for the fact that the genitive singular has a middle-grade vowel. The plural has mostly the same endings as the singular but with middle-grade vowels in most forms (genitive, essive, and locative have a higher-grade one). -y- is inserted between the stem and the ending, but not for nouns ending in -ya (rinya → renyē).
The vowel that undergoes ablaut is usually the penultimate (e.g. plušamila "Office of the Inquisition", plural plušamelyē), but in some cases it's the first (e.g. kimeda (a type of panther), plural kemedyē).

Hypocoristic forms of male names, which end in -em and are only used in the singular, are declined following a mix of the 1-m and 1-h patterns. In fact, they follow the 1-m pattern (the -am paradigm) except for the ergative (in -emei instead of *-(e)mæ) and the essive (in -ęs instead of *-(e)mą). For example the hypocoristicon Kælem has ergative Kælemei and essive Kælęs.

Singularia and pluralia tantum

Pluralia tantum in Chlouvānem include the following words or categories of words:

  1. many collective nouns:

    pārāk "hair", kāraṇḍhai "guts", yūgure "limbs", agṇyaucai "sons and daughters", vailašaus "cutlery", šūlyakāše "dishes"
  2. things that are heterogeneous in form but considered as a single entity:
    katanai "clutter", dūḍhvai "banquet, buffet", vārṇaigīk (a type of sandals made from straw rope), ḍheṃlatiryai "streaming"[2], ltælime "magic", ṣrūḍhais "savings", dāyārṣe "resin", ḍåtvāk "fat", tadmāltsāk "controller"
  3. certain actions and processes that involve multiple people:
    vāgdilanai "elections", viṣlonai "protest, riot", jāṃrice "traffic jam", grembātatālunai "hide-and-seek" (sometimes also found as dual)
  4. nouns denoting certain time spans, festivals, or holidays:
    saṃlallai "afternoon", Bhaivyāvāṣaryai (the most important Yunyalīlti festivity), Kūlħanarai (a winter festival of Kenengyry origin)
  5. a few illnesses and health conditions or disorders:
    nirganai "urticaria", nañvai "autism", paṣadårbhai "influenza"
  6. some locations, including large delimited areas as well as many toponyms:
    aryai "square", cahåtaibāk "tropics"
    Rīkalīnai, Mūnnakṣalte
  7. all ethnonyms:
    chlǣvānem "Chlouvānem", ṣurṭāgyai "Skyrdegan(s)", bronyai "Bronic(s)", sairghīṭyai "Cerian(s)", nivrahīrai "Nivarese"

A few nouns do not have a singular, but can have a dual and a plural form. Their citation form is usually the dual:

maihadhūt "parents", grembātatālunāt "hide-and-seek" (most commonly a plurale tantum)

Counted among pluralia tantums are certain words which are not defective in number, but whose plural forms have an additional meaning alongside the one of the singular form, like in the following examples:

hamvyenī "nursery" (hamvyoe "cradle"), įsmirte "playground" (įsmirtas "swing"), nacai "clothes" (naca "cloth"), garaṇai "clock, watch" (garaṇa "hour), lairusī "galaxy" (lairē "sky, air"), ilēneyi "universe" (ilēni "space, invisible sky").

Unlike ethnonyms, nouns formed with the suffix -yūs, generally identifying a person from a certain city (e.g. līlasuṃghāṇyūs, ajāɂilbādhyūs) – but note yacvānyūs "Westerner" – are not pluralia tantum and have regularly-formed plurals (in -yaus).

Some words are singularia tantum:

  1. many collective nouns:
    nūlastām "money", maula "breasts [pair of]", mæchlišam "leafy greens" (and particular types, e.g. mæcichā "spinach), bågras "legumes" (and particular types, e.g. dīlla "peas", mahīra "lentils"), lāsīm "cereals", båltis "free time"
  2. feelings and sensations:
    lācāh "romantic love", læchlyoe "fun", ǣlna "sadness"
  3. nouns denoting certain uncountable things:
    paɂeh "dust", kanai "spices", nāmvāvi "powder, dust made from crushing something", ḍolam "ice", narmis "ash"
  4. certain illnesses and health conditions:
    badarauga "blue plague", kloppa "cough" (cf. pluralizable kloppukāram "a single instance of coughing"), nadirṣas "runny nose"
  5. proper nouns referring to certain concepts:
    yunya, lillamurḍhyā, mulipenai "the Eastern Bloc's 'Internet'", tulbaiganim "the Eastern Bloc's 'Olympics'"
    individual sports, such as tēyakaitsūh, ḍaṣaras, lairhiṃħa, yalkhaitah
    cardinal points, pūrjayuñca "North", nalejñuñca "East"..., including relative ones such as smrāṇyuñca "upstream" or memājñuñca "downstream"
    musical genres, such as laneika, mūṃjas, kerachomā, tūnisus
    specialistic terminology made with suffixes and related to sciences (-tarlā, -nātra), diseases (-ræṣka, -yūtam, -ītsun, -gulas), and political/philosophical currents (-nātra, -lija)
  6. Most toponyms:
    Murkadhānāvi "the Inquisition", Kaiṣamā, Ṣurṭāgah "Skyrdagor", Sairghīṭa "Ceria", Kuyugvajitava "Kŭyŭgwažtov"

Irregular plurals

A few Chlouvānem nouns have irregular plurals:

  • The word chlǣvānem itself is plural-only (like all ethnonyms) and irregular; direct and vocative are in -em, but all other cases decline as a standard plural 1h noun (e.g. accusative chlǣvānānu, ergative chlǣvānān, genitive chlǣvānumi);
  • hulineh "woman" has the suppletive plural hulūne "women", which is declined as a regular 1s declension noun.
  • maila “water” does not have a dual form outside of colloquial use (where mailāt is used with the meaning of “two glasses of water”) and has the irregular plural mailusī, declined as the plural of an -oe noun, with -us- instead of -en- or -oe- throughout the declension (but note genitive mailūsmi and not mailusmi). This plural form is actually common, used when talking about bodies of water in an area, water layers, glasses of water, and a few minor idiomatic uses (e.g. taili mailusilīm hilælulke, lit. “to arrive by crossing many waters”, meaning “to have had much experience”).
    The -usī semantic plural is also used for the word damītah when used for "petals" (damītusī; the meaning of "nails" has the regular plural damītai), and lairē (lairusī, which does not mean "skies" or "days" but "galaxy").
  • Nouns with non-standard final endings (except chlǣvānem) are declined by unpacking the vowel through regular saṃdhi and applying the resulting declension to the newfound root, with regular saṃdhi. The most common such nouns are gos "ford, crossing of a small river" (ga-us; gen.sg. ge (ga-i), pl. gaus (ga-aus)) and khaim "goose" (khā-im; pl. khaik (khā-īk)).
  • švas "animal (including humans)" pluralizes as švai, as if it were a h-noun; all cases except for direct and vocative are however regular.

Irregular vocatives

Five very common words have common, irregular, vocative forms:

  • ñæltah "(male's) sister" — ñæli or ñæl
  • glūkam "(female's) brother" — galū
  • meinā "mother" — mā or mē
  • bunā "father" — bā or vā
  • udhyāras "Comrade" — udhyā (rarely udhyār)

Use of the plural

Chlouvānem sometimes uses the singular in contexts where English uses the plural:

  • Nouns are always singular after numerals (except, optionally, dani (two), which they can also be dual after), sora (some), grāṇa (any), gu (no), guviṣam (no other), taili (many, much), širē (more), kaili (most), and ṣubha (few, little).
    • After yaiva, the difference in the noun's number expresses a distinction much like the one between English "every" and "all": yaiva kita "every house", yaiva kitai "all houses".
  • When referring to existence or availability of something, that something is always singular, e.g. dvārma širēmįs virā "there are chairs in the room". It may be plural if topicalized, but the overall meaning of the sentence changes - e.g. širēmeyi mæn dvārma virā "the chairs are in the room".
  • When referring to a single person, dhāna (hand), mešīn (eye), and minnūlya (ear), and often also junai (foot) (more rarely for pājya (leg) and molnya (arm)) are typically singular and not dual - e.g. nanau mešīp mešute "I see it with my eyes" (lit. "with my eye"). In fact, they might be translated as "a person's hands/eyes/ears", given that dual forms are often used to mean e.g. "both hands of two people" and the plural ones for e.g. "many people's hands".
  • junyoe (indoor slippers), rapūda ((thick) shoes), mæska (boots), and all types of shoes are also used in the singular to refer to a pair of them. The main exception is varṇaigīk (straw rope sandals), which is a plurale tantum.

Duals and plurals of given names have the meaning of an associative plural, i.e. Kālomījñai "Kālomīyeh and people in/of her group".

Verbs (daradhaus)

Main article: Chlouvānem verbs

The Chlouvānem verb (daradhūs, pl. daradhaus) is the most inflected part of speech; its most basic forms are fusional, but many more specific formations are more agglutinative due to their origin from old Proto-Lahob particles or participles.

Pronouns (hailihalenī)

The system of personal pronouns of modern Standard Chlouvānem is quite complex due to the honorific system. In modern Chlouvānem, the category of "pronouns" isn't actually syntactically differentiated from other nouns (except for being used anaphorically), and only some of them - the inherited pronouns from Proto-Lahob and Archaic Chlouvānem - follow a declension different from the one of nouns.

The main reason for the complexity of the pronominal system is that there are many possible variants for each person, depending on the formality of the context, the two-way rank difference between speaker and listener, or the three-way rank difference between the speaker, the listener, and the addressee. Some particular forms are also chosen depending on gender.

The fact that there is no syntactical difference between the morphological pronouns and those that are nouns also means that every word used pronominally, including given names, requires that person's verbal concord, i.e. a given name used as a second-person pronoun will be used in concordance with a second-person verb. In the following list, words not marked as being inflected according to pronominal declension are inflected as nouns. However, yamei and lāma are honorific adpositions which do not decline; the title or given name used with them declines instead.

List of personal pronouns and pronoun-equivalents

First person singular (I, me)

  • lili (pronominal declension): the morphological inherited pronoun and the most neutral. It is overall the most used, especially in the non-direct cases, but there are alternatives for very informal, childish, slang, and humble speech.
  • emmā: the humble speech word for "person", sometimes used in humble speech.
  • demi (pronominal declension): literally "oneself", the reflexive pronoun; used in informal speech but conveying a sense of distance.
  • Given name: used in childish speech and in certain slang forms, considered rude or uneducated otherwise.
  • lilyā hulineh: literally "my woman", informal or semi-formal, implies superiority.
  • paralonį emmā: literally "the person [humble] who is a disciple" or "I, [your] disciple". Used almost exclusively in writing, by students or pupils when talking to their professors or teachers.
  • lilyā jāyim (in Archaic Chlouvānem only); literally "my girl", implying humbleness. Notably used by the Chlamiṣvatrā to refer to herself throughout the Holy Books.

Second person singular (You)

  • Given name plus lāma: the general polite form. lāma can be replaced by an appropriate title.
  • yamei + given name + lāma: similar to the above, but more polite, typically used for people of much higher rank or public officials.
  • yamei + title: very polite, alternative to the above two.
  • Appropriate honorific formula: the most polite usage, usually progressively reduced to (yamei) given name + lāma or yamei + title during the course of a conversation[3].
  • Given name + tanta: same politeness as lāma, used respectfully towards lower-ranked people, for example workers and colleague with less experience, soldiers of lower rank, employees, apprentices, and (from seventh class onwards) by teachers towards their students.
  • Given name alone: used in semi-formal speech between (equal ranked) colleagues and friends with a moderate degree of acquaintance. Can be or is rude otherwise. Note that it is considered especially rude to use the given name (or any other form of the personal name) towards older family members, or family members of the same generation who are not siblings (e.g. brothers/sisters-in-law, unless they're close friends).
  • Informal name: used in informal speech among friends, siblings (and possibly cousins[4]), partners, and all family members of a younger generation.
  • Kinship term alone: used for older family members or non-siblings (excluding cousins) of the same generation.
  • sāmi (pronominal declension): the morphological pronoun used in informal speech. Often replaced by the given name or by the hypocoristic form.
  • nami (pronominal declension): the morphological pronoun of formal speech towards higher ranked people. Often used (and even more often in non-core forms such as the genitive namyā), but it is also common to use the given name + lāma formula instead.
  • tami (pronominal declension): morphological pronoun of formal speech towards equal ranked people. Often used alternatively to the given name (with or without lāma), even in the same conversation.
  • rami (pronominal declension): morphological formal pronoun for lower ranked people; same usage pattern as tami.
  • udhyāras: translatable as "Comrade" and introduced during the Kaiṣamā era, it is a formal second-person pronoun used for people in situations transcending social rank. It is particularly used among political activists, volunteers in any organization, or in cooperative activities distinct from one's usual work. It is also the preferred option when one has no information about the addressed person, or as a general second person pronoun not referring to any particular person.
  • ṣari: quite old-fashioned (but still actively used by older people), used by guests towards homeowners (or innkeepers) and by soldiers towards their superiors.
  • ūttuka (mostly historical except for the Northeast): similar to ṣari but mostly used by servants towards their superiors or landowners; rapidly disappeared because of the Kaiṣamā era reforms except for the Northeast, where it was used in most contexts ṣari was elsewhere.
  • blikā; an endearing term for "girl", used by sisters among themselves.
  • lorkhās; male counterpart to blikā.
  • Informal name + cuca: endearing form used in informal speech by parents towards their children.
  • nūrya, literally "kid, child": used in formal instances by parents towards their children.

The following pronouns are mostly used for specific people, and only as reductions of other formulae:

  • aveṣyotariri nami: literally "You excellent one"; extremely formal locution for non-religious superiors several ranks ahead.
  • gopūrṭham: used for public/religious and military officials.
  • gopūrṭhami brausa: used for the highest ranked Inquisitors, bishops, head monks, and the Baptist.
  • yobrausa: same as gopūrṭhami brausa.
  • lalla yobrausa: used for the Great Inquisitor.

With second-person pronouns, the possessives used are in nearly every case those of the corresponding morphological pronouns; however, in very informal speech, it is not uncommon to use the genitive of the informal name or of pronoun-equivalents such as blikā or lorkhās.

Third person singular

Chlouvānem does not have any morphological third person pronoun; the demonstratives are used instead for non-human referents. For human referents, however, it is considered extremely rude to address them using a demonstratives. The choice of pronoun in the third person is especially complex because not just the relative rank of speaker and listener should be kept in mind, but also the rank of the addressee relative to both the speaker and the listener.

All titles listed in the section "Honorific titles" may be freely used with and without names. Furthermore, it is common in not excessively formal speech to use nāḍima (honorific word for "mother") for all female older relatives - of previous generations, not older siblings - of the interlocutor and similarly tamvāram (honorific for "father") for male older relatives.

udhyāras, equivalent to "Comrade", is in contemporary Chlouvānem the least controversial third person pronoun, at least the only one that is never considered rude to use. However, depending on the situation, other pronouns may be more appropriate.

Reference table

The following table is meant as a non-exhaustive reference for the most common ways used to refer to third person human referents in different situations, excluding titles:

If... Speaker is higher than Listener Speaker is equal to Listener Speaker is lower than Listener
3SG is higher than... both Speaker and Listener yamei (name) lāma
yamei (name) suntam/sintam		 (yamei) (name) suntam/sintam(/lāma) yamei (name) suntam/sintam
Listener,
but lower than or equal to Speaker 		udhyāras
yamei lātiṃṣin
(name) lāma		 / /
Speaker,
but lower than or equal to Listener 		/ / yamei (name) lāma
3SG is equal to... Listener udhyāras
yamei (name) tanta
(name) lāma		 / yamei (name) suntam/sintam
both Speaker and Listener / udhyāras
lātiṃṣin
(name) lāma
yamei (name) tanta		 /
Speaker udhyāras
lātiṃṣin
(name) lāma		 / yamei (name) lāma
udhyāras
lātiṃṣin
3SG is lower than... Listener udhyāras
(name) tanta		 / /
both Speaker and Listener / udhyāras
(name) tanta		 /
Speaker / / (name) lāma
udhyāras

Dual pronouns

Plural pronouns

Other personal pronouns

Pronominal declension

The pronominal declension has two variants: one used for the first person pronouns and another for the 2nd person ones. First person pronouns are the most archaic: they have a single-phoneme stem in all cases bar the direct, and a different stem in the direct case (lili, derived from the original pronoun *li, in the singular, and suppletive amūt and amūvi in the dual and plural respectively).
The second person pronouns are a Pre-Chlouvānem innovation, from the original short stem attached to the demonstrative ami, and therefore they follow that word's declension. However, the original short stems are kept as alternative, shorter forms, for the accusative, ergative, and dative cases. Second-person plural pronouns exist, but are virtually unused outside of Archaic Chlouvānem.

All ergative singular forms in -ei have literary variants in -eis (cf. emeis, ergative of emibe "one").

Direct Accusative Ergative Genitive Translative Exessive Essive Dative Ablative Locative Instrumental
Singular 1st person lili lū lei lyai
lilyā		 lan lat lįs lum ląu lēn lāni
2nd person Informal sāmi sāmyū
sū		 sāmī
sei		 sāmī sāmīn sāmīt sāmįs sāmūm
som		 sāmų sāmǣ sāmūni
Form. sup. nami namyū
nū		 namī
nei		 namī namīn namīt namįs namūm
num		 namų namǣ namūni
Form. equal tami tamyū
tū		 tamī
tei		 tamī tamīn tamīt tamįs tamūm
tum		 tamų tamǣ tamūni
Form. inf. rami ramyū
nū		 ramī
nei		 ramī ramīn ramīt ramįs ramūm
rum		 ramų ramǣ ramūṇi
Reflexive pronoun demi jū jei jai
demyā		 jen jet jįs jum jąu jēn jāni
Dual 1st person amūt lūṣa lūra lūva lūh lūbhan lūnne lūh lūbhan lūnne lūbhan
2nd person Informal sāmīt sāmīṣa
seṣa		 sāmīra
sera		 sāmīva sāmirį sāmibhan sāminne sāmirį
seh		 sāmibhan sāminne sāmibhan
Form. sup. namīt namīṣa
nīṣa		 namīra
nira		 namīva namirį namibhan naminne namirį
nih		 namibhan naminne namibhan
Form. equal tamīt tamīṣa
tīṣa		 tamīra
tira		 tamīva tamirį tamibhan taminne tamirį
tih		 tamibhan taminne tamibhan
Form. inf. ramīt ramīṣa
rīṣa		 ramīra
rira		 ramīva ramirį ramibhan raminne ramirį
rih		 ramibhan raminne ramibhan
Plural 1st person amūvi laih lān lumi lemān lenīs lāra lisām lenīs lelīm lenīka

Honorific titles

→ See also: Chlouvānem names § Using names

Chlouvānem uses many honorific titles, which are always used in non-familiar speech. The "honorific" adjective yamei is often added to many of them - especially lāma - and is mandatory in other ones.

  • lāma - used after the noun, it is the most common honorific title; almost every time someone is being addressed, lāma is used - the only exceptions being when it is already known another honorific should be used, or in familiar situations. It usually follows the given name alone (e.g. Namihūlša lāma); if the matronymic is added (sometimes done in order to disambiguate), then lāma comes between matronymic and noun (e.g. Līṭhaljāyimāvi lāma Namihūlša). All three names matronymic, surname, and given name together with lāma (e.g. Līṭhaljāyimāvi Kaleñchokah Namihūlša lāma) are only used in very formal addressing from a list of nouns; should matronymic+noun be not enough to distinguish two people, simply surname+noun is used.
  • tanta - used for people in a lower position, e.g. used towards one's employees or (usually from seventh class onwards) by teachers and professors towards their students. Also used by militars towards lower-ranked soldiers.
  • suntam (regionally also sintam) - used for people in a higher position in certain situations, most commonly towards older and more experienced colleagues (but not teachers or professors, nor work bosses if they're roughly the same age as the speaker).
  • lallāmaha - an extremely formal honorific, used for public authorities and all Inquisitors. Most often used together with yamei. Inquisitors may also be referred to as lallāmaha + matronymic + yamei + given name + murkadhāna (lāma)
  • jūlin - less formal than lāma, used for people who work in one's home but are not part of the family.
  • tallam - less formal than lāma, used by men for unmarried women whom they know somewhat well. Currently less frequently used than it was up to about 10 years ago.
  • jāmilšīreh - used in military contexts towards higher-ranked people, or by common people towards military commanders in service.
  • udhyā(ras) - neutral but respectful title of address, often used when generally speaking and without knowing who the listener is. Sometimes used, when in a plural sense, in the form yamei dāvudhyāre. In its neutralness relative to rank, it can be compared with the Soviet-era use of товарищ. It is also how high-ranked Inquisitors and most monks address the general public.
    Note that udhyāras is the direct form, udhyā the irregular vocative.
  • pūrivāla - an impersonal term of address used in written language, towards unfamiliar people never met personally. Often used as yamei [name] pūrivāla.
  • cuca is not strictly an honorific, as it pertains to more colloquial forms of speech, but it works the same way. It has a diminutive and endearing meaning, not unlike Japanese -chan. In formal speech, it is often used towards and when speaking about children.
Occupations commonly used as titles
  • camitorai — head of a company (usually as [matronymic] yamei [name] camitorai lāma)
  • kauchlærīn (voc.: kauchlærī) — professor (in universities, seminaries, institutions, and work schools)
  • tatnāmęlīn (voc.: tatnāmęlī) — teacher (in first and basic schools)
Official titles

Where not noted, the formula is [matronymic] yamei [name] [title] lāma.

  • brausamailenya — Baptist — rendered as aveṣyotārire lallāmaha [matronymic] yamei [surname + given name] brausamailenia lāma.
  • camimurkadhāna — Great Inquisitor — rendered as širē aveṣyotārire lallāmaha [matronymic] yamei [surname + given name] camimurkadhāna lāma.
  • camitorai — president (of diocesan parliaments or executives or of foreign countries). Rendered as aveṣyotārire [matronymic (if Chlouvānem)] yamei [name] camitorai lāma.
  • plušamelīs (voc.: plušamelī) — Prefect (head of an Office (plušamila) of the Inquisition). Rendered as aveṣyotārire [matronymic] yamei [name] plušamelī(s) lāma.
  • gatvā — leader/head/president/mayor — preceded by the genitive of the respective administration (ṣramāṇa "province", lalka "circuit", hālgāra "district", marta "city"…).
  • hurdagīn — Head Monk (head of a monastery) — rendered as kaili brausire yamei [name] hurdagīn lāma (+ monastery name-GEN)[5]
  • rākṣaṇa — Bishop (head of a diocese) — rendered as aveṣyotārire [matronymic] yamei [(surname +) name] rākṣaṇa lāma (+ diocese name-GEN).
  • lallaplušamelīs (voc.: lallaplušamelī) — High Prefect (head of the Table of Offices (flušamaili eṇāh, the executive branch of the Inquisition). Usually rendered as taili aveṣyotārire [matronymic] yamei [name] lallaplušamelī(s) lāma.
  • lallamurkadhāna — High Inquisitor (one of the 612 members of the Inquisitorial Conclave (murkadhānumi lanedāmeh, the legislative branch of the Inquisition). Usually rendered as aveṣyotārire [matronymic] yamei [name] lallamurkadhāna lāma.
  • ñæltryam — monk.
  • nīrvakṣari (voc.: nīrvakṣarī) — Eparch (head of an Eparchy).

Note that the full titles are used generally at the first mention only. For example, Martayināvi yamei murkadhāna Læhimausa lāma becomes afterwards either yamei murkadhāna or yamei Læhimausa lāma. With the Great Inquisitor, this does not usually get shorter than širē aveṣyotārire yamei lallāmaha ([Her] Respectable Most Excellent Highness) or širē aveṣyotārire lallāmaha camimurkadhāna ([Her] Most Excellent Highness, the Great Inquisitor).

Correlatives

Chlouvānem has a fairly regular system of correlatives, distinguishing ten types (proximal, medial, distal, interrogative, negative, assertive existential, elective existential, universal, positive alternative, and negative alternative) in eleven categories (attributive, thing, person, time, place, destination, origin, way, reason, quality, quantity).

Category ↓ / Type → Proximal Medial Distal Interrogative Negative Ass. exist. Elect. exist. Universal Positive altern. Negative altern.
Attributive nenē
(and others; see below)
this (one)		 nunū
(and others; see below)
that (one) (near you)		 nanā
(and others; see below)
that (one) (over there)		 yanū?
what?, which (one) ?		 gu
no		 sora
some		 grāṇa
any		 yaiva
every(thing)		 viṣam
another, other		 guviṣam
no other
Thing gomi
nothing		 sorami
something		 grāṇami
anything		 viṣāmi
something else		 guviṣāmi
nothing else
Person ·evita
this one		 ·utvita
that one (near you)		 ·ātvita
that one (over there)		 yavita?
who?		 guvita
no one		 soraita
someone		 grāmvita
anyone		 yaivita
everyone		 viṣvita
someone else		 guviṣvita
no one else
Time emiya
now		 utiya
then		 ātiya
then (remote)		 yamiya?
when?		 gumiya
never		 soramiya
sometime, somewhen		 grāmiya
anytime, whenever		 yaivmiya
always, everytime		 viṣmiya
sometime else		 guviṣmiya
never else
Place ·ejulā
here		 ·uñjulā
there		 ·āñjulā
over there		 yajulā?
where?		 gujulā
nowhere		 sorajulā
somewhere		 grāñjulā
anywhere		 yavijulā
everywhere		 viñjulā
elsewhere		 guviñjulā
nowhere else
Destination ·ejulyom
hither		 ·uñjulyom
thither		 ·āñjulyom
thither (remote)		 yajulyom?
whither?		 gujulyom
nowhither		 sorajulyom
somewhither		 grāñjulyom
anywhither		 yavijulyom
everywhither		 viñjulyom
elsewhither		 guviñjulyom
nowhither else
Source ·ejulų
hence		 ·uñjulų
thence		 ·āñjulų
thence (remote)		 yajulų?
whence?		 gujulų
nowhence		 sorajulų
somewhence		 grāñjulų
anywhence		 yavijulų
everywhence		 viñjulų
elsewhence		 guviñjulų
nowhence else
Manner elīce
thus, hereby		 ūlīce
thereby		 ālīce
thereby; that other way		 yalīce?
how?		 gulīce
no way		 soralīce
somehow		 grāṃlīce
anyhow		 yaivlīce
everyway		 viṣlīce
otherwise		 guviṣlīce
no other way
Reason emena
herefore		 utmena
therefore		 ātmena
therefore; for that other reason		 yamenat?
why?		 gumena
for no reason		 soramena
somewhy		 grāmena
whyever, for any reason		 yaivmena
for every reason		 viṣmena
for another reason		 guviṣmena
for no other reason
Quality esmā
this kind		 utsmā
that kind		 ātsmā
that other kind		 yasmāt?
which kind?		 gusmā
no kind		 sorasmā
some kind		 grāṇismā
any kind		 yavismā
every kind		 viṣasmā
another kind		 guviṣasmā
no other kind
Quantity enūḍa
this much		 utnūḍa
that much		 ātnūḍa
that much (remote)		 yanūḍat?
how much?		 gunūḍa
none		 soraṇūḍa
some of it		 grāṇūḍa
any much		 yaivnūḍa
all of it		 viṣṇūḍa
another quantity		 guviṣṇūḍa
no other quantity

Note that in common speach ālīce and ūlīce as well as ātmena and utmena are basically interchangeable. The QUALITY correlatives may take an essive argument, e.g. lajlęs grāṇismā "any kind of chair".
THING and PERSON correlatives decline for case and, in the case of evita, utvita, and ātvita, also for number (1h declension: evita, acc. sg. evitu, dir. pl. evitai, dat. pl. evitesām…). QUALITY and QUANTITY correlatives also decline for case.

Not to be confused with their literal English translations are yaivemibe (or yaiva emibe) "each, every" (literally "everyone") - which is most often attributive only in Chlouvānem - and especially sora emibe, literally "someone", which has a completely different meaning: sora emibe denotes "some single subjects, considered as single entities, hence inherently plural and taking plural verbs: sora emibe draikate "some single subjects did it" ≠ soraita dṛkte "someone did it".

Negatives, elective existentials, universals, and positive alternatives for thing and person correlatives may also take dual number:

gomīt～guvitāt "neither";
grāṇamīt～grāmvitāt "either";
yaivāt～yaivitāt "both";
viṣāmāt～viṣvitāt "the other one".

Further correlatives not included in the above table:

yambā? (whose?)
smāmi (such a...) (archaic, literary)

Positional demonstratives

Chlouvānem has a large number of demonstratives, as they are integrated with the system of positional verbs, combining a general proximal-medial-distal distinction with positional prefixes, further localizing them in space. Only a subset of 10 out of the 24 positional prefixes are used to build demonstratives; the ones with a ∅- prefix correspond to most of the unused ones, and may be translated as "this/that one in front/ahead/in the middle" when a disambiguation from another one is needed. The same ten prefixes (except for įs-) are also used together with the PERSON series (with the same logic), and with the PLACE, DESTINATION, and SOURCE correlatives, which act as adverbial anaphoras of positional and motion verbs. This results in forms like kamyejulā "here, around" or māhāñjulyom "thither (remote), rightwards".

Prefix ↓ / Type → Proximal Medial Distal
∅- (ahead) nenē
this one ahead		 nunū
that one (near you) ahead		 nanā
that one ahead
ān- (above) āninē
this one above		 ānnū
that one (near you) above		 ānnā
that one above
šu- (below) šunē
this one below		 šūnū
that one (near you) below		 šonā
that one below
įs- (hanging) įsinē
this one hanging		 įsunū
that one (near you) hanging		 įsanā
that one hanging
na(ñ)- (inside) najinē
this one inside		 najunū
that one (near you) inside		 najanā
that one inside
kau- (outside) kaunē
this one outside		 kaunū
that one (near you) outside		 kaunā
that one outside
kami- (around) kaminē
this one around		 kamyunū
that one (near you) around		 kamyanā
that one around
pri- (behind) prinē
this one behind		 prinū
that one (near you) behind		 prinā
that one behind
vai- (beside; in the corner)
(sāṭ- for the main meaning) 		vainē
this one beside		 vayunū
that one (near you) beside		 vayanā
that one beside
vyā- (left) vyāɂinē
this one to the left		 vyāɂunū
that one (near you) to the left		 vyāɂanā
that one to the left
māha- (right) māhenē
this one to the right		 māhonū
that one (near you) to the right		 māhānā
that one to the right

The įs- forms may also be used for things lying on people's hands.

The forms for the PERSON, PLACE, DESTINATION, and SOURCE series are mostly formed through regular saṃdhi (with the partial exception of the na(ñ)- and vyā- prefixes):

Prefix ↓ / Base → ·evita
·ejulā
·ejulyom
·ejulų		 ·utvita
·uñjulā
·uñjulyom
·uñjulų		 ·ātvita
·āñjulā
·āñjulyom
·āñjulų
∅- (ahead) evita utvita ātvita
ān- (above) ānevita ānutvita ānātvita
šu- (below) švevita šūtvita švātvita
na(ñ)- (inside) naivita notvita nātvita
kau- (outside) kāvevita kāvutvita kāvātvita
kami- (around) kamyevitai kamyutvitai kamyātvitai
pri- (behind) pryevita pryutvita pryātvita
vai- (beside, in the corner) vāyevita vāyutvita vāyātvita
vyā- (left) vyāɂevita vyāɂutvita vyāɂātvita
māha- (right) māhaivita māhotvita māhātvita

Note that, in the PERSON series, the kami- forms are only used with a plural meaning, as reflected in the table above.

Declensions of correlatives and possessives

Case ā-paradigm ē-paradigm ū-paradigm t-paradigm
All possessives, nanā and other distals,
yambā?, ami, correlatives in -i[6]		 nenē and other proximals nunū, and other medials, yanū? yasmāt? and yanūḍat?
Direct
Vocative 		lilyā nenē nunū yasmāt
Accusative lilyau nenyu nunūyu yasmau
Ergative lilye nenye nunūye yasmātei
Genitive lilyai neniai nunūyai yasmai
Translative lilyān nenēn nunūn yasmān
Exessive lilyāt nenēt nunūt yasmātat
Essive lilyą nenę nunų yasmātą
Dative lilyåh nenǣh nunǣh yasmātom
Ablative lilyąu nenēhu nunūvu yasmąu
Locative lilǣ neniǣ nunūvǣ yasmātǣ
Instrumental lileni nenēni nunauni yasmaini


Numerals (māltsāk)

Chlouvānem is one of the few human Calemerian languages - together with all other Lahob languages and a few ones of the southern hemisphere, as well as others like Qualdomelic or vernaculars of the Inquisition which have had considerable Chlouvānem influence - with a pure duodecimal number system.

Numbers (sg māltsām, pl. māltsāk) have six different forms: cardinal, ordinal, collective, distributive, adverbial/multiplicative, and fractionary. 1-4 have separate adverbial multiplicative forms, while all other ones have an invariable form used both as adverbial and 'adjectival' multiplicatives. Cardinals from 1 to Ɛ and their compounds decline for case (see below); collectives, multiplicatives, and fractionaries always decline, while ordinals are only declined if used without an accompanying noun. Distributives do not decline.

Digit12 Base 10 Cardinal Ordinal Collective Distributive Adv./Multiplicative Fractionary
0 0 ajrā (ajrāyende) — (ajrehaicē) (māgajrā) —
1 1 emibe
emi		 lahīla emibhaicē māgemibe (adv.)
emibarvīm		 lahīlvāṭ
2 2 dani hælinaika danyatām danihaicē māgdani (adv.)
danirvīm		 hælinaivāṭ
3 3 pāmvi pāmvende pāmvyatām pāmvihaicē māmpāmvi (adv.)
pāmvirvīm		 pāmvendvāṭ
4 4 nęlte nęltende nęltitām nęltehaicē māgnęlte (adv.)
nęltarvīm		 nęltendvāṭ
5 5 šulka šulkende šulkatām šulkhaicē šulkarvīm šulkendvāṭ
6 6 tulūɂa tulūɂende tulūɂatām tulūɂihaicē tulūrvīm tulūɂendvāṭ
7 7 chīka chīcænde chīcætām chīcihaicē chīkarvīm chīcændvāṭ
8 8 mbula mbulende mbulatām mbulhaicē mbularvīm mbulendvāṭ
9 9 moja mojende mojatām mojihaicē mojarvīm mojendvāṭ
ᘔ 10 tålda tåldende tåldatām tåldihaicē tåldarvīm tåldendvāṭ
Ɛ 11 vælden vældinde vælditām vældihaicē vældirvīm vældindvāṭ
10 12 māmei māminde māmintām māmeihaicē māmairvīm māmindvāṭ
11 13 emibumaye emibumayinde emibumaintām emibumaihaicē emibumairvīm emibumayindvāṭ
12 14 danimaye danimayinde danimaintām danimaihaicē danimairvim danimayindvāṭ
13 15 pamihælī pamihælīnde pamihælītām pamihælīhaicē pamihælīrvīm pamihælīndvāṭ
14 16 māminęlte māminęltende māminęltitām māminęltehaicē māminęltarvīm māmiynęltendvāṭ
15 17 māmišulka māmišulkende māmišulkatām māmišulkhaicē māmišulkarvīm māmišulkendvāṭ
16 18 māmivælka māmivælkende māmivælkatām māmivælkihaicē māmivælkarvīm māmivælkendvāṭ
17 19 māmichīka māmichīcænde māmichīcætām māmichīcihaicē māmichīkarvīm māmichīcændvāṭ
18 20 māmimbula māmimbulende māmimbulyatām māmimbulhaicē māmimbularvīm māmimbulendvāṭ
19 21 māmimoja māmimojende māmimojatām māmimojihaicē māmimojarvīm māmimojendvāṭ
1ᘔ 22 māmitålda māmitåldende māmitåldatām māmitåldihaicē māmitåldarvīm māmitåldendvāṭ
1Ɛ 23 māmivælden māmivældinde māmivælditām māmivældihaicē māmivældirvīm māmivældindvāṭ
20 24 hælmāmei hælmāminde hælmāmintām hælmāmeihaicē hælmāmairvīm hælmāmindvāṭ

As for the two forms for one, emi is used in disjunctive counting (e.g. count-ins or countdowns) while emibe is used elsewhere. Compounds always have the full form, i.e. forms such as *hælmāmyemi do not exist.
Some compound words, especially technical and scientific ones, use Lällshag morphemes for the quantities from 1 to ᘔ (though from 5 onwards they're rarer): mån- 1, yūn- 2, lyāš- 3, alan- 4, tamb- 5, jiruṇ- or ciruṇ- 6, tulyæn- 7, neim- 8, šid- 9, abar- ᘔ.

Numbers from 2012 above are simply made by compounding teens and units with the appropriate saṃdhi changes, like 2112 (2510) hælmāmyemibe, and then hælmāmidani, hælmāmipāmvi, and so on. Note that other compounds with 6 use -tulūɂa and not -vælka as in 1612.
The other dozens are:

30 (3610) pāmvimāmei
40 (4810) nęltemāmei
50 (6010) šulkmāmei
60 (7210) vælknihæla
70 (8410) māmyāvælka (regionally chīcæmāmei, particularly in the East)
80 (9610) mbulmāmei
90 (10810) mojemāmei
ᘔ0 (12010) tåldimāmei
Ɛ0 (13210) māmimīram
and 100 (14410) nihæla.

The apparent irregularities in the words for 6012, 7012, and Ɛ012 are explained by etymology: vælka is the reflex of PLB *wewənko, which meant “half”, thus vælknihæla is “half hundred” and māmyāvælka is “twelve on half”; māmimīram is literally “twelve [less] from ahead”. 1312 originally meant "one finger/three (pāmvi, the word for three, also meant "finger" in PLB (*pāmwəj) - whence also the Chlouvānem word for "finger", pamuvis (< PLB *pamwəjis)) in the second [dozen]", where the -hælī part is a worn form of hælinaika.

Numbers from 10012 to ƐƐƐ12 are still compounds, e.g. nihælaimibe, nihæladani, and so on. Note that 16012 is most commonly nihæltulūɂa, but the more literary form nihælvælka may still be heard.
The other dozenal hundreds are:

200 (28810) daninihæla
300 (43210) pāmvinihæla
400 (57610) nęltenihæla
500 (72010) šulknihæla
600 (86410) tulūnihæla
700 (100810) chīcænihæla
800 (115210) mbulnihæla
900 (129610) mojanihæla
ᘔ00 (144010) tåldanihæla
Ɛ00 (158410) vældenihæla.

1.000 (172810) is tildhā and numbers above are separate words, without saṃdhi, e.g. 1.001 tildhā emibe, 6.2ᘔ9 (1078510) tulūɂa tildhā daninihælatåldimāmimoja.
Note that 2.00012 may be either one of tildhāt, dani tildhā, or (only emphatically) dani tildhāt.

The other divisions - numbers over ƐƐ.ƐƐƐ12 are based on groups of two digits: the two most commonly used ones in common speech are 1.00.000 (248.83210) - a raicē - and 1.00.00.000 (35.831.80810) - a lallaraicē.

The next two groups have their separate words, but are quantities rarely used in common speech: 1.00.00.00.000 (129) (5.159.780.35210) is a taiskaucis and 1.00.00.00.00.000 (1211) (743.008.370.68810) a lallataiskaucis. The words khorādi (127, i.e. synonym of lallaraicē), yaṣmūn (1211, i.e. lallataiskaucis), iriakas (1213), mairāṇa or lalleriakas (1215), nirāvah (1217), and sṝva or lallanirāvah (1219) were introduced in Classical-era texts, but are almost never used today. However, they form the base for the scientific measurement system's prefixes.

Their non-cardinal forms are all regular, with -ende (-inde after -m or for Ɛ12) for ordinals, -tām for collectives, -haicē for distributives, -rvīm for adverbials/multiplicatives (prefixed māg- for the separate adverbial forms), and -endvāṭ/-indvāṭ for the fractionaries. Compounds of 1-2 retain all irregular suppletive forms, e.g. hælmāmilahīla 2112st (2510th); hælmāmihælinaika 2212nd (2610th).

Finally, there are few other cardinals commonly used in speech: vālhælya 1½, vālpāmvya 2½, vālnęlca 3½, vālšulca 4½, and vāltulūya 5½. The forms vālchīca, vālambulya (or vālumbulya), and vālmojya are used in telling the time only and obsolete otherwise, while other similar forms are sparingly attested in older mathematical texts, but periphrastical constructions such as tulūɂa hælinaivāṭ no (or, sometimes, - vælka no) are more commonly heard and used nowadays. A form that, however, is sometimes found up to the present day is vālhælnihæla, meaning 16012 (21610), i.e. one dozenal hundred and a half.

Use of fractionary numbers

Fractionary numbers (except vāl- ones) are used to express non-integers just like any other quantity. Simple ones such as 0,6 (½) are the basic fractionary number - in this case hælinaivāṭ (note that, outside mathematics, danyāmita is the preferred term for "half", both in metaphorical (lilyā viṣam danyāmita "my other half") and non-metaphorical uses (alāvi danyāmita "half of the bottle")); other examples are 0,3 (¼) nęltendvāṭ and 0,4 (⅓) pāmvendvāṭ.
With more complex fractions, the smallest part (negative power of twelve) is stated - the three commonly found are 1/12 (māmindvāṭ), 1/144 (nihælendvāṭ), and 1/1728 (tildhaindvāṭ). For example, 0,82 is mbulmāmidani nihælendvāṭ and 0,7ᘔ6 is chīcænihælamāmimīraṃtulūɂa tildhaindvāṭ; sometimes, "0, then" (mīram) may be added: ajrā mīram mbulmāmidani nihælendvāṭ.

With a non-fractionary portion that is not zero, instead of mīram, smurā (full, integer) is used - e.g. 2,307 is usually said as dani smurā pāmvinihælchīka tildhaindvāṭ.

Declensions of cardinal numbers

Some cardinal numbers are declined for case, but this is usually only done in formal Chlouvānem. In informal Chlouvānem, either only emibe is declined, or are all numerals up to vælden, plus nihæla. Compounds of these are usually not declined. The words tildhā, (lalla)raicē, and (lalla)taiskaucis are always declined, but they are fully nouns.

Case emibe Dual paradigm i-paradigm a-paradigm en-paradigm
dani pāmvi, nęlte[7] 5 to 10[8] vælden only
Direct
Vocative 		emibe dani pāmvi šulka vælden
Accusative emiyu daneṣa pāmvyu šulku vældu
Ergative emeis daneya pāmvyes šulkes vældes
Genitive emibī dañva pāmvi[9] šulki vældi
Translative emiban danaus pāmvin šulkan vældanna
Exessive emibat danebhan pāmvit šulkat vældanta
Essive emibą danīgin pāmvyą šulką vældąs
Dative emibå danaus pāmvyå šulkå vældå
Ablative emiyų danebhan pāmvyų šulkų vældų
Locative emiye danīgin pāmvye šulke vælde
Instrumental emīp danebhan pāmvip šulkip vældampa

Use of numerals

Cardinal numerals may be used in two ways, depending on whether emphasis is given to the number or to the thing counted.

  • In the most common use, the counted thing is emphasized: the numeral is put before the noun and the noun is always singular (except for "two", see below) plus the appropriate case: e.g. emibe yujam (one lotus flower); dani māra (two mango fruits); pāmvi haloe (three names), vælden ñaiṭa (eleven stars), and so on.
  • If emphasis is given to the number, then the counted thing comes first, and, if it should be in direct, ergative, or accusative case, it is in genitive singular instead; the semantic direct, ergative, or accusative case is taken by the numeral itself if it is one, two, three, or compounds. Examples: yujami emibe (one lotus flower), māri dani (two mango fruits), haleni pāmvi (three names), ñaiṭi vælden (eleven stars). In other cases, the noun follows the semantic case (but is always singular anyway), e.g. marti pāmvi (three cities) but marte pāmvye (in the three cities).
    This form is increasingly less common in everyday use.
  • "Two" may be used with either singular or dual number: dani māra or māri dani are both as correct as dani mārāt and māreva dani - note that the dual number alone, without the numeral, has the same meaning; the dual form alone does not give particular emphasis to the number, while using the numeral, at least in formal styles, already gives more emphasis (intermediate to the two abovementioned forms). Outside of literary texts, it is however more common to specify "two" with the numeral.

Note, though, the structure "nihæle + genitive of a noun + a cardinal numeral", used for expressing percentage (dozenally), e.g. nihæle laili hælmāmei "20% of people".

Ordinal numerals are regular attributive adjective-like words that precede nouns - e.g. hælinaika kita "second house". They do not decline if are used together with a noun, but they can also be used alone (e.g. hælinaika "the second one"), in which case they decline for case and number, as if they were -eh nouns (-a for 1st and 2nd), e.g. mojendesām ukulate "it has been told to those in ninth position".

Collective numerals (which decline as regular -ām nouns) are most commonly found with the meaning of "a group consisting of X ...", therefore implying greater cohesiveness than using the cardinal number implies. A common example of the subtle meaning change is between the sentences chīka lalāruṇa togāhaite (with a cardinal) and chīcætām lalāruṇa togāhaite (with a collective): both mean "seven lalāruṇai hit", but in the latter sentence the action is implied to be a coordinate act of all seven animals, while in the former they either hit randomly or the coordination of the action is not specified (or not specification-worthy). This is also the most common meaning with pluralia tantum, as commonly heard with ethnonyms (which are all plural only in Chlouvānem), e.g. šulkatām chlǣvānem "[a group of] five Chlouvānem people".
They can also be found, context-dependent, used with the meaning of "all X of..." - in a sentence such as e.g. mbulatām lejīn dilu liju lilejlaikate "all eight singers wanted to sing the same song" - or with the meaning of "X sets of" with singularia tantum - e.g. pāmvyatām hærṣūs "three pairs of lips" (but note that colloquial Chlouvānem increasingly often uses the cardinals here, e.g. pāmvi hærṣūs).
The collective numerals for 0 and 1 (ajrāṇṭām and emibutām respectively) are not included in the table above because they do not exist in practical use; however, they are sporadically found in poetry and literature, referring to people and with the meaning of "a group where only one/no one is ...", e.g. ajrāṇṭām tadhusmausīn "a group where no one is honest". Similarly, collectives for vāl- numbers (e.g. vālpāmvyantām "a group consisting of 2½ ...") exist, but are virtually unused. danyatām, like dani, may be use together with either a singular or a dual noun.

In some cases, the choice between a collective and a cardinal is stylistic. While for example concepts such as "we are..." or "I have ... children" do normally use the collective (e.g. tulūɂatām ñæltah jalim "we are six sisters/a group of six reciprocal brothers and sisters"; lili mæn nęltitām nūrya "I have four children"), even if using a cardinal isn't wrong, in a sentence such as "there are X people" both versions are found, with the collective-using sentence (e.g. dvārma vælditāmą lilęs virā "in the room there are eleven people") being perceived as more formal than the more colloquially heard cardinal-using version (i.e. dvārma vældąs lilęs virā).

Distributive numerals are indeclinable adjective-like words, and have the meaning of "X each": pāmvihaicē titē męlyāhai "three pens each are given"; lili lilyā ñæltah no tulūɂihaicē karjhañī alau ulgutarate "my sister and I have bought six bottles of kvas each" — note in both sentences the use of singular number in titē (pencil) and alūs (acc. alau) "bottle", just like after cardinal and collective numerals.

Adverbial numerals are adverbs with the meaning of "X times" and multiplicative numbers are adjective-like words (that can also be used alone) with the meaning of "X times as large"; numbers from 1 to 4 have both forms, while all other ones (except 0) have only the multiplicative one, which is used for both meanings. Examples: pāmvirvīm yąloe "triple meal/a meal three times as large"; āsena māgdani "twice a month"; āsena mbularvīm "eight times a month".
Zero only has an adverbial form (māgajrā), which is however only used in reading multiplications and powers, e.g. 3 * 0 māgajrā pāmvi, 90 māgajrā demǣ moja.

Fractionary numerals are always used in the noun.GEN numeral construction, and they are invariable in direct, vocative, accusative, and ergative case but decline with -vaḍa in all of the others (in fact, etymologically they derive from worn down forms of ordinal + vaḍa, meaning Xth part, e.g. hælinaika vaḍa (the second part) → hælinaivāṭ). Unlike ordinals, the noun is always in the genitive case. Examples: marti hælinaivāṭ "half of the city" ; alāvi nęltendvāṭ "one fourth of the bottle" ; babhrāmi tulūɂendvaḍe "in one sixth of the country".

Basic maths

  • 1 + 2 = 3
emibe širē dani pāmvyå lunade (1.DIR. more. 2.DIR. 3-DAT. go.MONODIR-IND.PRES-3DU.EXTERIOR-AGENTIVE) — rule: ADIR širē BDIR (širē ...) CDAT lunade (two addends) / lunāhai (3+ addends)
  • 3 - 2 = 1
pāmvi isan dani emibå lunade (3.DIR. minus. 2.DIR. 1-DAT go.MONODIR-IND.PRES-3DU.EXTERIOR-AGENTIVE) — rule: ADIR isan BDIR (isan ...) CDAT lunade (two addends) / lunāhai (3+ addends)
  • 3 * 2 = 6
māgdani pāmvi tulūɂå liven (2.ADV.MULTIP. 3.DIR. 6-DAT. go.MONODIR-IND.PRES-3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENTIVE) — rule: MULTIPLICATIVE.(ADV)-B ADIR CDAT liven
  • 6 : 2 = 3
hælinaivadęs tulūɂa pāmvyå liven (2.FRACTION-ESS. 6.DIR 3-DAT. go.MONODIR-IND.PRES-3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENTIVE) — rule: FRACTIONARY-BESS ADIR CDAT liven
  • 62 = 30 (3610)
māgdani demǣ tulūɂa pāmvimāmei liven (2.ADV.MULTIP. REFL.GEN-LOC. 6.DIR. 3012. go.MONODIR-IND.PRES-3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENTIVE) — rule: MULTIPLICATIVE.(ADV)-B demǣ ADIR CDAT liven

Reified numerals

Reified numerals, or numerals used as nouns, have a special form, which is actually the numeral with the common noun-forming suffix -as added (with regular saṃdhi). These numerals are used most notably for:

  • In order to refer to the digits themselves (danyas "the digit 2");
  • Things named with numbers (tulūɂās "[tram/bus/etc] number 6");
  • (in the plural) Year dozens (vælknihælē "the 6012s = the 386012s);
  • (in the plural) Age ranges by the dozen (hælmāmeyē "2012ies" = the age range from the start of one's 2012th year to the end of one's 2Ɛth);
  • School marks - note that there's no uniform system in the Inquisition (nęltayas "a grade 4" (passing grade in the most widespread system for non-higher education in the Inquisition, ranging from 1 (emibayas), worst, to 7 (chīkās), best));
  • A group of X people - a reification of collective numerals (pāmvyas "a trio").

Note that there are some terms which use numerals as roots but aren't considered reified numbers (also because of their rather inconsistent meanings); the most common examples include danyāmita (half) and māmyāmita (dozen).

Units of Measurement

Chlouvānem units of measurement (lęlgīs, pl. lęlgais) are divided in popular units (leilausirena lęlgais) and scientific units (tarlausirena lęlgais). Scientific units, while understood, are rarely found outside of scientific contexts if corresponding popular units exist, while popular units are found in daily usage. Popular units follow however a measurement standard introduced in the year 36Ɛ7 (618710) and updated several times in the following two centuries, in order to give a single understood measure for all units whose names and definitions varied across the many countries of the Chlouvānem cultural space.
It is also to be noted that Calemerian scientific units have internationally unified definitions for their base units but are substantially different between the Western and the Eastern world as Western countries use them with a decimal system, while the Eastern countries (the Inquisition, most of the former Kaiṣamā, and Greater Skyrdagor) use them with a duodecimal system.

Length

The tyuta, nakūrum, and garaṇa are known but rarely used; the vālpāmvyās is rarely written as a separate measure, but isn't uncommon in speech.

Short Name Meaning/name origin Equivalent to Metric system (approx.)
lūj lūjla (ABL) Point, tip ⅛ tyu ~3.09639 mm
tyu tyuta Short (dialectal) ⅓ ka ~2.47711 cm
ka katis Finger ⅓ mā ~7.43133 cm
mā mākoba Span (base unit) 22.294 cm
pā pājya Leg 4 mā 89.176 cm
vāl vālpāmvyās
vālpāmvya pājya		 Two and a half legs 2+½ pā 2.2294 m
nak nakūrum Rod 8 pā 7.13408 m
cān cāṃtrūh Section (A. Yodhvaši) 140 (19210) pā 171.21792 m
vai vaiṣrya Plough 8 cān
ᘔ80 (153610) pā		 1369.7434 m — 1.36974 km
gar garaṇa Hour 34 (4010) cān 6848.72 m — 6.84872 km


Temperature

Temperature measuring in the Chlouvānem world uses the Jahārāṭha scale (shortened ºj; named after scientist Ṣastirāvi Jahārāṭha Nukthalin), which is fixed with a zero degree at water freezing temperature at sea level. 100 ºj is the rough boiling temperature of water, but, being a duodecimal scale, it is 10012 (14410), thus 1 ºj equals 25/36 of a degree Celsius, or 1 ºC = 1.44 ºj.
The median body temperature of a Calemerian human (which is slightly lower than for terrestrial humans) is of 41 ºj (4910), thus ~34.0278 ºC.

Time

→ See also: Chlouvānem Calendar and time § the Chlouvānem calendar

English Chlouvānem Equivalent to rough Earthly approximation
Year heirah 418 Calemerian days 609.6 Earth days
Day lairē 2812 (3210) hours ~35 hours
Hour garaṇa 3 hælmāmyai
6012 (7210) railai		 ~65 min ~37 sec
group of "minutes" hælmāmya 2012 (2410) railai ~21 min ~52 sec
"Minute" raila (base unit) ~54.6805 sec
"Second" namišoe 1/4012 (1/4810) raila ~1.8986 sec
1/12 of a "second" (namišeni) māmendvāṭ 1/1012 (1/1210) namišoe ~0.1582 sec
1/144 of a "second" (namišeni) nihælendvāṭ 1/10012 (1/14410) namišoe ~0.0131 sec
1/1728 of a "second" (namišeni) tildhaindvāṭ 1/100012 (1/172810) namišoe ~1.0987 ms

Other units

Chlouvānem Symbol rough Earthly approximation
frequency lūnaji lnj ~0.526704 Hz
voltage chulgān chg 1 V

Particles (remīk)

Traditional Chlouvānem grammar only recognizes a single part of speech called "particles" (remīn, literally "helper(s)") which includes conjunctions, postpositions, and interjections. However, these three are recognized as subsets of particles - here translated as "conjunctive particles" (natemālāhai remīn), "accompanying particles", i.e. postpositions (ūtimāhai remīn), and "exclamatory particles" (pigdilanah nali remīn).

Many Chlouvānem particles are grammaticalized usages of other words, some of them no longer being used in their original meaning in contemporary use (e.g. varve).

Conjunctive particles

Conjunctive particles may not stand syntactically alone and, with a few exceptions, don't require any particular case of a noun. Most of them function, or are also used, as conjunctions between sentences.

  • jahān — anyway (conjunction or second position adverb)
  • lai — inclusive or
  • las — and (in incomplete listings, cf. no and sama); it follows the noun it refers to, and in listings with more than two nouns it follows every noun except for the first. Not used to conjoin sentences.
  • lenta — "together (with)", adverbial or postpositive, requiring genitive case in the latter usage. When pospositive, it is more emphatic than lā. Adverbially, gimmālsiṭ is more common.
  • mailiven — so, thus, therefore (grammaticalized use of go_forward.UNIDIR.PRES.IND.EXP.3SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR.)
  • mbu — exclusive or
  • mešē — given that (grammaticalized use of see.PRES.IND-EXP-3SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR.)
  • najelai — maybe. Originally the archaic potential form of najalle (to happen). Sentence-final, requires a verb in the subjunctive mood, e.g. yahatite najelai "maybe I'll read it".
  • nānim — almost; if used with nouns, requires essive case.
  • ni — but (in second position)
  • no — and (in complete listings, cf. las); same placement as las. Also used to conjoin sentences, but sama is preferred, especially when there are different subjects (triggered arguments).
  • nyąu — because, for, as (cf. tī); amyąu in the Classical era, i.e. the ablative of the former demonstrative ami.
Used sentence-finally: aganą lā įstyāk nyąu yųlake pañcekte "as (s)he was hungry, (s)he started eating." In lone sentences, e.g. answers, tī is preferred: aganą lā tī įstyāk "because (s)he was hungry."
  • paṣe — furthermore
  • pū — if (and pūmbu "whether") - see Chlouvānem syntax § Conditional sentences
  • sama (sam before vowels) — and (between sentences only, cf. las and no)
  • širē — also, too (only between sentences, cf. tan). A different use of the adverb meaning "more".
  • tadye — despite that (between sentences), cf. tatta.
  • tan — also, too; used adverbially and between sentences (where, however, širē is more common).
  • tatta — despite, even though; requires a noun in the essive case or a subjunctive verb (e.g. gu talunīs ša tatta dadrā "even though you didn't come, it has been done."). Colloquially, it is also used anaphorically, instead of tadye; however, it is considered bad style in formal language.
  • varve — instead of; requires genitive case or subjunctive mood. Originally the locative singular of varva "form", no longer used in contemporary Chlouvānem.
    • samvarve — on the other hand, whereas
  • vivāmi — "too much", adverbial or postpositive, requiring genitive case in the latter usage.
  • væse — while, in the meantime; "during (the)" with nouns. Requires a verb in the subjunctive mood or a noun in the essive (or, meaning-dependant, exessive or translative) case.

Accompanying particles (i.e. postpositions)

These particles can never stand alone, do not conjoin sentences, and nearly always require a particular noun case.

  • bīs — between; from ... until, in expressions of time. Comes after both nouns in essive case: šurājęs nyūramyęs bīs "between Šurājah and Nyūramyah".
  • bisikita — except for; requires subjunctive mood or essive case. Grammaticalized usage of put_aside-EXP-IND.PERF.3.PATIENT.EXTERIOR. (e.g. nītedarāhai lailąs bisikita nalunya upulsma "entrance is forbidden, except for involved people" → "authorized personnel only")
  • dam — interrogative particle in polar questions, put after the verb (e.g. daltah vi dam? "is it a fish?")
  • e — like. Requires essive case with nouns and subjunctive mood with verbs.
  • ga — adpositive particle, used to join nouns in noun phrases (usually titles or proper names, but not honorifics), e.g. Līlasuṃghāṇa ga marta "Līlasuṃghāṇa city" or Tāllahārya ga maita "Tāllahārya river".
    Mostly in poetry (for metrical reasons), or Archaic and Early Classical Chlouvānem prose (e.g. in the Lileṃsasarum, or many Yunyalīlti holy books), ga is used to conjoin attributive verbs to nouns, e.g. lei imiša ga švas "the animal seen by me". Already in parts of the Lileṃsasarum the decading usage of the particle in this sense is to be noted, as often it is only used to conjoin exterior verbs to nouns, but not interior ones.
  • gu(n) ~ ša — negative circumposition used around verbs, e.g. gu yuyųlsegde ša "(s)he does not want to eat". The first element is gun before vowels; the ša element is omitted if the verb is attributive.
  • lā — with (comitative); requires essive case (e.g. lilyą ñæltęs lā "with my sister"). The Archaic Chlouvānem form was lapi.
  • lut — used with expressions of time: means "ago" if used with ablative case (nęlcų heirų lut "four years ago"), "for/since" if with essive case (nęlcą heiręs lut "for four years").
  • mei and go — "yes" and "no", used according to the polarity of the question; i.e. mei denotes the statement is true ("yes" to affirmative questions, "no" to negative questions), while go denotes the statement is false ("no" to affirmative questions, "yes" to negative questions).
  • mæn — marks a topic which otherwise has no role in the sentence.
  • nali — benefactive marker, used with a noun in direct case; marks the benefited argument when the verb is not in benefactive-trigger voice. If used with a subjunctive verb, means "in order to", with a nuance of hope (the bare subjunctive already carries the "in order to" meaning).
  • nin — after, with ablative or subjunctive (nęlcų heirų nin "after four years")
  • pa — on, of, concerning, on the subject of, about. Requires a direct case noun (e.g. vāṇatarlā pa naviṣya "book about botany") or a subjunctive mood verb (e.g. šūñjulā drētte pa nīdhāḍirdya "the two of us are talking about what (s)he did down there").
  • ras — antibenefactive marker, used with a noun in direct case; marks the anti-benefited argument when the verb is not in antibenefactive-trigger voice. If used with a subjunctive verb, means "to avoid X".
  • sām — different meanings depending on case:
ablative, in expressions of time: "in ... time" (at the end of a certain period), or "by": nęlcų heirų sām "in four years' time, four years for now"; šurājų sām "by Šurājah";
translative (rarely essive), in expressions of time: "in/for/until" (within, during a certain period): nęltin heiran sām "for the coming four years" (or nęlcą heiręs sām); ājvan sām "until dawn";
dative case, with places: "until, as far as": līlasuṃghāṇa ṣrāvamaila ga keikom sām "as far as Līlasuṃghāṇa Ṣrāvamaila Station")
subjunctive verb: "until": primęlirī sām "until he/she/it comes back".
  • šut — before, with ablative or subjunctive (nęlcų heirų šut "four years before").
  • vādį — without, with essive or subjunctive. Unlike English, it cannot be used anaphorically.

Correlative particles

Chlouvānem does not have correlative conjunctions as English does, because they are translated in different ways:

  • English "both... and..." is most commonly translated as X Y no tan ("X, and also Y"), e.g. jādāh lañekaica no tan nanau draikate "both Jādāh and Lañekaica did that".
    Alternatively, the forms X Y no peiṃsiṭ ("X, and the same for Y") or X ..., Y peiṃsiṭ ("X ..., and Y the same") are also widespread, e.g. jādāh lañekaica no peiṃsiṭ nanau draikate; nāneh lei uyųla, māra peiṃsiṭ "I have eaten both the bread and the mango".
  • English "neither... nor..." is translated by the same structures as "both... and...", but negative. In the most common usage, tan is omitted:
    jādāh lañekaica no (tan) nanau gu draikate ša "neither Jādāh nor Lañekaica did that"; nāneh lei gun uyųla ša, māra peiṃsiṭ "I have eaten neither the bread nor the mango".
  • "either... or..." is easily translated by the exclusive or (mbu). It is commonly only used after the second term, but it can be put after every term for emphasis:
    jādāh (mbu) lañekaica mbu nanau dṛkte – either Jādah or Lañekaica did it. (note the singular verb)

Emphatic particles

A few particles are used (usually sentence-finally) in order to convey particular feelings of the speaker about the statement:

  • anā is an introductory particle (e.g. "so")
  • å expresses either surprise (at the beginning of a sentence) or that the fact is considered annoying (at the end), e.g. å vikṣiṭ dadrāte "wow, (s)he's done it again!" / vikṣiṭ dadrā å "oh no, (s)he's done it again!"
  • dā gives the sentence, especially a command or a proposition, an informal tone - cf. German "mal" or Italian "un po'", e.g. najire nanau mešute dā "I'll just see what happens"; peithos dā "just calm down and take a walk around here."
  • e is a basic declarative particle when used word-finally, and is often used as an introduction (much like "you know, ...") or as a generic filler.
  • eri means "even", marking a positive emphasis (e.g. hūnakumi dhāḍan eri dhāḍire "(s)he even speaks Hūnakumi[10]")
  • gāri means "not even", being the opposite of eri, marking a negative emphasis (e.g. hulābdān chlǣvānumi dhāḍan gāri dhāḍire "(s)he doesn't even speak correct Chlouvānem")
  • nā, a generic filler (cf. "I mean"), often combined with e. e.g. nā (e) nenēt nāṭ tarliru! "I mean, I already know this!"
  • nane is a tag question, e.g. camiyūs vi dam nane? "you're from Cami, aren't you?"
  • nimā is an introductory particle, same as anā.
  • naihā is a tag question much like nane, but is used when the speaker is in doubt and/or expects a contradictory answer, e.g. lære draute dam naihā? "did I do it yesterday, or...?"
  • pos is a filler with a meaning similar to tau, but it is more properly translated as emphasizing that the speaker considers the statement as a general truth or a widely accepted thing, e.g. ālīce jeldegde pos "yeah, everybody knows (s)he acts that way/does that kind of things."
  • sāṭ expresses the speaker's doubt about the honesty of the expressed action, e.g. tamye tamyu draukæ sāṭ "(s)he did it for me, but I don't believe that's what (s)he really wanted" or "as if (s)he really did it for me!"
  • tau emphasizes that the fact expressed is considered obvious, and is fairly colloquial, e.g. lārvājuṣe ēk tau "huh, I was at the temple, nothing else"; kitui vasau tau "I drove home [what else could I do?]"
  • tva puts strong emphasis on a declarative sentence; it is fairly colloquial and not polite, and thus avoided in formal speech, e.g. nenēyu daudyute tati ukulaṃte tva! "damn, I said I want that, shut up!"

Derivational morphology (vāmbeithausire maivāndarāmita)

Chlouvānem has an extensive system of derivational morphology, with many possibilities of deriving words from verbal roots and even from other nouns.

Compounds

Chlouvānem, like Sanskrit, has four main types of compound words (tadmaiva, pl. tadmaivai), called in Chlouvānem grammar emibądanīs (dvandva), ṭvādaradhausire tadmaiva (avyayībhāva), nīdhvakādhūs (tatpuruṣa), and kaudhvakādhūs (bahuvrīhi).

Dvandva (emibądanīs)

The first type of compounds is emibądanīs type (also called no ga tadmaiva), corresponding to dvandva compounds. In emibądanais, all words in the compound are taken with the concrete idea they represent. As hinted to by the alternative name, these compounds effectively substitute an "X Y no" (X and Y), compressing it into a single word.

tēneh ukyā no "a branch and a trunk" → tēnayukyāt "branch and trunk"

Dvandva compounds are formed by removing the direct case -s or -h marker from the word, lengthening all resulting final vowels (i.e. for all words not ending in -oe, -ai, -m, or -n), and joining with saṃdhi the second word; the second word is then inflected in the dual (if the word semantically refers to two things) or in the plural (if it refers to three or more things - see the next example).

tēneh nūlyai no "a branch and leaves" → tēnēnūlyai "branch(es) and leaves"

Note that, if the dvandva is plural, there is no indication of how many elements of each component are present:

lalāruṇāt voltām no "two lalāruṇai (DU) and a sheep (SG)" → lalāruṇāvoltāk "lalāruṇai and sheep" (PL)
lalāruṇai voltām no "lalāruṇai (PL) and a sheep (SG)" → lalāruṇāvoltāk "lalāruṇai and sheep" (PL)
lalāruṇa voltāk no "a lalāruṇa (SG) and sheep (PL)" → lalāruṇāvoltāk "lalāruṇai and sheep" (PL)

The identification of how many individual lalāruṇai and sheep is lost in the compound, however, we know from the plural number that there must be at least three animals; otherwise, the dvandva would be dual:

lalāruṇa voltām no "a lalāruṇa (SG) and a sheep (SG)" → lalāruṇāvoltīvā "lalāruṇai and sheep" (DU)

Dvandva made of three or more elements can, obviously, only be plural:

lalāruṇa voltām no jorai no "a lalāruṇa, a sheep, and a goat" → lalāruṇāvoltāñjorāye "lalārunai, sheep, and goats"

In the most formal registers of Chlouvānem, it is not uncommon to find dvandva compounds made of several elements:

lācāh kraṣṭāmita no lillāmita no demigretas no lelyēmita no "love, fidelity, devotion, sacrifice, and family" → lācākraṣṭāmitālillāmitādemigretālelyēmitai "love, fidelity, devotion, sacrifice, and family"

Avyayībhāva (ṭvādaradhausire tadmaiva)

Avyayībhāva compounds, in Chlouvānem ṭvādaradhausirāhe tadmaivai ("adverbial compounds"), are not as productive as the other types and, in fact, except for a few words they're mostly limited to Archaic and Classical Chlouvānem; despite being based on the latter, modern Chlouvānem does not use them productively (but see nīpenai below).
These compounds generally have a first element which is a particle (or a verbal prefix), and the second element is a noun which is either left uninflected in the direct singular or, more commonly, in the two Archaic Chlouvānem adverbializing cases: the instrumental plural or the locative singular.

sam + jildas "after + act" → *sañjildas → sañjilde "consequently"
naš(e) + sṝva "full, complete + extent" → *nakṣṝva → nakṣṝve "as much as possible"
væse + vāyam "while + image, form" → væsvāyam or væsvāyaṃrīka "thus, therefore"
paṣ(e) + vāyam "beyond + image, form" → paṣvāyam "in addition, furthermore"
maibu + jallas "enough + condition" → *maibujallas → maibujalle "as needed"
nī + penai "within + net" → nīpenai "online" (generally considered the only modern Chlouvānem avyayībhāva)

A particular kind of avyayībhāva is the -ṣati class, whose particularity derives from having a first element which is a declinable word (a possessive determiner); however, they're still adverbs and therefore uninflected:

lilyā ṣati "my way" → lilyāṣati "from my point of view; in my opinion; my way"
sāmyā ṣati "your way" → sāmyāṣati "from your point of view; in your opinion; your way"

Tatpuruṣa (nīdhvakādhūs)

Tatpuruṣa compounds (nīdhvakādhūs "with meaning inside", pl. nīdhvakādhaus) are likely the most common overall in Chlouvānem, and are the preferred way of crafting new words. These are endocentric compounds, the last element, the head of the compound, is modified by the previous element(s), which can be of any part of speech. Usually, the tatpuruṣa replaces genitive "X of Y", agentive "X which does Y", benefactive "X for Y", locative "X in Y", instrumental "X with Y", or sometimes copular structures "X which is (also) Y" (corresponding to Sanskrit karmadhāraya compounds) or "X made of Y".
The determining elements are generally uninflected.

vāṇumi tarlā "study of plants" → vāṇatarlā "botany"
vāṇatarlom kaminairīveyē lila "a person studying botany" (semantic agent) → vāṇatarlālila "botanist"
mordhē cūlla "carriage that flies" → mordhacūlla "airplane"
aṣṭre nali hatsunā "brush for teeth" → aṣṭṛhatsunā "toothbrush"
nanāye līlta "path in the jungle" → nanailīlta "jungle path"
nijogāp konanah "shooting with bow" → nijogākonanah "archery"
munnęs ḍūṇā "a telephone which is a computer" → munnaḍūṇā "smartphone"
javilenīs mayābi "wine made from apples" → javilmayābi "cider"

Bahuvrīhi (kaudhvakādhūs)

Bahuvrīhi compounds (kaudhvakādhūs "with meaning outside", pl. kaudhvakādhaus) are also quite common Chlouvānem words; they are exocentric compounds where none of the elements is the head of the compound, or, all elements are qualifiers. They replace structures like "[someone/something] with X which is/are Y" or "[sm/st] whose X is/are Y"; it could even be generalized to "[sm/st] whose [tatpuruṣa compound]":

murkire dhānęs lā lila "person with black hands" → murkadhāna "Inquisitor"
yųlgis nali javyęs lā dvārma "room with fire for food" → yųljavyāh "kitchen"[11]

Noun-forming morphemes

-a (unstressed) or -ā (stressed) is a common derivative to make basic words from verbal roots. It does not have any fixed meaning, though it's always pretty close to the root. Nouns with the unstressed suffix and an ablautable vowel usually belong to the ablauting declension. ṛ in a root is always strengthened to middle-grade.

  • dṛ (to do, to make) → dara (activity)
  • lil (to live) → lila (person; living thing)
  • tṛl (to know) → tarlā (science)

-as is another common derivative, without fixed meaning, but usually denoting objects or things done by acting. It is used to derive positions from positional verbs.

  • tug (to beat) → tugas (beat)
  • māhatyā (māhatim-) (be to the right of) → māhatimas (right)
  • āntyā (āntim-) (be above, be on) → āntimas (part above)

-ūm is another derivative without fixed meaning, overlapping with -as.

  • lgut (to buy) → lgutūm (something bought)
  • peith (to go, walk (multidirectional)) → peithūm (walk)
  • yālv (to be sweet (taste)) → yālvūm (sweet taste)

-(u)kāram is a singulative suffix, denoting either a single thing of a collective noun, or a single constituent of a broader act. Unlike the previous ones, it is most commonly applied to other nouns.
In modern coinings, it is also used to denote a division of something.

  • lun (to go, walk (monodirectional)) → lulkāram (step)
  • lil (to live) (or liloe (life)) → lilukāram (moment, instant)
  • daša (rain) → dašukāram (raindrop)
  • araṣa (atom) → araṣkāram (subatomic particle)

-anah, with middle-grade ablaut if possible, denotes an act or process, or something closely related to that.

  • dig (to pour) → deganah ((act of) pouring)
  • miš (to see) → mešanah (sight)
  • lgut (to buy) → lgotanah (shopping)

-na (-ra after t or d; -iyāna after Cy, -uvāna after Cv) with lengthening denotes a quality.

  • māl (to keep together) → mālna (union)
  • hælvē (fruit) → šaulviyāna (fertility) (morphemically //hyaulviyāna//)
  • åbdv (to swell, blow up) → åbduvāna (swollenness, bloatiness)
  • blut (to clean) → blūtra (cleanliness)
  • Lengthening is absent if the word is derived from an -aus- adjectival verb (e.g. chlæraus- ((to be) easy) → chlærausna (easiness)) and in a few exceptions.
  • Inverse-ablaut roots have the reduced vowel as a prefix (e.g. vald (to (be) open) → uvaldra (opening, state of being open)).

-išam has the same meaning as -na, but it's rarer.

  • yųlniltas (edible) → yųlniltešam (edibility)
  •  yālv (to be sweet (taste)) → yālvišam (sweetness)
  • ñailūh (ice) → ñailūvišam (coldness)
  • nevy (to model, to give a form) → nevīšam (plastic) (This word underwent a meaning shift from "modellability" to a common material with that quality, replacing the derived form nevīšandhūs previously used. "Modellability" is nyaviyāna in contemporary Chlouvānem.)

-āmita (-yāmita when used with nouns with thematic e or i), often with high-grade ablaut, is another suffix forming quality nouns, but it is often more abstract, being translatable with suffixes like English -ism.

  • lalteh (friend (female)) → laltyāmita (friendship)
  •  ēmīla (tiger) → ēmīlāmita (nobility (quality); most important people in society[12])
  • ñæltah (sister (male's)) → ñæltāmita (brotherhood)

-tsām (-utsām after ñ, š, and voiced stops except d(h)), with middle-grade ablaut, has various generic and sometimes unpredictable meanings, though typically instrumental.

  •  māl (to keep together) → māltsām (number)
  •  lij (to sing) → lejutsām (choir)
  •  dhāḍ (to speak) → dhāḍutsām (voice)
  • kul (to say) → kultsām (word) (irregular lack of middle-grade ablaut)

-rṣūs (-ṛṣūs after a consonant) denotes a tool, namely something used in doing an action.

  • yaud- (to catch) → yaudṛṣūs (trap)
  • miš- (to see) → meširṣūs (eye (literary, rare))[13]
  • nail- (to kiss) → nailṛṣūs (lips (pair of))

-gis denotes something used for doing an action, not always synonymous with -rṣūs. -t-gis becomes -ñjis.

  •  mešīn (eye) → mešīlgis (glasses (pair of))
  •  tug- (to beat) → tulgis (drumstick)
  •  lgut- (to buy) → lguñjis (money, currency)

-oe (with middle-grade ablaut) often denotes a result, but has lots of various meanings.

  •  hal- (to call) → haloe (name, noun)
  •  mbiṇḍh- (to go, walk (multidirectional)) → mbiṇḍhoe (development; the way something is carried out)
  • yųl- (to eat) → yąloe (meal)

-īn plus middle grade-ablaut denotes a doer (roughly equivalent to English -er); usually it is a person, but not always.

  • bhi- (to take care of; to care for) → bhayīn (someone who takes care; guardian)
  • tug- (to beat) → togīn (heart)
  •  lgut- (to buy) → lgotīn (buyer)

-āršis is a mostly non-productive agentive suffix like -īn, surviving in a few ancient forms as well as some colloquial pejoratives:

  • lęk- (to measure) → lękāršis (surveyor, inspector)
  • dhīl- (to be idle) → dhīlāršis (lazy ass (pejor.))
  • ēreša (teardrop) → ērešāršis (crybaby (pejor.))

-āvi denotes something derived from X. It is also used in forming matronymics.

  •  lameṣa (coconut palm) → laṃṣāvi (coconut)
  •  mešanah (sight) → mešanąvi (knowledge)
  • yųl- (to eat) → yųlāvi (strength (literary, rare))
  • It is also used with surnames of writers, usually as a plurale tantum, in order to derive words meaning "the works of...", e.g. yukahināryāvi "the works of Lileikhurāvi Yukahināri Mæmihūmya".

-āmis, with lengthening, means "made of X".

  • tāmira (rock, stone) → tāmirāmis (stone tool)
  •  tarlā (knowledge, science) → tārlāmis (wisdom)
  •  lil- (to live) → līlāmis (a blissful place)
  • Words ending in a final long vowel (plus either h, s, or m) do not lengthen any vowel in a previous syllable (e.g. ñaryāh (mountain) → ñaryāmis (mountainous area)).

-ūneh (-īneh after stems in -Cy-, -ēneh for nouns in -ē), with middle grade ablaut (rarely strong grade), has various meanings, often somewhat abstract, intensive, or related to highly valued things/roles.

  •  daša (rain) → dašūneh (monsoon)
  •  nail- (to kiss) → nailūneh (love (literary, rare))
  • yaiva (all) + lairē (day) → yaivlairēṇeh (everyday life)
  • lalāruṇa (giant domestic lizard) → lalārauṇūneh (knight mounting a lalāruṇa)

-dhūs means "having X".

  • dara (activity) → daradhūs (verb)
  • šaṇṭrās (field, soil) → šaṇṭrādhūs (countryside)
  • hælvē (fruit) → hælvidhūs (fruiting tree; literary: pregnant woman)

-bān and -ūrah are two roughly equivalent suffixes used for locations. The first one is generally used after vowels, the second after consonants, but it's no strict rule.

  • hælvē (fruit) → hælvēbān (orchard)
  • lil (to live) → lilūrah (world)
  • peith (to go, to walk (multidirectional)) → peithūrah (passage)

-(l)āṇa forms a true collective noun:

  • lalteh (friend (female)) → laltelāṇa (group of friends)
  • jīma (character, symbol, letter) → jīmalāṇa (writing system)
  • maiva (word) → maivalāṇa (lexicon)

-(l)ænah denotes a tree or a plant having a certain fruit[14].

  •  haisah (pineapple) → haisænah (pineapple tree)
  •  maɂika (uncooked rice) → maɂikænah (rice plant)
  • šikālas (prickly pear) → šikālænah (prickly pear cactus)

-yūs is used with toponyms and is one of the most common ways to form demonyms. As many of the nouns these words are derived from are proper nouns and of non-Chlouvānem origin, there are often irregular formations, e.g. using only a part of the original word.

  • Līlasuṃghāṇa → līlasuṃghāṇyūs
  • Cami → camiyūs
  • Ajāɂilbādhi → ajāɂilbādhyūs

-mana (-ana after CC clusters) is often found with the meaning of "that has to be X"; usually, a synonymous word may be formed by -s derivation from a necessitative stem, but some -mana words have their own specialized meaning:

  • ṭvur- (to believe) → ṭvurmaṇa (miracle)
  • miš- (to see) → mišmana (attraction) (also memikṣūs)
  • tṛl- (to know, understand) → tṛlmana (rule) (not synonymous with tartṛlsūs, meaning "needed knowledge, prerequisite")

-yai (often with lengthening) forms nouns with the meaning of "pertaining to", generally applied to nouns denoting inanimate (but usually concrete) concepts. Such nouns are found in literature with an anaphorical use.
It is commonly found in Chlouvānem surnames. In chemistry, it denotes binary compounds, usually with a dvandva stem.

  • vīhatam (farm) → vīhātyai (farmer; farm's)
  • svāṣṭa (armor) → svāṣṭyai (armored knight)
  • bilumbida (sodium) + talyelīm (chlorine) → bilumbītalyelīyai (sodium chloride)

-ceh, -cænah, and -cañīh (all often with palatalization of the last consonant) are three different (but with roughly the same meaning) diminutive-forming suffixes; some of them have developed distinct meanings. They can also be compounded, as in -cæñ-cañīh:

  • nūrya (child) → nūricænah (little child)
  • ēmīla (tiger) → ēmīlcañīh (cat)
  • pǣka (taste) → pǣcicænah (hors d'œuvre, entrée)

Similarly, -rarā (a likely Laiputaši borrowing) is used as an augmentative, but is only found in informal styles.

  • dårṣa (cool, nice) → dårṣararā (fantastic)
  • jāmṝṣa (dam) → jāmṝṣararā (a huge dam)
  • alūs (bottle) → alūrarā (a big bottle)

Verb-forming morphemes

Denominal verbs, in Chlouvānem, are not formed with derivational suffixes; a "light verb" is attached to the semantic root instead; the semantic root remains invariable but the light verb is conjugated (as a prefixed one). The light verb used are especially dṛke (to do, make), but also jilde (to do an action), jānake (to feel (physical)), and gyake (to be). Some examples:

  • āmaya (collection) → āmayadṛke (to collect)
  • språma (glue) → språñjilde (to glue)
  • jålkha (cold (sensation)) → jålkhajānake (to be/feel cold)
  • ñailūh (ice) → tæñailūgyake (to freeze) (note the tæ- dynamic prefix).

The other basic derived formation is the frequentative verb, formed with reduplication (with a long vowel) and -ve(y)- (-vi(y)- in the past tense[15]). -ṛ reduplicates as ṝ, but becomes a in the root.
Due to the common use of this form in modern Chlouvānem, some grammarians consider it as an inflectional category instead of a derivation. Note though that for motion verbs only multidirectional ones have a frequentative form (with iterative meaning); the multidirectionals already act as frequentative forms of the monodirectionals.

  • dṛ- (to do) → dṝdave- (to repetitively do)
  • na-jaly- (to happen) → najājlive- (to keep happening; to regularly happen, to occur)[16] (jaly- reduplicates as jā-jli-, with the i from the root y).
  • -jaly- (to be) + various prefixes → bījājlive- (to cease to be); galajājlive- (to remain in one place; to visit; to keep being)
  • tvorg- (to fear) → totvargve- (to fear over and over again) (tvo- reduplicates as to- instead of tva-).
  • låvy- (to slip) → laulavive- (to slip around here and there) (-å- reduplicates as -au- and becomes a in the root).

Note that nairīveke conjugates as a frequentative verb, but is not frequentative and does not have frequentative forms.
Frequentative perfect stems have the ablauted vowel in the reduplication and a long one in the root (cf. miš-, bare frequentative mīmišve-, perfect frequentative memīšve-); both vowels are long for non-ablauted stems (cf. nāmv-, nānamve-, nānāmve-).
Inverse ablauting roots have similar rules: the bare frequentative uses the reduplication of the nonreduced root and the reduced vowel in the root itself (vald- → va-uld-ve- → voldve-); the frequentative perfect is like the normal frequentative of other verbs, with the long vowel in the reduplication only (vald- → vāvaldve-).

In many cases, frequentatives are used with an iterative meaning; the latter, if needed for disambiguation, may be specified by the particle dīdān.

Adjectival verbs

Adjectival verbs, however, do have some ways to be derived from other parts of speech.

-ūk-ke is the most common adjectival verb-forming suffix, denoting something strictly related to an object or a verb. Note that they are all thematic verbs, even if their infinitive is contracted (Archaic Chl. -ūkake → Classical and Modern -ūkke). Often they are interchangeable with the genitive form of the noun they derived from:

  • avyāṣa (time) → avyāṣūkke ([to be] temporal)
  • chlærūm (light) → chlærūkke (of the light)
  • daša (rain) → dašūkke (rainy, concerning rain)


-uy-a-ke is a rarer variant of -ūk-ke, most commonly found for qualities related to people, but not exclusively (see third example):

  • jāyim (girl) → jāyimuyake (girly, girlish)
  • saṃhāram (boy) → saṃhāruyake (boyish)
  • irūtākalam (atom) → irūtāruyake (atomic) (the -r is etymological from Ancient Kūṣṛmāṭhi)

-aus-a-ke (rarely -us-a-ke) forms adjectival verbs related to a quality that is applied to some object, but more abstractly related than those formed with -ūkke; sometimes they are only figurative:

  • chlærūm (light) → chlærausake (easy)
  • pāṇi (side) → pāṇyausake (peripheral, less important)
  • namęlь (to make an effort, to apply oneself, to work harder) → namęliausake (Stakhanovite)
  • Nouns ending in -ā typically only add -sь- (-si-ke):
    • laikā (innocence) → laikāsike (innocent)

-nilt-a-ke translates English -able, and the circumfix uṣ- -niltake translates to "un- -able" or, sometimes, "difficult to X". The rare ñǣ- -niltake translates as "easy to X".
The uṣ- prefix has the allomorphs ū- (before voiced stops), uš- (before c and ch), and u- (before l+consonant); uṣ- plus any sibilant becomes ukṣ-.

  • tṛl (to know, understand) → tṛlniltake (understandable) → uṣṭṛlniltake (uncomprehensible; difficult to understand) / ñǣtṛlniltake (easy to understand)
  • yųl (to eat) → yųlniltake (edible) → uṣyųlniltake (unedible)
  • lgut (to buy) → lgutniltake (buyable) → ulgutniltake (not buyable)

-ṣeni-ke (morph. seny-ke, all root verbs) translates "having X as a quality", usually added to nouns, or "X-like" in some cases; it may be synonymous with the -dhūs derivative. u- and i- stems (thus -uh, -ih, -us...) lengthen that vowel before the suffix.

  • rahēlah (health) → rahēlṣenike (healthy)
  • nakṣuma (music) → nakṣuṃṣenike (having a musical talent)
  • migmairuh (emerald) → migmairūṣenike (emeraldine, emerald-like)

Compound verbs

Chlouvānem uses compound verbs as its main method of deriving verbs from nouns. Such "verbs" are actually a nominal root which does not decline followed by a conjugating verb. The verb used influences the meaning that the compound will have:

  • dṛke (to do) is probably the most commonly used, and may have a meaning of using something (denoted by the nominal root) to treat something else (cf. bikṣurdṛke "to deodorize" < bikṣurga "deodorant"), of moving or acting like the nominal root (yināṃdṛke "to protect" < yinām "protection"), or of simply having or creating something (āmayadṛke "to collect" < āmaya "collection").
  • kitte (to put) is used for a meaning of addition of the nominal root or its characteristics to something (cf. nāmṛkitte "to add salt" < nāṃra "salt).
  • męlike (to give) is sometimes used with the same meaning as kitte (cf. junyāmęlike "to plant flowers" < junyā "flower").
  • jilde (to act) is used for subjects "emitting" or "giving off" something (cf. lāhajilde "to judge" < lāham "judgement"), also for subjects possessing (dhokajilde "to mean" < dhokam "meaning") or undergoing something (lañšijilde "to marry" < lañši (arch.) braid, wedding), and also for weather phenomena[17] (dašajilde "to rain" < daša "rain").
  • gyake (to be) is used, like in one meaning of dṛke, for moving or acting like the nominal root. Typically, it is more for states than actions (the prototypical and most common example is pṛšcāṃgyake "to be pleasing" < pṛšcām "something pleasing"[18]).
  • jānake (to feel) has a meaning partially overlapping with jalle (and dṛke), particularly marking the "feeling" of a (usually uncontrollable) condition (jålkhajānake "to be cold" < jålkha "cold").
  • milke (to take) has a varied range of meaning: getting or gathering something (vīrādhmilke "to adopt" < vīrādhen "orphan"; mailьlut(a)milke "to take advantage" < mailьluta "advantage"), also the opposite, taking something away (cf. rantamilke "to peel (fruits)" < rantas "peel"), and also overlapping partially with kitte and męlike in marking the addition of something or, more, properly, the act of bringing something (prātamilke "to get windy; (figur.) to accelerate" < prātas "wind" - cf. prātajilde "to be windy").
  • bismilke (to take away) and bīdṛke (to destroy) are used, more commonly than milke, for the meaning of removing or taking something away: (ssūbismilke "to calm down" < ssūgis "something that worries"; lilembīdṛke "(euphem.) to kill" < liloe "life").

Sometimes, the most meaningful element of a compound verb is not otherwise found as a standalone word in Chlouvānem, as in pṛšcāṃjalle (to like), or hārlājmęlike (to prefer).

Prefixes

Prefixes are a major part of Chlouvānem derivational morphology. Most of them are the same as for positional and motion verbs — for their formation and use, see the related section. Most prefixes are used with verbs, and are found with nouns only in derived forms; some of them, however, can be used also or exclusively with nouns and adjectives. Prefixes derive usually from Proto-Lahob, but a few chiefly nominal ones are from Ancient Kūṣṛmāthi words.
Here follows a complete list of all prefixes used in Chlouvānem and their meaning. When two prefixes are divided by a wave dash, the first is lative and the second is ablative; NOM marks meanings of nouns derived with that prefix.

Positional and motional prefixes

  • ta- 〜 tų- - generic direction

  • ān- 〜 yana- - on, above
  • šu- 〜 šer- - under, below
  • ṭvā- 〜 ṭus- - between
  • gin- 〜 ją- - among
  • nī- 〜 ani- - within/from within inside
  • ū(b)- 〜 yom- - close to
  • bis- 〜 bara- - far, away
  • tad- (tata- before l) 〜 tasi- - attached to; against
  • įs- 〜 įṣu- - hanging
  • na(ñ)- 〜 nani- - inside
  • kau- 〜 kuvi- - outside
  • viṣ- 〜 vyeṣa- - opposite; somewhere else
  • kami- 〜 kara- - around
  • pri- 〜 prā- - behind
  • mai- 〜 mīram- - in front of
  • vai- 〜 vǣ- - in a corner; bordering; at the limit
  • sāṭ- 〜 ṣlū- - next to; along; on the side of
  • lā(d)- 〜 lo(d)- - in the center of
  • vyā- 〜 veši- - left
  • māha- 〜 mege- - right
  • pid- - facing (positional only)
  • nal- - towards the center; inwards; convergent movement
  • vād- - away from the center; outwards; divergent movement

Motional prefixes

  • be- 〜 ter- - along the surface
  • gala- 〜 hali- - through, across
  • naš- - completely, until the end; NOM: omni-, pan-, entirely
  • vod- - avoiding
  • paṣ- - ahead, beyond; also NOM: further, again, re-
  • sam- - movement to the following place/person/object in a set; NOM: after, post-

Verbal-only prefixes

  • tæ(m)- - inceptive/inchoative
  • raš- - to do something a bit more than needed (ral- or rar- before voiced consonants)
  • yā- - too much
  • iva- - completely, also intensive
  • nare- - applicative (nar- before another prefix, cf. the common form narta- for "to reach"-verbs)
  • min- - transitivizer of intransitive verbs

Other prefixes

  • o- - before, pre-, proto-, preceding (os- before vowels)
  • tail- - multi-, pluri-
  • emib(u)- or tūt(u)- - one, mono-, uni-, homo-
  • lani- - same, fellow
  • vre- - bad
  • demi- - self-

Specific terms

Derivational terms considered "specific" are those mostly found in certain jargons. Some of these are applied directly to a Lällshag root instead of a Chlouvānem one:

Used in politics and/or the arts:

  • -nātra has two main meanings: -ism (as in a doctrine) in a political sense, and -esque in the arts, cf. yaivcārṇātra "communism" (< yaiva "all", cār- "to have"), or lānūṣurṇātra "in the style of writer Naryejūramāvi Lānūṣurah Mæmihomah".
    • -nātryūs (← -nātra-yūs) is the term for a person that follows such a doctrine or style, cf. yaivcārṇātryūs "communist"; lānūṣurṇātryūs "someone whose writing is Lānūṣuraësque".
    • Note that lija and lejīn (lit. "song" and "singer") were formerly alternatives to these. They notably remain in nāɂahilūṃlija "politico-religious doctrine inspired by Great Inquisitor Kælahīmāvi Nāɂahilūma Martayinām; Yunyalīlti religious extremism" and nāɂahilūṃlejīn, as well as in arāmilija "pacifism".

Used for medical terminology:

  • -gulas usually translates "-philia" or "-mania", particularly in medical contexts, e.g. ryukagulas "masochism" from ryuka "pain".
    • -gulašålyē is the related term for someone who has that (thus "-philiac" or "-maniac"), e.g. ryukagulašålyē "masochist".
  • -rauga is a generic term used in medicine for names of illnesses or conditions affecting health, e.g. gåtnirauga "obesity" from gåtnake "to vomit"; skañcrauga "insomnia" from skañcake (to be awake at night).
    • -raugotis is the term for someone affected by a -rauga, e.g. skañcraugotis "insomniac".
  • -ītsun is a rarer alternative to -ræṣka, e.g. vrayobulītsun "asplenia" (vre- (bad) + obula (spleen)), or lagukītsun "paralysis" (the latter with the root of Lällshag gahoke (still)).
    • -ītsunis is the corresponding term for affected organisms, e.g. vrayobulītsunis "aspleniac", lagukītsunis "paralyzed".
  • -måkṣan is used for inflammatory diseases, cf. "-itis", like ṇīṭmåkṣan (dermatitis) or āḍhyāsnūlimåkṣan (meningitis).

Compounding

  • tarlā (knowledge) is used as the head element of compounds, with a meaning like -logy in English. Sometimes the meaning is only abstracted (see second example) or has changed with time (see third example):
    • babhrām (land) → babhrātarlā (geography)
    • smoḍ- (to count, to enumerate) → smoṇḍarlā (mathematics)
    • ladragyalah (inn) → ladragyaltarlā (economics)

See also

Notes

  1. ^ These are the remnants of a former gender system present in Proto-Lahob, still evident in other Lahob languages; unlike others in the family, Chlouvānem did not become genderless because of losing gender marking on nouns, but because it lost concordance anywhere else.
  2. ^ The word latiryai is the plural of latirē (wave, ray), but this compound does not have a singular form.
  3. ^ This is due to many honorific formulae being quite long - for example, the standard honorific formula when talking to an Inquisitor is (lallāmaha) [matronymic] yamei murkadhāna [given name] lāma.
  4. ^ With cousins, whether the informal or the given name is used depends on how close they are; with first cousins using the informal name is nearly universal, while with farther cousins the given name may be more common.
  5. ^ Many head monks have their own unique titles based on their monastery. For example the head monk of the Vādhaṃšvāti Lake Monastery is not referred as […] hurdagīn lāma vādhaṃšvāti ga gūltayi but as […] laliājuniāmiti jāṇi camilālta lāma, literally "Great Guardian of the Field of the Night Bloom".
  6. ^ e.g. sorami, grāṇami…
  7. ^ nęlte has the stem nęlc- wherever pāmvi has -vy-, i.e. accusatives pāmvyu, nęlcu.
  8. ^ chīka has the stem chīcæ- before consonants.
  9. ^ nęlte has the form nęlci.
  10. ^ Language of an ethnic minority (but titular ethnicity) in the diocese of Hūnakañjaiṭa.
  11. ^ Synchronically, this analysis is correct; however, this word was likely first crafted as a tatpuruṣa, i.e. "a fire for food" (yųlgis nali javyāh), before kitchens were rooms.
  12. ^ Chlouvānem society lacked a true noble class; this term applies to the most influential people in society. Tigers are considered among the noblest animals.
  13. ^ Middle-grade ablaut is specific to this root.
  14. ^ As for all living things, being Calémere a different planet, the given translation is the one of the closest equivalent on Earth.
  15. ^ Ex.: dṝdaveyute "I repetitively do" vs. dṝdaviyaute "I repetitively did"
  16. ^ The verb "to happen" does not exist as an iterative.
  17. ^ Rain, specifically, is more commonly used as the subject of the verb buñjñake, meaning "to run" for water (in Chl. rain runs just like a river does).
  18. ^ The word pṛšcām alone is almost never used in contemporary Chlouvānem.
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