Chlouvānem/Morphology: Difference between revisions

From Linguifex
Jump to navigation Jump to search
 
(800 intermediate revisions by 2 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
'''Chlouvānem''' is a highly inflected language with a synthetic morphology. Six parts of speech are traditionally distinguished: nouns, adjectives, verbs, pronouns, numerals, and particles.
'''Chlouvānem''' is a highly inflected language with a synthetic morphology. Five parts of speech are traditionally distinguished: nouns, verbs, pronouns, numerals, and particles. Throughout the page there will be references to the topics treated in the pages on [[Chlouvānem/Syntax|Chlouvānem syntax]], [[Chlouvānem/Positional and motion verbs|positional and motion verbs]], and [[Chlouvānem/Exterior and interior verbs|exterior and interior verbs]].
==Nouns - Halenī ==
{{Chlouvānem sidebar}}
==Nouns (''halenī'') ==
→ ''See [[Lahob languages#Morphology|Lahob languages § Morphology]] for diachronical tables and comparisons with sister languages.''<br/>
→ ''See also [[Chlouvānem/Syntax#Noun_phrase|Chlouvānem syntax § Noun phrase]] for discussion of case usage.''


The [[Chlouvānem]] noun (''haloe'', pl. ''halenī'') is highly inflected - it declines for:

The [[Chlouvānem]] noun (''haloe'', pl. ''halenī'') is highly inflected - it declines for:

* Three numbers:
* Three numbers:
:: '''Singular''' (''lailausis niañis'')
:: '''Singular''' (''emibausire smoḍūm'')
:: '''Dual''' (''daniausis niañis'')
:: '''Dual''' (''danyausire smoḍūm'')
:: '''Plural''' (''tailiausis niañis'')
:: '''Plural''' (''tailyausire smoḍūm'')
* Eleven cases:

* Twelve cases:

:: '''Direct''' (''daradhūkah dirūnnevya'')
:: '''Direct''' (''daradhūkire dirūnnevya'')
:: '''Vocative''' (''halauseh dirūnnevya'')

:: '''Vocative''' (''halausire dirūnnevya'')

:: '''Accusative''' (''dṛṣokah dirūnnevya'')
:: '''Accusative''' (''dṛṣokire dirūnnevya'')
:: '''Ergative''' (''darinūkah dirūnnevya'')
:: '''Ergative''' (''darinūkire dirūnnevya'')
:: '''Genitive''' (''cārūkah dirūnnevya'')

:: '''Genitive''' (''cārūkire dirūnnevya'')

:: '''Translative''' (''najamarcūkah dirūnnevya'')

:: '''Translative''' (''najamarcūkire dirūnnevya'')

:: '''Exessive''' (''nenijamarcūkah dirūnnevya'')
:: '''Exessive''' (''nanijamarcūkire dirūnnevya'')
:: '''Essive''' (''gyauseh dirūnnevya'')
:: '''Essive''' (''jalausire dirūnnevya'')
:: '''Dative''' (''męliauseh dirūnnevya'')
:: '''Dative''' (''męlyausire dirūnnevya'')
:: '''Ablative''' (''tųflunūkah dirūnnevya'')
:: '''Ablative''' (''tųlunūkire dirūnnevya'')
:: '''Locative''' (''yutiūkah dirūnnevya'')
:: '''Locative''' (''yuñcūkire dirūnnevya'')
Nouns also have grammatical gender, being divided in three classes (called ''dragon'', ''lotus'', and ''parrot'' based on nouns included in them<ref>Dragon is ''kaṃšūs'', lotus is ''yujam'', and parrot is ''geltah''.</ref>).
:: '''Instrumental''' (''drausire dirūnnevya'')


There are a few nouns which lack number; a few are singularia tantum and lack a plural (e.g. ''hærūm'' lips), other ones are plural only - most notably these include all ethnicities (e.g. ''chlouvānem'', which is also an irregular plural). The singular is made by using the genitive form attributed to ''lila'' (person), e.g. ''chlouvānumi lila'' (a Chlouvānem).
There are a few nouns which lack number; a few are singularia tantum and lack a plural (e.g. ''hærūm'' lips), other ones are plural only - most notably these include all ethnicities (e.g. ''chlǣvānem'', which is also an irregular plural). The singular is made by using the genitive form attributed to ''lila'' (person), e.g. ''chlǣvānumi lila'' (a Chlouvānem).<br/>


===Gender===
Chlouvānem does not have grammatical gender, and there are only a few natural gender terms. There are thirteen different noun declensions, but most of them only have few small differences. Chlouvānem declensions are predictable from the ending of the direct case noun, and they're categorized depending on their endings as ''s-'', ''m-'', or ''h-nouns''<ref>These are the remnants of a former gender system present in Proto-Lahob, still evident in other Lahob languages; unlike others in the family, Chlouvānem did not become genderless because of losing gender marking on nouns, but because it lost concordance anywhere else.</ref>: inside these broad categories, different declensions are distinguished by the thematic vowel of the suffix: ''a'', ''u'', or ''i'' for ''s-'' and ''m-nouns'', and ''a'', ''e'', ''u'', ''i'' for ''h-nouns''.
Genders and declensions are dependent on the form of the noun. Due to the prevailing endings in direct case, ''dragon'' nouns are also called the ''s-class''; ''lotus'' nouns the ''m-class''; and ''parrot'' nouns the ''h-class'':


'''Dragon nouns (kaṃšūlñī halenī)''':
===S-nouns - Sasą lā halenī===
* '''1s''': nouns ending in ''-as'' or ''-ās'', as well as Eastern toponyms in ''-o''
There are some traits which are common to all nominal declensions: the vocative is only distinct in the singular; in the dual there is also no distinction between translative and dative, essive and locative, and between exessive, ablative, and instrumental. In the plural, the exessive and ablative also share the same form, as do the essive plural and the ergative dual.
* '''2s''': nouns ending in ''-us'' or ''-ūs''
{{col-begin}}
* '''3s''': nouns ending in ''-is'' or ''-īs''
{{col-break}}
* '''4s''': nouns ending in ''-oe''
{| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
'''Lotus nouns (yujamñī halenī)''':
|+1-s (-as, -ās)
* '''1m''': nouns ending in ''-am'', ''-em'', ''-ām'', ''-ėm'' (or ''-n'')
* '''2m''': nouns ending in ''-um'' or ''-ūm'' (or ''-n'')
* '''3m''': nouns ending in ''-im'' or ''-īm'' (or ''-n'')
* '''4m''': nouns ending in ''-ai''
'''Parrot nouns (geltañī halenī)''':
* '''1h''': nouns ending in ''-a'', ''-ah'', ''-ā'', or ''-āh''
* '''2h''': nouns ending in ''-ė'' or ''-eh'' (plus some diminutives ending in ''-ėh'')
* '''3h''': nouns ending in ''-uh'' or ''-ūh'', and a few words of Dabuke origin in ''-u'' (mostly only used regionally in the West)
* '''4h''': nouns ending in ''-ih'' or ''-īh'' (plus a few exceptional ones in ''-i'')
* '''5h''': nouns ending in ''-a'' which have ablaut-conditioned variations in their stems in different cases
 
===Dragon nouns - Kaṃšūlñī halenī===
The first declension of dragon nouns is also the most common one for that gender. Like all other nominal declensions, the vocative is only distinct in the singular, and dual and plural have the same forms for translative, exessive, essive, dative, ablative, and locative.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! rowspan=2 | Case !! colspan=3 | 1-s nouns !! colspan=3 | 2-s nouns !! colspan=3 | 3-s nouns !! colspan=3 | 4-s nouns
! Case !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
! <small>Direct</small>
| '''prātas'''<br/><small>''"wind"''</small> || rowspan=2 | prātāt || rowspan=2 | prāte
|-
|-
! Direct
! <small>Vocative</small>
| '''prātas''' <small>''"wind"''</small> || prātudi || prāte || '''kældus''' <small>''"wax"''</small> || kældudi || kælduvī || '''kumis''' <small>''"bamboo"''</small> || kumidi || kumiye || '''haloe''' <small>''"name"''</small> || haloedi || halenī
| prātau
|-
|-
! Vocative
! <small>Accusative</small>
| prātau || prātudi || prāte || kældu || kældudi || kælduvī || kumi || kumidi || kumiye || haloe || haloedi || halenī
| prātu || prātāṣa || prataih
|-
|-
! Accusative
! <small>Ergative</small>
| prātu || prātudau || prātānu || kældau || kældudau || kældūnu || kumiu || kumidau || kumiānu || halenu || haloedau || halenænu
| prātei || prātāya || prātān
|-
|-
! Ergative
! <small>Genitive</small>
| prātei || prātudeni || prātān || kældovei || kældudeni || kældān || kumiei || kumideni || kumiān || halenei || haloedeni || halenān
| prāti || prāteva || prātumi
|-
|-
! Genitive
! <small>Translative</small>
| prāti || prātudais || prātumi || kældavi || kældudais || kældoumi || kumieyi || kumideis || kumiumi || halenies || haloedais || halenyumi
| prātan || prātaus || prātāmān
|-
|-
! Translative
! <small>Exessive</small>
| prātan || prātyoh || prātyoh || kældun || kældyoh || kældyoh || kumian || kumiyoh || kumiyoh || halenan || halenyoh || halenyoh
| prātat || prātābhan || prātenīs
|-
|-
! Exessive
! <small>Essive</small>
| prātat || prātyās || prātyās || kældut || kældyās || kældyās || kumiæt || kumiyās || kumiyās || halenat || halenyās || halenyās
| prātą || prātigin || prātāya
|-
|-
! Essive
! <small>Dative</small>
| prātą || prātvin || prātvin || kældęs || kældvin || kældvin || kumiæs || kumivin || kumivin || halen || halemvin || halemvin
| prātom || prātaus || prātasām
|-
|-
! Dative
! <small>Ablative</small>
| prātom || prāteiti || prāteiti || kældom || kældeiti || kældeiti || kumiom || kumievuti || kumievuti || halenom || haleneiti || haleneiti
| prātų || prātābhan || prātenīs
|-
|-
! Ablative
! <small>Locative</small>
| prātų || prātenīs || prātenīs || kældų || kældunīs || kældunīs || kumių || kumienīs || kumienīs || halenų || haleninīs || haleninīs
| prāte || prātigin || prātilīm
|-
|-
! Locative
! <small>Instrumental</small>
| prāte || prātilīm || prātilīm || kælduve || kældilīm || kældilīm || kumie || kumiælīm || kumiælīm || halenive || haleṃlīm || haleṃlīm
| prātap || prātābhan || prātenīka
|}
|}
 
{{col-break}}
===Lotus nouns - Yujamñī halenī===
{| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
{| class="wikitable"
|+2-s (-us, -ūs)
|-
|-
! rowspan=2 | Case !! colspan=3 | 1-m nouns !! colspan=3 | 2-m nouns !! colspan=3 | 3-m nouns !! colspan=3 | 4-m nouns
! Case !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
! <small>Direct</small>
| '''haɂrus'''<br/><small>''"squid"''</small> || rowspan=2 | haɂrūt || rowspan=2 | haɂraus
|-
|-
! Direct
! <small>Vocative</small>
| '''yujam''' <small>''"lotus"''</small> || yujandi || yujye || '''tūlum''' <small>''"worm"''</small> || tūlundi || tūluvye || '''jāyim''' <small>''"girl"''</small> || jāyinьdi || jāyiñe || '''lunai''' <small>''"tea"''</small> || lunaidi || lunāye
| haɂru
|-
|-
! Vocative
! <small>Accusative</small>
| yujam || yujandi || yujye || tūlu || tūlundi || tūluvye || jāyī || jāyinьdi || jāyiñe || lunai || lunaidi || lunāye
| haɂravu || haɂrūṣa || haɂravih
|-
|-
! Accusative
! <small>Ergative</small>
| yujamu || yujandau || yujāmūn || tūlau || tūlundau || tūlumūn || jāyimu || jāyinьdau || jāyimin || lunāyu || lunaidau || lunainū
| haɂrave || haɂrūya || haɂrūn
|-
|-
! Ergative
! <small>Genitive</small>
| yujamei || yujandeni || yujamān || tūluṃs || tūlundeni || tūlumān || jāyimei || jāyinьdeni || jāyimān || lunea || lunaideni || lunæyān
| haɂravi || haɂragva || haɂrǣmi
|-
|-
! Genitive
! <small>Translative</small>
| yujami || yujandais || yujammi || tūlumvi || tūlundais || tūloumi || jāyimi || jāyinьdeis || jāyiñumi || lunayi || lunaidais || lunæyumi
| haɂrun || haɂrugus || haɂromān
|-
|-
! Translative
! <small>Exessive</small>
| yujaman || yujyoh || yujyoh || tūluman || tūluvyoh || tūluvyoh || jāyiman || jāyiñyoh || jāyiñyoh || lunāyan || lunāyoh || lunāyoh
| haɂrut || haɂrobhan || haɂruṇīs<sup>1</sup>
|-
|-
! Exessive
! <small>Essive</small>
| yujamat || yujamyās || yujamyās || tūlumat || tūlumyās || tūlumyās || jāyimæt || jāyiñyās || jāyiñyās || lunāyat || lunāyās || lunāyās
| haɂrą || haɂrugin || haɂrūya
|-
|-
! Essive
! <small>Dative</small>
| yujamą || yujamvin || yujamvin || tūlumą || tūlumvin || tūlumvin || jāyimą || jāyimvin || jāyimvin || lunąis || lunaivin || lunaivin
| haɂravom || haɂrugus || haɂrusām
|-
|-
! Dative
! <small>Ablative</small>
| yujamom || yujyeiti || yujyeiti || tūlumom || tūluvyeiti || tūluvyeiti || jāyimom || jāyimėti || jāyimėti || lunāmom || lunāyeiti || lunāyeiti
| haɂrų || haɂrobhan || haɂruṇīs<sup>1</sup>
|-
|-
! Ablative
! <small>Locative</small>
| yujamų || yujamñis || yujamñis || tūlumų || tūlumñis || tūlumñis || jāyimų || jāyimñīs || jāyimñīs || lunāyų || lunaiñīs || lunaiñīs
| haɂrave || haɂrugin || haɂrulīm
|-
|-
! Locative
! <small>Instrumental</small>
| yujamñe || yujailīm || yujailīm || tūlumñe || tulŏlīm || tulŏlīm || jāyimñe || jāyælīm || jāyælīm || lunaiñe || lunæyilīm || lunæyilīm
| haɂrup || haɂrobhan || haɂruṇīka<sup>1</sup>
|}
|}
 
{{col-break}}
Note that all lotus nouns with '''-n''' have their direct and vocative plural forms ''identical'' to the singular ones - all other inflections (including the dual) are the same as the other nouns. Thus e.g. '''samin''' may be either ''child'' or ''children'', and it is usually the verb that marks the number - compare ''samin mālchė'' "the kid runs" and ''samin mālchęn'' "the kids run".<br/>These unmarked plurals are regular - note that ''hulin'' (woman) has both a regular plural (''hulin''), used in a wider scope (e.g. ''chlouvānumi hulin'' "Chlouvānem women") and an irregular plural (''hilāni'') used in other contexts (e.g. ''nanā hilāni'' "those women there").
{| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
 
|+3-s (-is, -īs)
===Parrot nouns - Geltañī halenī===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! rowspan=2 | Case !! colspan=3 | 1-h nouns !! colspan=3 | 2-h nouns !! colspan=3 | 3-h nouns !! colspan=3 | 4-h nouns !! colspan=3 | 5-h nouns
! Case !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
! <small>Direct</small>
| '''ḍhogis'''<br/><small>''"monument"''</small> || rowspan=2 | ḍhogīt || rowspan=2 | ḍhogais
|-
|-
! Direct
! <small>Vocative</small>
| '''māra''' <small>''"mango"''</small> || māradi || mārai || '''javileh''' <small>''"apple"''</small> || javiladi || javilei || '''camūh''' <small>''"group"''</small> || camūdi || camūvai || '''jramih''' <small>''"arrow"''</small> || jramīdi || jramīye || '''lila''' <small>''"person"''</small> || lildi || leliė
| ḍhogi
|-
|-
! Vocative
! <small>Accusative</small>
| māra || māradi || mārai || javili || javiladi || javilei || camū || camūdi || camūvai || jramī || jramīdi || jramīye || lila || lildi || leliė
| ḍhogayu || ḍhogīṣa || ḍhogaih
|-
|-
! Accusative
! <small>Ergative</small>
| māru || māradau || mārānu || javilu || javiladau || javilėnu || camou || camūdau || camounu || jramīyu || jramīdau || jrameinu || lilu || lildau || leliu
| ḍhogaye || ḍhogīya || ḍhogīn
|-
|-
! Ergative
! <small>Genitive</small>
| mārei || māradeni || mārān || javiliai || javiladeni || javilėn || camūvei || camūdeni || camoun || jramīyi || jramīdeni || jramein || lilei || lildeni || leliei
| ḍhogayi || ḍhogajña || ḍhogyumi
|-
|-
! Genitive
! <small>Translative</small>
| māri || māradais || mārumi || javili || javiladais || javilumi || camūvi || camūdais || camūmi || jramīyi || jramīdais || jramiūmi || leli || lildais || laili
| ḍhogin || ḍhogigus || ḍhogemān
|-
|-
! Translative
! <small>Exessive</small>
| māran || māryāh || māryāh || javilan || javilyāh || javilyāh || camūn || camūyāh || camūyāh || jramīn || jramīyāh || jramīyāh || lilan || lelian || lelian
| ḍhogit || ḍhogebhan || ḍhogenīs
|-
|-
! Exessive
! <small>Essive</small>
| mārat || māryās || māryās || javilet || javilyās || javilyās || camūt || camūyās || camūyās || jramīt || jramīyās || jramīyās || lilat || leliat || leliat
| ḍhogę || ḍhogigin || ḍhogīya
|-
|-
! Essive
! <small>Dative</small>
| māręs || mārvin || mārvin || javilęs || javilein || javilein || camųs || camūvin || camūvin || jramįs || jramīvin || jramīvin || liląs || lailąs || lailąs
| ḍhogayom || ḍhogigus || ḍhogisām
|-
|-
! Dative
! <small>Ablative</small>
| mārom || mārauti || mārauti || javilom || javiliauti || javiliauti || camvom || camvauti || camvauti || jramiom || jramiauti || jramiauti || lilom || leliom || leliom
| ḍhogyų || ḍhogebhan || ḍhogenīs
|-
|-
! Ablative
! <small>Locative</small>
| mārų || mārenīs || mārenīs || javilių || javilenīs || javilenīs || camųu || camūnīs || camūnīs || jramių || jramīnīs || jramīnīs || lilų || lelių || lelių
| ḍhogaye || ḍhogigin || ḍhogilīm
|-
|-
! Locative
! <small>Instrumental</small>
| māre || mārilīm || mārilīm || javiliye || javililīm || javililīm || camve || camŏlīm || camŏlīm || jramie || jramīlīm || jramīlīm || lile || laile || laile
| ḍhogip || ḍhogebhan || ḍhoginīka
|}
|}
{{col-end}}
Table notes:
# The ending is ''-unīs/-unīka''; the '''n''' → '''ṇ''' shift is a case of regular saṃdhi.
Also note that modern borrowings ending in [s] typically add a further case ending, e.g. Skyrdagor ''valtasz'' (nunatak) becomes Chlouvānem ''valtasas'' (same meaning), declining as ''valtasau'', ''valtasu'', ''valtasei''...


===Exceptions for duals and plurals===
===M-nouns - Mamą lā halenī===
A few Chlouvānem nouns have irregular plurals:
{{col-begin}}
* The word ''chlouvānem'' itself is plural-only and irregular; direct and vocative are in ''-em'', but all other cases decline as a standard plural 1h noun (e.g. accusative ''chlouvānānu'', ergative ''chlouvānān'', genitive ''chlouvānumi'');
{{col-break}}
* ''maila'' “water” does not have a dual form outside of colloquial use (where ''mailadi'' is used with the meaning of “two glasses of water”) and has the irregular plural ''mailtiąa''. It declines as a ''singular'' 1h noun, with two exceptions, namely accusative in ''-ąu'' instead of expected *-ahu and genitive in ''-ąi'' instead of expected *-ahi. This plural form is actually common, used when talking about bodies of water in an area, water layers, glasses of water, and a few minor idiomatic uses (e.g. ''taili mailtiahe hilæflulke'', lit. “to arrive by crossing many waters”, meaning “to have had much experience”).
{| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
*''hulin'' "woman" has both a regular plural (''hulin''), used in a wider scope (e.g. ''chlouvānumi hulin'' "Chlouvānem women") and an irregular plural (''hilāni'') used in other contexts (e.g. ''nanā hilāni'' "those women there").
|+1-m (-am, -ām)
* ''resan'' "pig" and ''liken'' "arm" both have irregular plurals with vowel change: ''ryasan'' and ''læcin'' respectively.
* ''švas'' "animal (including humans)" pluralizes as ''švai'', as if it were a parrot noun; all cases except for direct and vocative are however regular.
* There are some pluralia tantum: ''pārye'' “hair”, ''kāraṇḍhai'' “guts”, and all ethnonyms; also ''agṇyaucai'' (perfect exterior participle, parrot plural, of ''gṇyauke'' “to give birth”) when used with the meaning of “sons and daughters”.
* A few nouns are singularia tantum: ''hærṣūs'' “lips”, ''maula'' “breasts”, ''kanai'' “spices”, ''paʔeh'' “dust”, ''nāmvāvi'' “dust (made by crushing something)”, ''måris'' “ash”, ''ñailūh'' “ice”.
* Dvandva compounds are usually all dual and pluralizable - like ''yāṇḍamaišñukam'' “genitals”, or also many dyadic kinship terms (e.g. ''maihāmeinā'' “daughter and mother”) - but some of them are inherently “singular” and therefore are dual only, like ''lillamurḍhyāyunya'' (how some philosophical Yunyalīlti currents refer to the yunya “nature” and the ''lillamurḍhyā'' “natural harmony” as two aspects of the same thing). Note that dual inflections are not present on the noun itself in direct and vocative forms.
* Toponyms (except inherently dual or plural ones), personal names, and miscellaneous things that are semantically only singular (like many Yunyalīlti concepts, e.g. ''yunya'' or ''lillamurḍhyā'') are found exclusively in the singular.
 
==Adjectives and adverbs - Maihaleniausī khladaradhausī no halenī==
Adjectives (''maihaleniausis haloe'', pl. ''maihaleniausī halenī''), in Chlouvānem, are actually a subset of nouns which have different forms depending on gender. They can function as attributes to nouns, but they can also be used without any noun, usually replacing it (and taking its gender) as a means of anaphora. If they are related to people, they take parrot gender: the common explanation is that they stand for <small>ADJ.</small> + ''lila'' (person).<br/>
Adjectives decline much like nouns, except for a few small differences. Their dragon gender form, direct case, singular number, is the citation form.
 
=== Dragon gender (kaṃšūlñis) ===
There are three main adjectival declensions: '''-as''', '''-us''', and '''-is'''; a small subset of '''-es''' adjectives (mainly ordinal numbers) follows the '''-is''' pattern except for plural direct and vocative (having ''-eye'' instead of ''-ī'') and having ''-e'' as a thematic vowel instead of ''-i'' before endings.<br/>The irregular adjective ''līleskais'' (new) declines as if it were *līleskis.
 
Translative, exessive, essive, dative, ablative, and locative forms are exactly the same as for nouns. Forms that are different from the nominal declensions are in '''bold''':
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! rowspan=2 | Case !! colspan=3 | 1-s adjectives !! colspan=3 | 2-s adjectives !! colspan=3 | 3-s adjectives
! Case !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
! <small>Direct</small>
| '''yujam'''<br/><small>''"lotus"''</small> || rowspan=2 | yujivā || rowspan=2 | yujāk
|-
|-
! Direct
! <small>Vocative</small>
| prātūkas <small>''"windy"''</small> || '''prātūkadi''' || prātūke || mālthus <small>''"last"''</small> || mālthudi || mālthuvī || tarlausis <small>''"scientific"''</small> || tarlausidi || '''tarlausī'''
| yujā
|-
|-
! Vocative
! <small>Accusative</small>
| '''prātūka''' || '''prātūkadi''' || prātūke || mālthu || mālthudi || mālthuvī || tarlausi || tarlausidi || '''tarlausī'''
| yujamu || yujmes || yujmaih
|-
|-
! Accusative
! <small>Ergative</small>
| prātūku || '''prātūkadu''' || prātūkānu || mālthau || mālthudau || mālthūnu || tarlausiu || tarlausidau || tarlausiānu
| yujmæ || yujmyan || yujamūn
|-
|-
! Ergative
! <small>Genitive</small>
| '''prātūkai''' || '''prātūkaden''' || prātūkān || mālthoṃs || mālthudeni || mālthān || tarlausiei || tarlausideni || tarlausiān
| yujami || yujmeva || yujaṃrān
|-
|-
! Genitive
! <small>Translative</small>
| '''prātūkuyi''' || '''prātūkadais''' || prātūkumi || '''mālthuyi''' || mālthudais || '''mālthūmi''' || '''tarlausiai''' || tarlausideis || '''tarlausieis'''
| yujaman || yujmį || yujamān
|}
=== Lotus gender (yujamñis) ===
Lotus gender adjectives follow the same patterns as dragon ones — their endings are '''-am''', '''-um''', '''-im''' ('''-em''').
Differences in bold are from lotus gender nouns.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! rowspan=2 | Case !! colspan=3 | 1-m adjectives !! colspan=3 | 2-m adjectives !! colspan=3 | 3-m adjectives
! <small>Exessive</small>
| yujamat || yujabhan || yujmenīs
|-
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !!  Singular !! Dual !! Plural
! <small>Essive</small>
| yujmą || yujmenne || yujmyan
|-
|-
! Direct
! <small>Dative</small>
| prātūkam <small>''"windy"''</small> || prātūkandi || '''prātūkeñe''' || mālthum <small>''"last"''</small> || mālthundi || mālthuvye || tarlausim <small>''"scientific"''</small> || tarlausinьdi || tarlausiñe
| yujamom || yujmį || yujaṃsām
|-
|-
! Vocative
! <small>Ablative</small>
| prātūkam || prātūkandi || '''prātūkeñe''' || mālthu || mālthundi || mālthuvye || tarlausi || tarlausinьdi || tarlausiñe
| yujamų || yujabhan || yujmenīs
|-
|-
! Accusative
! <small>Locative</small>
| prātūkamu || '''prātūkandu''' || '''prātūkūnu''' || mālthau || mālthundau || mālthumūn || tarlausimu || tarlausinьdau || tarlausimān
| yujaṃrye || yujmenne || yujmilīm
|-
|-
! Ergative
! <small>Instrumental</small>
| '''prātūkemei''' || '''prātūkanden''' || '''prātūkūnen''' || mālthuṃs || mālthundeni || mālthumān || tarlausimei || tarlausinьdeni || tarlausimān
| yujamap || yujabhan || yujaṃrīka
|-
! Genitive
| '''prātūkañi''' ||  prātūkandais || prātūkumi || '''mālthuñi''' || mālthundais || mālthoumi || '''tarlauseñi''' || tarlausinьdeis || '''tarlausemñi'''
|}
|}
 
{{col-break}}
=== Parrot gender (geltañis) ===
{| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
Parrot gender adjectives, unlike the other two genders, do not have the ''-e-'' subdeclension, having '''-ah''', '''-uh''', and '''-eh''' as its three declensional endings (''-is''/''-es'' and ''-im''/''-em'' all correspond to ''-eh'').
|+2-m (-um, -ūm)
Differences in bold are from parrot gender nouns.
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! rowspan=2 | Case !! colspan=3 | 1-h adjectives !! colspan=3 | 2-h adjectives !! colspan=3 | 3-h adjectives
! Case !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
! <small>Direct</small>
| '''tūlum'''<br/><small>''"worm"''</small> || rowspan=2 | tūlvivā || rowspan=2 | tūlūk
|-
|-
! Direct
! <small>Vocative</small>
| prātūkah <small>''"windy"''</small> || prātūkadi || '''prātūkæh''' || mālthuh <small>''"last"''</small> || mālthudi || mālthuvai || tarlauseh <small>''"scientific"''</small> || tarlausadi || tarlausei
| tūlve
|-
|-
! Vocative
! <small>Accusative</small>
| prātūka || prātūkadi || '''prātūkæh''' || mālthu || mālthudi || mālthuvai || tarlausi || tarlausadi || tarlausei
| tūlumu || tūlves || tūluyih
|-
|-
! Accusative
! <small>Ergative</small>
| prātūku || prātūkadau || '''prātūkaun''' || mālthou || mālthudau || mālthounu || tarlausu || tarlausadau || tarlausėnu
| tūluga || tūlvyan || tūlumūn
|-
|-
! Ergative
! <small>Genitive</small>
| prātūkei || '''prātūkaden''' || '''prātūkæn''' || '''mālthuve''' || mālthudeni || mālthoun || tarlausiai || tarlausaeni || tarlausėn
| tūlumi || tūlveva || tūluṃrān
|-
|-
! Genitive
! <small>Translative</small>
| prātūki || prātūkadais || prātūkumi || mālthuvi || mālthudais || mālthumi || '''tarlauseah''' || '''tarlausadæs''' || tarlausumi
| tūluman || tūlvį || tūlumān
|}
===Irregular adjectives===
"Irregular" adjectives are a closed group of words that have their own declensional paradigm. They are all declined for gender (though only in direct, vocative, accusative, ergative, and genitive) but ''not'' for number. Unlike other adjectives, the citation form is the ''parrot gender'' and not the dragon; they end in ''-iā'' or ''-i'' in parrot direct, ''-em'' (rarely ''-im'' or ''-am'') in lotus direct, and ''-es'' (rarely ''-as'') in dragon direct.<br/>
These words are:
* The possessives: '''''liliā''''' - ''lilem'' - ''liles'' (my, mine), '''''sāmiā''''' - ''sāmim'' - ''sāmes'' (your(s) (sg)), '''''demiā''''' - ''demim'' - ''demes'' (one's own), '''''tamiā''''' - ''tamim'' - ''tames'' (his, her(s), its), '''''maiyā''''' - ''maiyem'' - ''maiyes'' (our(s)), '''''najyā''''' - ''nagem'' - ''nages'' (your(s) (pl)), '''''tomiā''''' - ''tomim'' - ''tomes'' (their(s))
* The Classical/modern demonstratives: '''''nenė''''' - ''nenayem'' - ''nenayes'' (proximal), '''''nunū''''' - ''numvem'' - ''numves'' (medial), '''''nanā''''' - ''nanām'' - ''nanās'' (distal)
* The archaic demonstratives: '''''ami''''' - ''em'' - ''es'' (proximal), '''''uteni''''' - ''utam'' - ''utas'' (medial), '''''āteni''''' - ''ātam'' - ''ātas'' (distal)
* All compounds with one of these (most commonly ''ami'').
 
There are three main declensional paradigms: all of them follow the ''ā-paradigm'' except the parrot forms of ''nenė'' and ''nunū''. Note that ''ami'', ''uteni'' and ''āteni'' keep the palatalization also in the locative case (e.g. ''amiea''):
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! rowspan=2 | Case !! colspan=3 | ā-paradigm !! ė-paradigm !! ū-paradigm
! <small>Exessive</small>
| tūlumat || tūlubhan || tūlvenīs
|-
|-
! Parrot !! Lotus !! Dragon !! Parrot !! Parrot
! <small>Essive</small>
| tūlų || tūlunne || tūlvyan
|-
|-
! Direct<br/>Vocative
! <small>Dative</small>
| '''liliā''' || '''lilem''' || '''liles''' || '''nenė''' || '''nunū'''
| tūlumom || tūlvį || tūluṃsām
|-
|-
! Accusative
! <small>Ablative</small>
| liliau || lilemu || lileṣu || nenæyu || nunūyu
| tūlumų || tūlubhan || tūlvenīs
|-
|-
! Ergative
! <small>Locative</small>
| lilie || lilemie || lilesie || nenæye || nunūye
| tūluṃrye || tūlunne || tūlulīm
|-
|-
! Genitive
! <small>Instrumental</small>
| liliai || lilemñi || lilesiai || neniai || nunūyai
| tūlumap || tūlubhan || tūluṃrīka
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
|+3-m (-im, -īm)
|-
|-
! Translative
! Case !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
| colspan=3 style="text-align: center;" | liliān || nenėn || nunūn
|-
|-
! Exessive
! <small>Direct</small>
| colspan=3 style="text-align: center;" | liliāt || nenėt || nunūt
| '''jāyim'''<br/><small>''"girl"''</small> || rowspan=2 | jāyīvā || rowspan=2 | jāyīk
|-
|-
! Essive
! <small>Vocative</small>
| colspan=3 style="text-align: center;" | liliąa || nenęe || nunųu
| jāyī
|-
|-
! Dative
! <small>Accusative</small>
| colspan=3 style="text-align: center;" | liliåh || neneah || nunouh
| jāyimu || jājñes<sup>1</sup> || jāyīh
|-
|-
! Ablative
! <small>Ergative</small>
| colspan=3 style="text-align: center;" | liliąu || nenėhu || nunūvu
| jājña<sup>1</sup> || jāyiyan || jāyimūn
|-
! Locative
| colspan=3 style="text-align: center;" | lilea || nenėhea || nunūvea
|}
 
===Adverbs===
Adjectives are turned into adverbs (''khladaradhausis haloe'', pl. ''khladaradhausī halenī'') by removing the ending (-as/us/is/es) and adding '''-ęe''' (''-nęe'' after vowel-final stems). Thus:
* ''tarlausis'' (scientific) → ''tarlausęe'' (scientifically, according to science)
* ''namęliausis'' (stakanovist) → ''namęliausęe'' (continuously; without any break)
* ''prātūkas'' (windy) → ''prātūkęe'' (windy; like the wind)
 
A few ''-us'' adjectives keep the ''-u-'' (and thus add ''-nęe''):
* ''mālthus'' (last) → ''mālthunęe'' ((as) last; at last, finally)
 
There are also some irregular adverbs, made from other speech parts:
* ''chlærūm'' (light) → ''chlære'' (easily) (but note its synonym ''chlærausęe'' from the related adjective ''chlærausis'' (easy))
* ''dilas'' (same) → ''diledile'' (exactly the same way; emphatic version of ''dilęe'' but more common)
* ''ṣati'' (way, mode) suffixed to a possessive adjective forms ''liliāṣati'' (from my point of view; my way; in my opinion), ''sāmiāṣati'' (from your point of view; your way; in your opinion), ''demiāṣati'', ''tamiāṣati'', and so on.
 
====Underived adverbs====
Some adverbs are not derived from any other part of speech. They include:
* All adverbial correlatives;
* ''flære'' (yesterday), ''amyære'' (today), and ''menire'' (tomorrow)
* ''mådviṣe'' (before), ''kaminæne'' (now), and ''færviṣe'' (after)
* Some adverbs formed by onomatopoeia or sound symbolism (and usually reduplicated) like ''rarāre'' (roaring) or ''tanetane'' (barefoot).
 
===Undeclinable adjectives===
A few common words may be used attributively just like adjectives, but they do not decline. Most of them end in either ''-a'' or ''-i'':
* ''cami'' - great, large (figurative), important
* ''lalla'' - high, higher, next
* ''chāra'' - good (and ''chloucæm'' (better))
* ''taili'' - many, much
* ''nanū'' - more
* ''kaili'' - most
* ''ṣūbha'' - few, little
* ''yamei'' - "honorific" adjective
Note that ''cami'', ''taili'', and ''kaili'', in some (but not all) Archaic Chlouvānem texts, have a singular-only declension based on the irregular one of ''ami - em - es''. Most probably this was an analogic feature of a few pre-Classical standardization Chlouvānem dialects of 2000 years ago.
 
===Comparatives and superlatives===
There are two methods for building comparatives and superlatives: a synthetic and an analytic one. Synthetic comparatives, except for a few irregular forms, are extremely rare in spoken Chlouvānem and only used in very formal written language. Adjectives that either refer to the presence or absence of a quality do not have comparatives or superlatives, nor does the "honorific adjective" ''yamei''.
 
Analytic comparatives are made by using either '''nanū''' (more) or '''ovet''' (less) in front of the adjective; the compared term is in accusative case and followed by the comparative particle '''en'''; the superlative is formed by using '''yaivu en''' (than all) as the compared term.
Adverbs use the same method (e.g. ''chlære'' (easily) → ''nanū chlære'' → ''yaivu en nanū chlære''), but "than all" in superlatives is usually omitted, therefore they use ''nanū'' also with a superlative meaning.
 
Absolute superlatives (very,...) are formed by reduplicating the adjective (or, colloquially, part of it, like for ''ñæñuchlim'' "beautiful" → ''ñæñu-ñæñuchlim'') or by putting ''taili'' (many, much) in front:
: ''kaṣrūm saṃhāram'' "handsome boy" → ''kaṣrūm kaṣrūm saṃhāram'' "very handsome boy" (or ''taili kaṣrūm saṃhāram'')
: ''ñæñuchlim laleichim'' "beautiful wife" → ''ñæñuchlim ñæñuchlim laleichim'' "very beautiful wife" (or ''taili ñæñuchlim laleichim'')
: ''taili naviṣya'' "many books" → ''taili taili naviṣya'' "a lot of books"
 
Synthetic comparatives are formed with the suffix '''-apus''' (for ''-as'' and ''-us'' adjectives) or '''-epus''' (for ''-is'' adjectives). The compared term is always accusative + ''en'':
* ''prātūkas'' (windy) → ''prātūkapus'' (windier)
* ''kurgus'' (noisy) → ''kurgapus'' (noisier)
* ''chlærausis'' (easy) → ''chlærausepus'' (easier)
 
Synthetic superlatives use '''-ækṣasis''' (for ''-as'' adjectives) or '''-īkṣasis''' (for ''-us'' and ''-is'' adjectives):
* ''prātūkas'' → ''prātūkækṣasis'' (the windiest)
* ''kurgus'' → ''kurgīkṣasis'' (the noisiest)
* ''chlærausis'' → ''chlærausīkṣasis'' (the easiest)
 
Synthetic comparatives and superlatives for adverbs use respectively '''-ven''' and '''-eten''':
* ''chlærausęe'' (easily) → ''chlærausiven'' (more easily) → ''chlærauseten'' (most easily)
 
====Irregular forms====
There are seven irregular adjectives which are only used with the synthetic comparatives, all irregularly formed:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! Positive !! Comparative !! Superlative
! <small>Genitive</small>
| jāyimi || jājñeva<sup>1</sup> || jāyiṃran
|-
|-
| ''ñikas'' (small) || rowspan=2 | ''isis'' (smaller; fewer, less) || rowspan=2  | ''iñekṣis'' (smallest; fewest, least)
! <small>Translative</small>
| jāyiman || jāyį || jāyimān
|-
|-
| ''ṣubha'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (few, little)
! <small>Exessive</small>
| jāyimat || jāyibhan || jājñenīs<sup>1</sup>
|-
|-
| ''spragnyas'' (large) || ''samvaris'' (larger) || ''sasprāsis'' (largest)
! <small>Essive</small>
| jāyį || jāyinne || jāyiyan
|-
|-
| ''garpas'' (bad) || ''grašcasis'' (worse) || ''gugārasis'' (worst)
! <small>Dative</small>
| jāyimom || jāyį || jāyiṃsam
|-
|-
| ''chāra'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (good) || ''chloucæm'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (better) || ''chloucækṣis'' (best)
! <small>Ablative</small>
| jāyimų || jāyibhan || jājñenīs<sup>1</sup>
|-
|-
| ''durḍhāvas'' (far) || ''duryāḍhivas'' (farther, further) || ''dudhorasis'' (farthest, furthest)
! <small>Locative</small>
| jāyiṃrye || jāyinne || jāyilīm
|-
|-
| ''taili'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (many, much) || ''nanū'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (more) || ''kaili'' <small><sub>indecl.</sub></small> (most)
! <small>Instrumental</small>
| jāyimap || jāyibhan || jāyiṃrīka
|}
|}
{{col-end}}
{
Table notes:
# Such forms with ''-jñ-'' are underlyingly ''-y-y-'' (e.g. ''jāy-y-es'' → ''jājñes'').


In addition to these, the other two indeclinable adjectives ''cami'' and ''lalla'' have only the analytic forms ''(yaivu en) nanū cami''/''lalla''.
===H-nouns - Hahą lā halenī===
 
{{col-begin}}
==Verbs - Daradhūvī==
{{col-break}}
The Chlouvānem verb (''daradhūs'', pl. ''daradhūvī'') is the most inflected part of speech; its most basic forms are fusional, but many more specific formations are more agglutinative due to their origin from old Proto-Lahob particles or participles.
{| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
 
|+1-h (-a, -ā, (-ah, -āh), -o<sup>1</sup>)
The first and most important division we can find in Chlouvānem verbs is the distinction between '''exterior '''(''kauyāva'') and '''interior''' (''nañyāva'') verbs. This may at first seem a voice system, but it must be distinguished from the true voices in Chlouvānem conjugation. The difference between them is mostly lexical: native grammarians distinguish exterior verbs as describing "activities or states that involve interactions with outside the self", and interior verbs as affecting principally the self. Exterior verbs are those we could most easily compare to active verbs in English, while interior verbs are a somewhat "catch-all" category including many distinct meanings, most notably middle-voice, reflexive and reciprocal ones, but also all adjectival verbs as well as peculiar and somewhat independent meanings for some verbs. Many verbs can be conjugated both as exterior and as interior and they often have differences in meaning - e.g. ''gṇyauke ''means “to give birth” when exterior and “to be born” when interior.
|-
 
! Case !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
Potentially every Chlouvānem verb, no matter if exterior or interior, has a '''causative''' conjugation which is considered an inflection and not a derivation, even if the meanings may vary: ''mišake'' is an extreme example as each form has a different meaning (with particularly interior forms having many meanings) - non-causative exterior ''mešu'' "I am seen", interior ''meširu'' "I know; I see myself"; and causative exterior ''maišildeyam'' "I am shown", interior ''maišildreyam'' "I learn; I show myself <small>(trans.)</small>".
 
Chlouvānem verbs also conjugate for seven '''voices''' (''tadgeroe'', pl. ''tadgerenī''), each one putting one of seven different core elements as the ''direct-case argument'', usually for means of topicalization or definiteness; they reflect the Austronesian-type morphosyntactical alignment of the language. The seven voices are, for exterior verbs:
* '''patient-trigger''' (''dṛṣokas tadgeroe'') (unmarked);
* '''agent-trigger''' (''darīnūkas tadgeroe'') (transitive and ditransitive verbs only);
* '''benefactive-trigger''' (''chārimęlīnūkas tadgeroe'');
* '''antibenefactive-trigger''' (''tatflunsusūkas tadgeroe'');
* '''locative-trigger''' (''yutiūkas tadgeroe'');
* '''dative-trigger''' (''męliausis tadgeroe'') (mostly ditransitive verbs);
* '''instrumental-trigger'''  (''drausis tadgeroe'') (morphologically possible for all verbs, but not always meaningful).
Interior verbs only have six voices, as they do not have an agentive voice; the patientive, unmarked voice, is here called '''common voice''' (''tailьcārṣusas tadgeroe'')<ref>For simplicity's sake, voices' names are most often rendered as ''patientive'', ''agentive'', ''benefactive'' ''antibenefactive'', ''locative'', ''dative'', ''instrumental'', and ''common''.</ref>.
 
Chlouvānem verbs also conjugate for four different '''tense-aspect combinations''' (simply ''tenses'' (''avyāṣa'' - pl. ''avyāṣai'')): '''present''' (''kaminænikah avyāṣa''), '''past''' (''dāṃdeniah avyāṣa''), '''perfect''' (''mīraṃnajauseh avyāṣa''), and '''future''' (''lallāmiti avyāṣa''); other distinctions may be built periphrastically (most notably ''imperfect'', ''pluperfect'' and ''future perfect''). Tenses are the “basic unit” verbs conjugate in: all tenses conjugate for nine persons (1st-2nd-3rd in singular, dual and plural; note though that 3rd singular and 3rd plural are identical in the perfect). Note that some moods do only distinguish between imperfective and perfective aspect.
 
Some pronouns [[Chlouvānem#Personal pronouns|have a clitic form]] in accusative and ergative case which may be added to specify other arguments - e.g. ''mešėnilь'' "he sees" + ''-æl'' (clitic 1sg acc.) > ''mešėniyæl'' "he sees me" - equivalent to ''læl mešėnilь''.
 
However, the most complex part of Chlouvānem verbs is the '''mood''' (''darišam'', pl. ''darišye''). Chlouvānem is particularly mood-heavy and its concept of mood is quite broad, conjugating verbs in what are called '''primary moods '''and '''secondary moods'''; a single verb form may have a single primary mood but up to two secondary moods. 
 
The nine primary moods (''lalladarišam'', pl. ''-šye'') are:
* '''indicative''' (''chlåvdiausim darišam'') - the realis mood;
* '''imperative''' (''spruvyūkam darišam'') - used for giving orders or commands;
* '''desiderative''' (''daudiūkam darišam'') - used to express a desire or will (e.g. I want to X);
* '''necessitative''' (''rileyūkam darišam'') - used to express need or obligation (e.g. I have to X);
* '''potential''' (''novam darišam'') - used to express the ability to do something (e.g. I can [= am able to] X)
* '''permissive''' (''drippūkam darišam'') - used to express the permission to do something (e.g. I can [= I’m allowed to] X)
* '''optative''' (''purmanūkam darišam'') - used to express wishes or hopes;
* '''propositive''' (''maikitūkam darišam'') - used to express proposals (e.g. let’s X; why don’t you X);
* '''subjunctive''' (''milkausim darišam'') - used to express general advices (jussive use), purpose (supine use), unreal things that may happen or might have happened, and also syntactically conditioned by some particles.
The seven secondary moods (''šudarišam'', pl. ''-šye'') are:
* five of them express '''evidentiality''', namely: certainty (also '''energetic mood'''), deduction, dream, specifically invented situation, and hearsay (also '''inferential mood''');
* two '''consequential moods''': one expressing ''cause'' (e.g. “because X”), the other ''opposition'' (e.g. “although X”).
Chlouvānem verbs also have a '''non-finite form''' (''lailehūkas daradhūs'') (the '''-ke''' form, called '''infinitive''' hereafter) as well as a large number of '''attributive''' and '''adverbial participles''' (''maihaleniausis daradhūs'' and ''khladaradhausis daradhūs''), with forms for most voices and tenses and a distinction into '''modal adverbs''', '''homofocal gerundives''' and '''heterofocal gerundives'''.
 
===Verb classes and infinitive===
Verbs, in Chlouvānem, are conjugated depending on ''verb classes'' or ''conjugations''. There are four main patterns:
* '''a-root''', or '''thematic''': the most basic and regular, formed by adding '''a''' to the root before non-vocalic endings.
* '''Athematic''': as above, without '''a'''; endings are added directly to the root.
* '''Ablauting root''': formed by the root with ablaut changes in its main vowel, plus '''a''' before non-vocalic endings.
** '''Athematic ablauting root''': a small subset conjugating as above, but without '''a'''.
* '''ah verbs''': verbs which add '''-ah''' (or its allomorphs '''-ar''', '''-aš''', '''-ą''') to the root.
 
A fifth commonly recognized pattern is '''ru verbs'''. These are verbs formed by borrowed verb roots from Ancient Kūṣṛmāthi (where verbal nouns end in ''-ru'') and in the present and past undergo stem modifications like in that language. There are few common -ru verbs, and in usual speech they are often substituted by compounds with their root and either ''dṛke'' (to do, make) or ''jānake'' (to feel (physical)), or ''gyake'' (to be), and more rarely ''jilde'' (to do, carry out an action), as in ''pāṭṭaruke'' vs. ''pāṭṭarudṛke'' (and also vs. the rarer ''pāṭṭarujilde'') (to study).
 
Moods apart from the indicative mainly just follow root structure, with different allomorphs depending on whether the root ends in a consonant or in a vowel.
 
There are, in addition to these, a few particular verb types with either some kind of suffix added to the root in some forms, or irregular ablaut, or totally irregular (usually suppletive). The majority of verbs, anyway, is either ''thematic'' or ''thematic ablauting'', and the majority of roots end in one or two consonants.
 
The '''infinitive''' (''lailehūkas daradhūs'') or ''ke-form'' is a non-finite form used in certain construction (like with certain verbs (e.g. ''daudike'' (to want)) or particles). It is also the citation form, and it is simple to recognize and form:
* The infinitive is always based on the root, thus with either a basic-grade vowel for ablauting verbs or an unreduced sequence for inverse-ablauting ones.
* Verbs in the ''thematic'' or ''ablauting root'' classes add '''-ake''';
* All other verbs just add '''-ke'''. There are a few cases where this is not always how it surfaces:
** verbs ending in a palatalized consonant have an epenthetic ''-i-'' (e.g. ''męlь-ke'' → ''męlike'' (to give));
** verbs whose roots end in any single or postnasal unvoiced dental, retroflex, or palatal stop or affricate, assimilate the ''-k-'' of the suffix (e.g. ''kit-ke'' → ''kitte'' (to put, place));
** verbs whose roots end in any single or postnasal voiced, non-velar stop, assimilate the voicing of the suffix ''-k-'' (e.g. ''dįb-ke'' → ''dįbge'' (to kick));
** verbs whose roots end in single ''-g'' or ''-gh'' assimilate the ''-k-'', with the regular saṃdhi change from double voiced stop to nasal + voiced stop (e.g. ''dig-ke'' → ''dilge'' (to pour));
*** This also happens with the cluster ''-nd'', where the assimilation ''-nd-k'' makes it ''-lg'' (e.g. ''mind-ke'' → ''milge'' (to hear));
** verbs whose roots end in any other consonant cluster only add ''-e'' (e.g. ''pugl-ke'' → ''pugle'' (to sleep)).
 
Knowing the root form of the verb is necessary as two different roots may have the same infinitive, e.g. ''mulke'' for both ''mul-'' "to drink" (''molu'', ''mulau'', ''umulim'') and ''mun-'' "to be able to" (''maunu'', ''munau'', ''umunim'').
 
===Present indicative===
The regular present indicative has a distinct form for all verb types.<br/>Ablauting verbs have ''middle grade'' ablaut in all exterior forms and in the singular interior ones. ru verbs change ''-ru'' with ''-su''.<br/>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 colspan=2 | Person !! colspan =2 | a-root !! colspan =2 | Athematic !! colspan =2 | Ablaut !! colspan =2 | -ah- !! colspan =2 | -ru-
! <small>Direct</small>
| '''māra'''<br/><small>''"mango"''</small> || rowspan=2 | mārāt || rowspan=2 | mārai
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | nāmvake <br/><small>"to crush, press"</small> !! colspan=2 | gṇyauke <br/><small>"to give birth; ''int.:'' to be born"</small> !! colspan=2 | mišake <br/><small>"to see"</small> !! colspan=2 | lilke <br/><small>"to live; ''int.:'' to get healed<ref>The compound ''nalilke'' (exterior only) is more common in this sense.</ref>"</small> !! colspan=2 | pāṭṭaruke <br/><small>"to study; ''int.'' to be taught"</small>
! <small>Vocative</small>
| māre
|-
|-
! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small>
! <small>Accusative</small>
| māru || mārāṣa || māraih
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
! <small>Ergative</small>
| nāmv'''u''' || nāmv'''iru''' || gṇyāv'''u''' || gṇyāv'''iru''' || meš'''u''' || meš'''iru''' || lil'''ah''' || lil'''ęru''' || pāṭṭa'''sū''' || pāṭṭa'''suru'''
| mārei || mārāra || mārān
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Genitive</small>
| nāmv'''i''' || nāmv'''iris''' || gṇyāv'''i''' || gṇyāv'''iris''' || meš'''i''' || meš'''iris''' || lil'''aši''' || lil'''ęris''' || pāṭṭa'''suvi''' || pāṭṭa'''suris'''
| māri<sup>2</sup> || māreva || mārumi
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Translative</small>
| nāmv'''ė''' || nāmv'''ire''' || gṇyāv'''ė''' || gṇyāv'''ire''' || meš'''ė''' || meš'''ire''' || lil'''ah''' || lil'''ęre''' || pāṭṭa'''suvė''' || pāṭṭa'''sure'''
| māran || mārarį || māremān
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
! <small>Exessive</small>
| nāmv'''ayou''' || nāmv'''iryou''' || gṇyau'''you''' || gṇyāv'''iryou''' || meš'''ayou''' || miš'''iryou''' || lil'''ahou''' || lil'''ęryou''' || pāṭṭa'''suyou''' || pāṭṭa'''suryou'''
| mārat || mārabhan || mārenīs
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Essive</small>
| nāmv'''adia''' || nāmv'''irdia''' || gṇyau'''dia''' || gṇyāv'''irdia''' || meš'''adia''' || miš'''irdia''' || lil'''ardia''' || lil'''ęrdia''' || pāṭṭa'''sudia''' || pāṭṭa'''surdia'''
| māręs || māranne || mārāra
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Dative</small>
| nāmv'''ade''' || nāmv'''irde''' || gṇyau'''de''' || gṇyāv'''irde''' || meš'''ade''' || miš'''irde''' || lil'''arde''' || lil'''ęrde''' || pāṭṭa'''sude''' || pāṭṭa'''surde'''
| mārom || mārarį || māresām
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
! <small>Ablative</small>
| nāmv'''alieh''' || nāmv'''irileh''' || gṇyau'''lieh''' || gṇyāv'''irileh''' || meš'''alieh''' || miš'''irileh''' || lil'''ąlieh''' || lil'''ęrileh''' || pāṭṭa'''sulieh''' || pāṭṭa'''surileh'''
| mārų || mārabhan || mārenīs
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Locative</small>
| nāmv'''ašin''' || nāmv'''iršin''' || gṇyau'''šin''' || gṇyāv'''iršin''' || meš'''ašin''' || miš'''iršin''' || lil'''ąšin''' || lil'''ęršin''' || pāṭṭa'''sušin''' || pāṭṭa'''suršin'''
| māre || māranne || mārelīm
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Instrumental</small>
| nāmv'''īran''' || nāmv'''irean''' || gṇyāv'''īran''' || gṇyāv'''irean''' || meš'''īran''' || miš'''irean''' || lil'''ah''' || lil'''ęrean''' || pāṭṭa'''suvīran''' || kume'''surean'''
| mārap || mārabhan || mārenīka
|}
|}
 
{{col-break}}
'''Causative'''<br/>
{| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
Causative forms are the same regardless of conjugation; they are formed basically with an extended stem with ''-ild-''. Ablauting verbs always have the highest grade vowel, while inverse ablaut verbs have the "lowered" vowel in front of the normal stem.<br/>
|+2-h (-ē, -eh, -ǣh<sup>3</sup>)
All causative verbs have both exterior and interior forms.
|-
 
! Case !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 colspan=2 | Person !! colspan =2 | No ablaut !! colspan =2 | Ablaut !! colspan =2 | Inverse ablaut
! <small>Direct</small>
| '''javileh'''<br/><small>''"apple"''</small> || rowspan=2 | javilyāt || rowspan=2 | javilyai
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | nāmvake <br/><small>"to make crush, press"</small> !! colspan=2 | mišake <br/><small>"to show; ''int.:'' learn"</small> !! colspan=2 | valde <br/><small>"to make open"</small>
! <small>Vocative</small>
| javilei
|-
|-
! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small>
! <small>Accusative</small>
| javilyu || javilēṣa || javileih
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
! <small>Ergative</small>
| nāmv'''ildeyam''' || nāmv'''ildṛyam''' || maiš'''ildeyam''' || maiš'''ildṛyam''' || uvald'''ildeyam''' || uvald'''ildṛyam'''
| javilei || javilyāra || javilyān
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Genitive</small>
| nāmv'''ildeši''' || nāmv'''ildṛši''' || maiš'''ildeši''' || maiš'''ildṛši''' || uvald'''ildeši''' || uvald'''ildṛši'''
| javili || javileva<sup>4</sup> || javilyumi
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Translative</small>
| nāmv'''ilden''' || nāmv'''ildiren''' || maiš'''ilden''' || maiš'''ildiren''' || uvald'''ilden''' || uvald'''ildiren'''
| javilen || javilerį || javilemān
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
! <small>Exessive</small>
| nāmv'''ildeyou''' || nāmv'''ildṛyou''' || maiš'''ildeyou''' || maiš'''ildṛyou''' || uvald'''ildeyou''' || uvald'''ildṛyou'''
| javilet || javilebhan || javilenīs
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Essive</small>
| nāmv'''ildedia''' || nāmv'''ildṛdia''' || maiš'''ildedia''' || maiš'''ildṛdia''' || uvald'''ildedia''' || uvald'''ildṛdia'''
| javilęs || javilenne || javilyāra
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Dative</small>
| nāmv'''ildede''' || nāmv'''ildṛde''' || maiš'''ildede''' || maiš'''ildṛde''' || uvald'''ildede''' || uvald'''ildṛde'''
| javilyom || javilerį || javilesām
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
! <small>Ablative</small>
| nāmv'''ildīleh''' || nāmv'''ildrīleh''' || maiš'''ildīleh''' || maiš'''ildrīleh''' || uvald'''ildīleh''' || uvald'''ildrīleh'''
| javilyų || javilebhan || javilenīs
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Locative</small>
| nāmv'''ildešin''' || nāmv'''ildṛšin''' || maiš'''ildešin''' || maiš'''ildṛšin''' || uvald'''ildešin''' || uvald'''ildṛšin'''
| javilye || javilenne || javilelīm
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Instrumental</small>
| nāmv'''ilderie''' || nāmv'''ildrelie''' || maiš'''ilderie''' || maiš'''ildrelie''' || uvald'''ilderie''' || uvald'''ildrelie'''
| javilep || javilebhan || javilenīka
|}
|}
 
{{col-break}}
===Imperative===
{| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
The imperative is a defective paradigm, lacking all dual forms; it is formed from the bare root, so it is formed in the same way for all verbs. Unlike all other terminations, there are separate agentive and patientive ones (note that agentive ones begin with '''-ь''' and not ''-y''. Causative forms follow the same pattern as non-causative ones, but the stem is the specifically causative one.
|+3-h (-uh, -ūh, -u<sup>5</sup>)
 
|-
Note that, due to the politeness system of Chlouvānem, the imperative is somewhat rare, as other methods are used. The first person imperative is an exception, being often used with the meaning “I/we must”.
! Case !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 colspan=2 | Person !! colspan=3 | Non-causative !! colspan=3 | Causative
! <small>Direct</small>
| '''ñaɂuh'''<br/><small>''"fruit skin"''</small> || rowspan=2 | ñaɂūt || rowspan=2 | ñaɂūvi
|-
|-
! colspan=6 | nāmvake <br/><small>"to crush, press"</small>
! <small>Vocative</small>
| ñaɂū
|-
|-
! <small>Ex. patientive</small> !! <small>Ex. agentive</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Ex. patientive</small> !! <small>Ex. agentive</small> !! <small>Interior</small>
! <small>Accusative</small>
| ñaɂunu || ñaɂūṣa || ñaɂuyih
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
! <small>Ergative</small>
| nāmv'''ikṣam''' || nāmv'''yasti''' || nāmv'''irkam''' || nāmv'''iljam''' || nāmv'''ildasti''' || nāmv'''ildṛṣam'''
| ñaɂuyei || ñaɂura || ñaɂun
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Genitive</small>
| nāmv'''eik''' || nāmv'''a''' || nāmv'''ih''' || nāmv'''ildeik''' || nāmv'''ilda''' || nāmv'''ildireik'''
| ñaɂuyi || ñaɂuva || ñaɂūmi
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Translative</small>
| nāmv'''eitte''' || nāmv'''ya''' || nāmv'''irda''' || nāmv'''ildeitte''' || nāmv'''ildya''' || nāmv'''ildirda'''
| ñaɂun || ñaɂurį || ñaɂumān
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
! <small>Exessive</small>
| rowspan=3 colspan=6 style="text-align: center;" | ''No dual imperative forms''
| ñaɂut || ñaɂubhan || ñaɂunīs
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Essive</small>
| ñaɂųs || ñaɂunne || ñaɂura
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Dative</small>
| ñaɂuvom || ñaɂurį || ñaɂusām
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
! <small>Ablative</small>
| nāmv'''ikṣumi''' || nāmv'''yasmi''' || nāmv'''irkumi''' || nāmv'''iljumi''' || nāmv'''ildasmi''' || nāmv'''ildrumi'''
| ñaɂuvų || ñaɂubhan || ñaɂunīs
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Locative</small>
| nāmv'''eikus''' || nāmv'''yęs''' || nāmv'''irkus''' || nāmv'''ildeikus''' || nāmv'''ildęs''' || nāmv'''ildṛkus'''
| ñaɂuve || ñaɂunne || ñaɂulīm
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Instrumental</small>
| nāmv'''eicąt''' || nāmv'''yęt''' || nāmv'''ircąt''' || nāmv'''iljąt''' || nāmv'''ildęt''' || nāmv'''ildṛcąt'''
| ñaɂup || ñaɂubhan || ñaɂunīka
|}
|}
 
{{col-break}}
Note that the second person singular agentive non-causative form does not take '''-a''' if the ending of the root is already acceptable (e.g. ''lgut!'' "buy!"). If the root ends with a palatalized consonant, it remains as such if it ends with a single acceptable consonant (e.g. ''męlь!'' "give!), otherwise it adds ''-i'' (e.g. ''dhāsmi!'' "save!").
{| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
 
|+4-m (-ih, -īh, -i<sup>6</sup>)
===Past Indicative===
|-
In the past indicative, -ah verbs are not distinguished as a conjugation, behaving instead like root verbs. Frequentative verbs in ''-ve(y)-'' are completely regular, but the suffix becomes ''-vi(y)-'', e.g. ''mīmīšviyo'' "it was frequently seen" vs. present ''mīmīšveyė'' "it is frequently seen".<br/>
! Case !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
Ablauting verbs always have their base grade, except for inverse ablaut roots which use the reduced vowel, and plural interior forms.
Exterior forms:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 colspan=2 | Person !! colspan =2 | a-root !! colspan =2 | Athematic !! colspan =2 | Ablaut
! <small>Direct</small>
| '''ghārṭih'''<br/><small>''"arrow"''</small> || rowspan=2 | ghārṭīt || rowspan=2 | ghārṭeyi
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | nāmvake <br/><small>"to crush, press"</small> !! colspan=2 | gṇyauke <br/><small>"to give birth; ''int.:'' to be born"</small> !! colspan=2 | mišake <br/><small>"to see"</small>
! <small>Vocative</small>
| ghārṭī
|-
|-
! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small>
! <small>Accusative</small>
| ghārṭyu || ghārṭīṣa || ghārṭeyih
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
! <small>Ergative</small>
| nāmv'''au''' || nāmv'''irau''' || gṇyāv'''au''' || gṇyāv'''iru''' || miš'''au''' || miš'''irau'''
| ghārṭyei || ghārṭira || ghārṭin
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Genitive</small>
| nāmv'''ei''' || nāmv'''irei''' || gṇyāv'''ei''' || gṇyāv'''irei''' || miš'''ei''' || miš'''irei'''
| ghārṭīyi || ghārṭiva || ghārṭyumi
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Translative</small>
| nāmv'''o''' || nāmv'''iro''' || gṇyāv'''o''' || gṇyāv'''iro''' || miš'''o''' || miš'''iro'''
| ghārṭin || ghārṭirį || ghārṭimān
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
! <small>Exessive</small>
| nāmv'''aram''' || nāmv'''irlam''' || gṇyau'''ram''' || gṇyāv'''irlam''' || miš'''aram''' || miš'''irlam'''
| ghārṭit || ghārṭibhan || ghārṭinīs
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Essive</small>
| nāmv'''ares''' || nāmv'''irles''' || gṇyau'''res''' || gṇyāv'''irles''' || miš'''ares''' || miš'''irles'''
| ghārṭįs || ghārṭinne || ghārṭira
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Dative</small>
| nāmv'''adat''' || nāmv'''irdat''' || gṇyau'''dat''' || gṇyāv'''irdat''' || miš'''adat''' || miš'''irdat'''
| ghārṭyom || ghārṭirį || ghārṭisām
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
! <small>Ablative</small>
| nāmv'''anāja''' || nāmv'''irāja''' || gṇyau'''nāja''' || gṇyāv'''irāja''' || miš'''anāja''' || miš'''irāja'''
| ghārṭyų || ghārṭibhan || ghārṭinīs
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Locative</small>
| nāmv'''aneši''' || nāmv'''ireši''' || gṇyau'''neši''' || gṇyāv'''ireši''' || miš'''aneši''' || miš'''ireši'''
| ghārṭye || ghārṭinne || ghārṭilīm
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Instrumental</small>
| nāmv'''ayivė''' || nāmv'''irivė''' || gṇyau'''yivė''' || gṇyāv'''irivė''' || miš'''ayivė''' || miš'''irivė'''
| ghārṭip || ghārṭibhan || ghārṭinīka
|}
|}
 
{{col-end}}
'''Causative'''<br/>
{{col-begin}}
Causative forms use the same stems as in the present indicative.
{{col-break}}
Exterior forms:
{| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
{| class="wikitable"
|+1-h (h-paradigm)
|-
! Case !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 colspan=2 | Person !! colspan =2 | No ablaut !! colspan =2 | Ablaut !! colspan =2 | Inverse ablaut
! <small>Direct</small>
| '''raiṇah'''<br/><small>''"(piece of) cloth"''</small> || rowspan=2 | raiṇāt || rowspan=2 | raiṇai
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | nāmvake <br/><small>"to make crush, press"</small> !! colspan=2 | mišake <br/><small>"to show; ''int.:'' learn"</small> !! colspan=2 | valde <br/><small>"to make open"</small>
! <small>Vocative</small>
| raiṇe
|-
|-
! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small>
! <small>Accusative</small>
| raiṇu || raiṇāṣa || raiṇaih
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
! <small>Ergative</small>
| nāmv'''ildau''' || nāmv'''ildrau''' || maiš'''ildau''' || maiš'''ildrau''' || uvald'''ildau''' || uvald'''ildrau'''
| raiṇei || raiṇāra || raiṇān
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Genitive</small>
| nāmv'''ildei''' || nāmv'''ildrei''' || maiš'''ildei''' || maiš'''ildrei''' || uvald'''ildei''' || uvald'''ildrei'''
| raiṇi<sup>2</sup> || raiṇeva || raiṇumi
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Translative</small>
| nāmv'''ildo''' || nāmv'''ildra''' || maiš'''ildo''' || maiš'''ildra''' || uvald'''ildo''' || uvald'''ildra'''
| raiṇan || raiṇarį || raiṇamān
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
! <small>Exessive</small>
| nāmv'''ildaram''' || nāmv'''ildṛvam''' || maiš'''ildaram''' || maiš'''ildṛvam''' || uvald'''ildaram''' || uvald'''ildṛvam'''
| raiṇat || raiṇabhan || raiṇenīs
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Essive</small>
| nāmv'''ildares''' || nāmv'''ildṛves''' || maiš'''ildares''' || maiš'''ildṛves''' || uvald'''ildares''' || uvald'''ildṛves'''
| raiṇęs || raiṇanne || raiṇāra
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Dative</small>
| nāmv'''ildat''' || nāmv'''ildṛdat''' || maiš'''ildat''' || maiš'''ildṛdat''' || uvald'''ildat''' || uvald'''ildṛdat'''
| raiṇom || raiṇarį || raiṇasām
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
! <small>Ablative</small>
| nāmv'''ildāja''' || nāmv'''ildrāja''' || maiš'''ildāja''' || maiš'''ildrāja''' || uvald'''ildāja''' || meš'''ildrāja'''
| raiṇų || raiṇabhan || raiṇanīs
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Locative</small>
| nāmv'''ildeši''' || nāmv'''ildreši''' || maiš'''ildeši''' || maiš'''ildreši''' || uvald'''ildeši''' || uvald'''ildreši'''
| raiṇe || raiṇanne || raiṇalīm
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Instrumental</small>
| nāmv'''ildivė''' || nāmv'''ildṛyivė''' || maiš'''ildivė''' || maiš'''ildṛyivė''' || uvald'''ildivė''' || uvald'''ildṛyivė'''
| raiṇap || raiṇabhan || raiṇanīka
|}
|}
{{col-break|valign=middle|gap=1em}}
The ''h-paradigm'' used by nouns in ''-ah'' and ''-āh'' is substantially identical to the regular 1-h one, except for the exessive, dative, ablative, locative, and instrumental plural which have ''-a-'' instead of ''-e-'' as a linking vowel and, for some nouns, the genitive singular ''(see table note 2)''.
{{col-end}}
Table notes:
# ''-o'' nouns are mostly toponyms of Toyubeshian origins; they decline like ''-a'' nouns, with their ending being treated as *-a-u, with the -a part of the stem; e.g. ''Paramito'', locative ''Paramitai'' (underlying form Paramit-a-e).
# ''-ya'', and ''-yā'' nouns form the genitive singular in ''-ei'' (e.g. ''lalyā'' "night" → ''lalei''). Nouns in ''-yah'', and ''-yāh'', however, have the regular ending (e.g. ''yamyah'' "fog" → ''yamyi'').
# All ''-ǣh'' nouns are of Lällshag origin, and are mostly toponyms (like ''Laikunanǣh''), with some exceptions like the two lunar days ''kælyaunænǣh'' and ''yeicapænǣh''. Note that such nouns have their genitive singular in ''-ǣyi'' and not in ''-ī''.
# In older texts ''-eiva'' (e.g. ''javileiva''), today only used in literature for an archaïzing effect or to mark a character speaking with a Northern Plain pronunciation (where this form survives in the spoken language).
# Mostly regional Western words of Dabuke origin.
# Non-productive with borrowings, but common in native words.


===Perfect Indicative===
===Special declensions===
The perfect is formed with the same terminations for all verbs. The particularity of this tense is that it uses a special stem, formed by prefijing the root vowel (shortened, oral, and with the basic root ablaut) to the stem. Examples:
{{col-begin}}
* ''nāmvake'' “to crush, press” = ''nāmv- → anāmv-''
{{col-break}}
* ''khluke'' “to search, look for” = ''khlu- → ukhlu-''
{| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
* ''hilkake'' “to dye, colour” = ''hilk- → ihilk-''
|+Ablaut declension
* ''męlike'' “to give” = ''męlь → emęlь-''
|-
'''æ''' uses '''i'''; '''o''' and '''ṛ''' use '''a'''; diphthongs usually only take their first component, exceptions being '''ai''' (→ e) and '''au''' (→ o):
! Case !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
* ''dældake'' “to speak” = ''dæld- → idæld-''
* ''kolkake'' “to be acid” = ''kolk- → akolk-''
* ''tṛlake'' “to know, understand” = ''tṛl- → atṛl-''
* ''yaudake'' “to catch” = ''yaud- → oyaud-''
* ''laitake'' “to row” = ''lait- → elait-''
 
Causative stems with ablaut have a full reduplication, using the first consonant plus the basic vowel grade, like ''miš- → maiš- → mimaiš-''.
 
A few verbs have irregular stems:
* ''flulke'' "to go (unidirectional)" = "elīs-" <small>(in arch. Chlouvānem both ''evlīs-'' and ''eflīs-'' are found)</small>
* ''lilke'' “to live” = ''lælī-''
* ''dṛke'' “to do” = ''dadrā-''
 
Note that in the perfect, the 3rd person does not distinguish number:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 colspan=2 | Person !! colspan=2 | Non-causative !! colspan=2 | Causative
! <small>Direct</small>
| rowspan=2 | '''lila'''<br/><small>''"person"''</small> || rowspan=2 | lilāt || rowspan=2 | lelyē
|-
|-
! colspan=4 | nāmvake <br/><small>"to crush, press"</small>
! <small>Vocative</small>
|-
|-
! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small>
! <small>Accusative</small>
| lilu || lilāṣa || lelyu
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
! <small>Ergative</small>
| anāmv'''am''' || anāmv'''iram''' || anāmv'''ildam''' || anāmv'''ildṛm'''
| lilei || lilāra || lelyei
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Genitive</small>
| anāmv'''es''' || anāmv'''ires''' || anāmv'''ildes''' || anāmv'''ildṛs'''
| leli || lileva || laili
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Translative</small>
| anāmv'''a''' || anāmv'''irā''' || anāmv'''ildā''' || anāmv'''ildirā'''
| lilan || lilarį || lelyan
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
! <small>Exessive</small>
| anāmv'''ara''' || anāmv'''irala''' || anāmv'''ildara''' || anāmv'''ildrāh'''
| lilat || lilabhan || lelyat
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Essive</small>
| anāmv'''ari''' || anāmv'''irali''' || anāmv'''ildari''' || anāmv'''ildrai'''
| liląs || lilanne || lailąs
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Dative</small>
| anāmv'''a''' || anāmv'''irā''' || anāmv'''ildā''' || anāmv'''ildirā'''
| lilom || lilarį || lelyom
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
! <small>Ablative</small>
| anāmv'''ima''' || anāmv'''irma''' || anāmv'''ildima''' || anāmv'''ildṛma'''
| lilų || lilabhan || lelyų
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Locative</small>
| anāmv'''iša''' || anāmv'''irša''' || anāmv'''ildiša''' || anāmv'''ildṛša'''
| lile || lilanne || laile
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Instrumental</small>
| anāmv'''a''' || anāmv'''irā''' || anāmv'''ildā''' || anāmv'''ildirā'''
| lilap || lilabhan || lelyap
|}
|}
 
{{col-break}}
=== Future indicative ===
{| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
The future tense does not vary between conjugations, and the stem - except for causative verbs - is always the one used in the infinitive. Like the perfect, the future does not distinguish number in the 3rd person (historically, the endings were the same, as the future was built with the perfect of PLB *išəj- (to take)).
|+-oe declension
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Case !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 colspan=2 | Person !! colspan=2 | Non-causative !! colspan=2 | Causative
! <small>Direct</small>
| rowspan=2 | '''haloe'''<br/><small>''"name"''</small> || rowspan=2 | halenāt || rowspan=2 | halenī
|-
|-
! colspan=4 | nāmvake <br/><small>"to crush, press"</small>
! <small>Vocative</small>
|-
|-
! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small>
! <small>Accusative</small>
| halenu || halenāṣa || halenaih
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
! <small>Ergative</small>
| nāmv'''iṣyam''' || nāmv'''iriṣyam''' || nāmv'''ildiṣyam''' || nāmv'''ildirṣyam'''
| halenei || halenāya || halenān
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Genitive</small>
| nāmv'''iṣyes''' || nāmv'''iriṣyes''' || nāmv'''ildiṣyes''' || nāmv'''ildirṣyes'''
| haleni || halemva || haloemi
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Translative</small>
| nāmv'''iṣya''' || nāmv'''iriṣya''' || nāmv'''ildiṣya''' || nāmv'''ildirṣya'''
| halenan || halenaus || haloemān
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
! <small>Exessive</small>
| nāmv'''iṣyara''' || nāmv'''iriṣyara''' || nāmv'''ildiṣyara''' || nāmv'''ildirṣyara'''
| halenat || haloebhan || haloenīs
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Essive</small>
| nāmv'''iṣyari''' || nāmv'''iriṣyari''' || nāmv'''ildiṣyari''' || nāmv'''ildirṣyari'''
| halen || haloegin || halenāya
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Dative</small>
| nāmv'''iṣya''' || nāmv'''iriṣya''' || nāmv'''ildiṣya''' || nāmv'''ildirṣya'''
| halenom || halenaus || haloesām
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
! <small>Ablative</small>
| nāmv'''iṣīma''' || nāmv'''iriṣīma''' || nāmv'''ildiṣīma''' || nāmv'''ildirṣīma'''
| halenų || haloebhan || haloenīs
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Locative</small>
| nāmv'''iṣīsa''' || nāmv'''iriṣīsa''' || nāmv'''ildiṣīsa''' || nāmv'''ildirṣīsa'''
| halenye || haloegin || halenilīm
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Instrumental</small>
| nāmv'''iṣya''' || nāmv'''iriṣya''' || nāmv'''ildiṣya''' || nāmv'''ildirṣya'''
| halenap || haloebhan || haloenīka
|}
|}
 
{{col-break}}
=== Voice marking ===
{| class="redtable lightredbg" align="center" style="text-align: center;" |
Chlouvānem has seven voices, marked by affixes added, in unprefixed verbs, at the end of the verb. As the patient-trigger voice (common voice in interior verbs) is unmarked, the six voice markers are:
|+-ai declension
* '''-nilь''' for agent-trigger voice (in exterior verbs only);
* '''-kæ''' for benefactive-trigger voice;
* '''-tū''' ('''-tur''' non-finally) for antibenefactive-trigger voice;
* '''-pan''' for locative-trigger voice;
* '''-mea''' for instrumental-trigger voice;
* '''-ūsi''' for dative-trigger voice.
Examples of voice marking are ''męliė'' (he/she/it is given) — ''męliėnilь'' (he/she/it gives) — ''męliėkæ'' (something is given for him/her/it) — ''męliėtū'' (something is given against him/her/it) — ''męliėpan'' (something is given in him/her/it) — ''męliėmea'' (something is given with him/her/it) — ''męliegūsi'' (something is given to him/her/it).
 
In prefixed verbs, voice marking is a bit different as the voice marker is inserted between the prefix and the stem, thus forms like ''yāyųlė'' (he/she/it is eaten too much) → ''yānilьyųlė'' (he/she/it eats too much). Saṃdhi is applied if needed, e.g. "something is eaten for him/her/it directly from a tree" is ''taktæyųlė'' (morphemically ''tad-kæ-yųlė'', verb ''tadyųlake'').
 
===The subjunctive mood===
The subjunctive mood only distinguishes aspects and not tense; it is formed by special terminations and has exterior, interior, regular and causative forms.
 
The subjunctive is fairly regular for all verbs, using (except in the causative conjugation) the most basic form of the root — that is, without nā/nī suffixes and in basic grade ablaut; the only exceptions being inverse ablauting roots which use their weakened form (e.g. ''valde'' uses ''uld-'' and not ''vald-'').
A peculiarity of the subjunctive is that number is distinguished only in the first person: second person forms are the same for all numbers, as are third person ones.
 
'''Imperfective aspect'''
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan=3 colspan=2 | Person !! colspan=2 | Non-causative !! colspan=2 | Causative
|-
! colspan=4 | nāmvake <br/><small>"to crush, press"</small>
|-
! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small>
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
| nāmv'''atiam''' || nāmv'''irtiam''' || nāmv'''ildiam''' || nāmv'''ildṛtiam'''
|-
! 2nd
| nāmv'''īsei''' || nāmv'''iresei''' || nāmv'''ildīsei''' || nāmv'''ildṛsei'''
|-
! 3rd
| nāmv'''īti''' || nāmv'''ireti''' || nāmv'''ildīti''' || nāmv'''ildṛti'''
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
| nāmv'''īdera''' || nāmv'''iredra''' || nāmv'''ildīdera''' || nāmv'''ildṛdera'''
|-
! 2nd
| nāmv'''īderi''' || nāmv'''iredri''' || nāmv'''ildīderi''' || nāmv'''ildṛderi'''
|-
! 3rd
| nāmv'''īdeh''' || nāmv'''irede''' || nāmv'''ildīdeh''' || nāmv'''ildṛdeh'''
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
! Case !! Singular !! Dual !! Plural
| nāmv'''īneja''' || nāmv'''ireneh''' || nāmv'''ildīneja''' || nāmv'''ildṛneja'''
|-
! 2nd
| nāmv'''īniši''' || nāmv'''irenis''' || nāmv'''ildīniši''' || nāmv'''ildṛniši'''
|-
! 3rd
| nāmv'''īyevatь''' || nāmv'''irevatь''' || nāmv'''ildīvatь''' || nāmv'''ildṛyevatь'''
|}
Note that for the third person plural both the interior form ''-ireyevatь'' and the causative exterior form ''ildīyevatь'' are attested in archaic texts; the classical standards are shortenings of these older forms.
 
'''Perfective aspect'''
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 colspan=2 | Person !! colspan=2 | Non-causative !! colspan=2 | Causative
! <small>Direct</small>
| rowspan=2 | '''lunai'''<br/><small>''"tea"''</small> || rowspan=2 | lunaiva || rowspan=2 | lunāye
|-
|-
! colspan=4 | nāmvake <br/><small>"to crush, press"</small>
! <small>Vocative</small>
|-
|-
! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small> !! <small>Exterior</small> !! <small>Interior</small>
! <small>Accusative</small>
| lunāyu || lunāyes || lunāyaih
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
! <small>Ergative</small>
| nāmv'''evitam''' || nāmv'''irevitam''' || nāmv'''ildevitam''' || nāmv'''ildṛvitam'''
| lunǣ || lunāyēn || lunāyūn
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Genitive</small>
| nāmv'''evšei''' || nāmv'''irevšei''' || nāmv'''ildevšei''' || nāmv'''ildrušei'''
| lunāyi || lunaiva || lunāyān
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Translative</small>
| nāmv'''evite''' || nāmv'''irevite''' || nāmv'''ildevite''' || nāmv'''ildṛvite'''
| lunain || lunāyį || lunaimān
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
! <small>Exessive</small>
| nāmv'''evidem''' || nāmv'''irevidem''' || nāmv'''ildevidem''' || nāmv'''ildṛvidem'''
| lunait || lunaibhan || lunǣnīs
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Essive</small>
| nāmv'''evides''' || nāmv'''irevides''' || nāmv'''ildevides''' || nāmv'''ildṛvides'''
| lunąis || lunainne || lunāyēn
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Dative</small>
| nāmv'''evide''' || nāmv'''irevide''' || nāmv'''ildevide''' || nāmv'''ildṛvide'''
| lunāyom || lunāyį || lunaisām
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
! <small>Ablative</small>
| nāmv'''evine''' || nāmv'''ireviṇe''' || nāmv'''ildevine''' || nāmv'''ildṛviṇe'''
| lunāyų || lunaibhan || lunǣnīs
|-
|-
! 2nd
! <small>Locative</small>
| nāmv'''eviše''' || nāmv'''ireviše''' || nāmv'''ildeviše''' || nāmv'''ildṛviše'''
| lunāye || lunainne || lunailīm
|-
|-
! 3rd
! <small>Instrumental</small>
| nāmv'''evyatь''' || nāmv'''irevyatь''' || nāmv'''ildevyatь''' || nāmv'''ildruyatь'''
| lunaip || lunaibhan || lunainīka
|}
|}
{{col-end}}
The ablaut declension is in the singular (except for the vocative and essive) and dual the same as the 1-h one, including the ''-ei'' rule for the genitive singular (e.g. ''rinya'' "ceiling", gen.sg. ''renei''), except for the fact that the genitive singular has a middle-grade vowel. The plural has mostly the same endings as the singular but with middle-grade vowels in most forms (genitive, essive, and locative have a higher-grade one). ''-y-'' is inserted between the stem and the ending, but not for nouns ending in ''-ya'' (''rinya'' → ''renyē'').<br/>
The vowel that undergoes ablaut is usually the penultimate (e.g. ''plušamila'' "Office of the Inquisition", plural ''plušamelyē''), but in some cases it's the first (e.g. ''kimeda'' (a type of panther), plural ''kemedyē'').


===The optative and propositive moods===
Hypocoristic forms of male names, which end in ''-em'' and are only used in the singular, are declined following a mix of the 1-m and 1-h patterns. In fact, they follow the 1-m pattern (the ''-am'' paradigm) except for the ergative (in ''-emei'' instead of *-(e)mæ) and the essive (in ''-ęs'' instead of *-(e)mą). For example the hypocoristicon ''Kælem'' has ergative ''Kælemei'' and essive ''Kælęs''.
Optative and propositive moods are made starting from the same stem; these stem use the same terminations as regular (a-type verbs) present for the imperfective aspect and regular past for the perfective; propositive mood uses the imperative ones.


The stem is formed by taking the root with vowel lengthening and adding '''-eina-''' after consonants ('''-ouna-''' after '''l''') and '''-vūna-''' after vowels.
===Singularia and pluralia tantum===
'''Pluralia tantum''' in Chlouvānem include the following words or categories of words:
# many collective nouns:

#: ''pārāk'' "hair", ''kāraṇḍhai'' "guts", ''yūgure'' "limbs", ''agṇyaucai'' "sons and daughters", ''vailašaus'' "cutlery", ''šūlyakāše'' "dishes"
# things that are heterogeneous in form but considered as a single entity:
#: ''katanai'' "clutter", ''dūḍhvai'' "banquet, buffet", ''vārṇaigīk'' (a type of sandals made from straw rope), ''ḍheṃlatiryai'' "streaming"<ref>The word ''latiryai'' is the plural of ''latirē'' (wave, ray), but this compound does not have a singular form.</ref>, ''ltælime'' "magic", ''ṣrūḍhais'' "savings", ''dāyārṣe'' "resin", ''ḍåtvāk'' "fat", ''tadmāltsāk'' "controller"
# certain actions and processes that involve multiple people:
#: ''vāgdilanai'' "elections", ''viṣlonai'' "protest, riot", ''jāṃrice'' "traffic jam", ''grembātatālunai'' "hide-and-seek" (sometimes also found as dual)
# nouns denoting certain time spans, festivals, or holidays:
#: ''saṃlallai'' "afternoon", ''Bhaivyāvāṣaryai'' (the most important Yunyalīlti festivity), ''Kūlħanarai'' (a winter festival of Kenengyry origin)
# a few illnesses and health conditions or disorders:
#: ''nirganai'' "urticaria", ''nañvai'' "autism", ''paṣadårbhai'' "influenza"
# some locations, including large delimited areas as well as many toponyms:
#: ''aryai'' "square", ''cahåtaibāk'' "tropics"
#: ''Rīkalīnai'', ''Mūnnakṣalte''
# all ethnonyms:
#: ''chlǣvānem'' "Chlouvānem", ''ṣurṭāgyai'' "Skyrdegan(s)", ''bronyai'' "Bronic(s)", ''sairghīṭyai'' "Cerian(s)", ''nivrahīrai'' "Nivarese"                                                 
A few nouns do not have a singular, but can have a dual and a plural form. Their citation form is usually the dual:
: ''maihadhūt'' "parents", ''grembātatālunāt'' "hide-and-seek" (most commonly a plurale tantum)
Counted among pluralia tantums are certain words which are not defective in number, but whose plural forms have an additional meaning alongside the one of the singular form, like in the following examples:
: ''hamvyenī'' "nursery" (''hamvyoe'' "cradle"), ''įsmirte'' "playground" (''įsmirtas'' "swing"), ''nacai'' "clothes" (''naca'' "cloth"), ''garaṇai'' "clock, watch" (''garaṇa'' "hour), ''lairusī'' "galaxy" (''lairē'' "sky, air"), ''ilēneyi'' "universe" (''ilēni'' "space, invisible sky").
Unlike ethnonyms, nouns formed with the suffix ''-yūs'', generally identifying a person from a certain city (e.g. ''līlasuṃghāṇyūs'', ''ajāɂilbādhyūs'') – but note ''yacvānyūs'' "Westerner" – are not pluralia tantum and have regularly-formed plurals (in ''-yaus'').


Example (''nāmvake'' “to crush, press”):
Some words are '''singularia tantum''':
* Imperfective: exterior ''nāmveinu'', ''nāmveini'', ''nāmveinė'', … interior ''nāmveiniru'', …; causative ext. ''nāmveinajrām'', …; caus. int. ''nāmveiniljrām'',
# many collective nouns:
* Perfective: ext. ''nāmveinau'', ''nāmveinei'', ''nāmveinitь'', … int. ''nāmveinirau'', …; caus. ext. ''nāmveinajriou'', …; caus. int. ''nāmveiniljriou'',
#: ''nūlastām'' "money", ''maula'' "breasts [pair of]", ''mæchlišam'' "leafy greens" (and particular types, e.g. ''mæcichā'' "spinach), ''bågras'' "legumes" (and particular types, e.g. ''dīlla'' "peas", ''mahīra'' "lentils"), ''lāsīm'' "cereals", ''båltis'' "free time"
* Propositive: ext. ''nāmveinikṣam'', ''nāmveinikṣa'', ''nāmveinikṣai'', … int. ''nāmveinikuru'', …; caus. ext. ''nāmveiñjriṣam'', …; caus. int. ''nāmveiñjriuru'', ...
# feelings and sensations:
#: ''lācāh'' "romantic love", ''læchlyoe'' "fun", ''ǣlna'' "sadness"
# nouns denoting certain uncountable things:
#: ''paɂeh'' "dust", ''kanai'' "spices", ''nāmvāvi'' "powder, dust made from crushing something", ''ḍolam'' "ice", ''narmis'' "ash"
# certain illnesses and health conditions:
#: ''badarauga'' "blue plague", ''kloppa'' "cough" (cf. pluralizable ''kloppukāram'' "a single instance of coughing"), ''nadirṣas'' "runny nose"
# proper nouns referring to certain concepts:
#: ''yunya'', ''lillamurḍhyā'', ''mulipenai'' "the Eastern Bloc's 'Internet'", ''tulbaiganim'' "the Eastern Bloc's 'Olympics'"
#: individual sports, such as ''tēyakaitsūh'', ''ḍaṣaras'', ''lairhiṃħa'', ''yalkhaitah''
#: cardinal points, ''pūrjayuñca'' "North", ''nalejñuñca'' "East"..., including relative ones such as ''smrāṇyuñca'' "upstream" or ''memājñuñca'' "downstream"
#: musical genres, such as ''laneika'', ''mūṃjas'', ''kerachomā'', ''tūnisus''
#: specialistic terminology made with suffixes and related to sciences (''-tarlā'', ''-nātra''), diseases (''-ræṣka'', ''-yūtam'', ''-ītsun'', ''-gulas''), and political/philosophical currents (''-nātra'', ''-lija'')
# Most toponyms:
#: ''Murkadhānāvi'' "the Inquisition", ''Kaiṣamā'', ''Ṣurṭāgah'' "Skyrdagor", ''Sairghīṭa'' "Ceria", ''Kuyugvajitava'' "Kŭyŭgwažtov"


===The desiderative mood===
===Irregular plurals===
The desiderative mood, unlike the optative and subjunctive moods, conjugates in all tenses and aspects just like the indicative; the difference being the special stem it uses, formed with reduplication of the root plus '''-s'''. The resulting stem conjugates as any root verb.
A few Chlouvānem nouns have irregular plurals:
* The word ''chlǣvānem'' itself is plural-only (like all ethnonyms) and irregular; direct and vocative are in ''-em'', but all other cases decline as a standard plural 1h noun (e.g. accusative ''chlǣvānānu'', ergative ''chlǣvānān'', genitive ''chlǣvānumi'');
* ''hulineh'' "woman" has the suppletive plural ''hulūne'' "women", which is declined as a regular 1s declension noun.
* ''maila'' “water” does not have a dual form outside of colloquial use (where ''mailāt'' is used with the meaning of “two glasses of water”) and has the irregular plural ''mailusī'', declined as the plural of an ''-oe'' noun, with ''-us-'' instead of ''-en-'' or ''-oe-'' throughout the declension (but note genitive ''mailūsmi'' and not ''mailusmi''). This plural form is actually common, used when talking about bodies of water in an area, water layers, glasses of water, and a few minor idiomatic uses (e.g. ''taili mailusilīm hilælulke'', lit. “to arrive by crossing many waters”, meaning “to have had much experience”).<br/>The ''-usī'' semantic plural is also used for the word ''damītah'' when used for "petals" (''damītusī''; the meaning of "nails" has the regular plural ''damītai''), and ''lairē'' (''lairusī'', which does not mean "skies" or "days" but "galaxy").
* Nouns with non-standard final endings (except ''chlǣvānem'') are declined by unpacking the vowel through regular saṃdhi and applying the resulting declension to the newfound root, with regular saṃdhi. The most common such nouns are ''gos'' "ford, crossing of a small river" (ga-us; gen.sg. ''ge'' (ga-i), pl. ''gaus'' (ga-aus)) and ''khaim'' "goose" (khā-im; pl. ''khaik'' (khā-īk)).
* ''švas'' "animal (including humans)" pluralizes as ''švai'', as if it were a h-noun; all cases except for direct and vocative are however regular.


Reduplication adds the first consonant of the verb (except prefixes) and its first vowel (always oral short).There are however some special rules followed in reduplicating:
===Irregular vocatives===
* Aspirated stops are always reduplicated as unaspirated;
Five very common words have common, irregular, vocative forms:
* '''g-''' is always reduplicated as '''h-''', except for a few irregular verbs;
* ''ñæltah'' "(male's) sister" — ''ñæli'' or ''ñæl''
* '''h-''' is reduplicated as '''k-''';
* ''glūkam'' "(female's) brother" — ''galū''
* '''k-''' as '''š-''';

* ''meinā'' "mother" — '''' or ''''
* '''f-''' as '''p-''';
* ''bunā'' "father" — '''' or ''''
* '''l-''' in the initial clusters '''lk-''', '''lkh-''', '''lg-''', or '''lgh-''' reduplicates as '''n-'''.
* ''udhyāras'' "Comrade" — ''udhyā'' (rarely ''udhyār'')
* Initial clusters which begin with '''s-''', '''ṣ-''', '''š-''', or '''v-''' use the first consonant which is not one of them (but '''šv-''' reduplicates as '''š-''');
* Verbs with ablaut always have middle-grade ablaut; '''ṛ''' reduplicates as '''a''';
* Inverse-ablaut verbs have the consonant of the unreduced root but the reduced vowel;
* Roots beginning with vowels are regular, reduplicating the otherwise allophonic initial '''ʔ'''.
* Prefixes are added before the reduplicated root.
Final added '''-s''' has some special saṃdhi rules, too (in addition to the usual ones):
* '''-d-s''' and '''-dh-s''' both become '''-ts''' (always written so and never as *ç);
* After voiced stops, '''-s''' becomes '''-r''' and aspirated stops lose aspiration. '''-j-s''' and '''-jh-s''' both become '''-jl''';
* '''-š-s''' becomes '''-kṣ''';
* '''-y-s''' becomes '''''';
* '''-l-s''' becomes '''-lь''' when prevocalic and '''-lš''' when preconsonantal, but '''-rl-s''' always becomes '''-relь-'''.
Causative forms just add the causative endings, without further modifying the stem.


In many of the northeastern and northwestern lands of the Inquisition, the analytic ''infinitive + daudike'' construction is used instead of the synthetic desiderative in almost any case.
===Use of the plural===
Chlouvānem sometimes uses the singular in contexts where English uses the plural:
* Nouns are always singular after numerals (except, optionally, ''dani'' (two), which they can also be dual after), ''sora'' (some), ''grāṇa'' (any), ''gu'' (no), ''guviṣam'' (no other), ''taili'' (many, much), ''širē'' (more), ''kaili'' (most), and ''ṣubha'' (few, little).
** After ''yaiva'', the difference in the noun's number expresses a distinction much like the one between English "every" and "all": ''yaiva kita'' "every house", ''yaiva kitai'' "all houses".
* When referring to existence or availability of something, that something is always singular, e.g. ''dvārma širēmįs virā'' "there are chairs in the room". It may be plural if topicalized, but the overall meaning of the sentence changes - e.g. ''širēmeyi mæn dvārma virā'' "the chairs are in the room".
* When referring to a single person, ''dhāna'' (hand), ''mešīn'' (eye), and ''minnūlya'' (ear), and often also ''junai'' (foot) (more rarely for ''pājya'' (leg) and ''molnya'' (arm)) are typically singular and not dual - e.g. ''nanau mešīp mešute'' "I see it with my eyes" (lit. "with my eye"). In fact, they might be translated as "a person's hands/eyes/ears", given that dual forms are often used to mean e.g. "both hands of two people" and the plural ones for e.g. "many people's hands".
* ''junyoe'' (indoor slippers), ''rapūda'' ((thick) shoes), ''mæska'' (boots), and all types of shoes are also used in the singular to refer to a pair of them. The main exception is ''varṇaigīk'' (straw rope sandals), which is a plurale tantum.
Duals and plurals of given names have the meaning of an associative plural, i.e. ''Kālomījñai'' "Kālomīyeh and people in/of her group".


Examples of desiderative mood stems are:

==Verbs (''daradhaus'')==
* ''peithake'' “to go (multid.)”, root ''peith-'' → ''pe-peith-s'' → ''pepeits-
''
: ''Main article: [[Chlouvānem/Verbs|Chlouvānem verbs]]''
* ''lgutake'' “to buy”, root ''lgut-'' → ''nu-lgot-s'' → ''nulgots-''
* ''khlunāke'' “to search, look for”, root ''khlu-'' → ''ku-khlu-s'' → ''kukhlus-
''
* ''nilyake'' “to think”, root ''nily-'' → ''ni-nely-s'' → ''ninelš-''
* ''tṛlake'' “to do”, root ''tṛl-'' → ''ta-tarl-s'' > ''tatarelь-''
* ''valde'' “to open”, root ''vald-'' → ''v-uld-s'' > ''vults-''




A few verbs have completely irregular stems:
The Chlouvānem verb (''daradhūs'', pl. ''daradhaus'') is the most inflected part of speech; its most basic forms are fusional, but many more specific formations are more agglutinative due to their origin from old Proto-Lahob particles or participles.
* ''gyake'' “to be”: ''muñj-''
* ''lilke'' “to live”: ''lėlikṣ-''
* ''męlike'' “to give”: ''mimęñ-
''
* ''milke'' “to take”: ''mūṃchl-''.


===The necessitative mood===
==Pronouns (''hailihalenī'')==
The necessitative mood is formed and conjugates much like the desiderative; it uses a stem formed by reduplication and adding '''-asya-''', with normal saṃdhi changes.
The system of personal pronouns of modern Standard Chlouvānem is quite complex due to the honorific system. In modern Chlouvānem, the category of "pronouns" isn't actually syntactically differentiated from other nouns (except for being used anaphorically), and only some of them - the inherited pronouns from Proto-Lahob and Archaic Chlouvānem - follow a declension different from the one of nouns.


Examples:
The main reason for the complexity of the pronominal system is that there are many possible variants for each person, depending on the formality of the context, the two-way rank difference between speaker and listener, or the three-way rank difference between the speaker, the listener, and the addressee. Some particular forms are also chosen depending on gender.
* ''peithake'' “to go (multid.)”, → ''pepeithasya-''
* ''khlunāke'' “to search, look for” → ''kukhlūvsya-''
* ''nilyake'' “to think” → ''ninelyasya-''
* ''valde'' “to open” → ''vuldasya-''


===The potential mood===
The fact that there is no syntactical difference between the morphological pronouns and those that are nouns also means that every word used pronominally, including given names, requires that person's verbal concord, i.e. a given name used as a second-person pronoun will be used in concordance with a second-person verb. In the following list, words not marked as being inflected according to pronominal declension are inflected as nouns. However, '''yamei''' and '''lāma''' are honorific adpositions which do not decline; the title or given name used with them declines instead.
The potential mood also conjugates in all tenses and aspects and has a stem formed with initial reduplication. It is formed by adding '''-(e)nā-''' to the root and behaves as a fourth conjugation verb, adding an epenthetic -n before vocalic endings. Note that ''-r-nā-'' becomes '''-rṇā-''' due to saṃdhi.


Examples: ''peithake'' ''pepeithnā-'' ; ''gṇyauke'' ''gagṇyaunā-'' ; ''nilyake'' ''ninelyenā-''.
===List of personal pronouns and pronoun-equivalents===
====First person singular (I, me)====
* '''lili''' (pronominal declension): the morphological inherited pronoun and the most neutral. It is overall the most used, especially in the non-direct cases, but there are alternatives for very informal, childish, slang, and humble speech.
* '''emmā''': the humble speech word for "person", sometimes used in humble speech.
* '''demi''' (pronominal declension): literally "oneself", the reflexive pronoun; used in informal speech but conveying a sense of distance.
* Given name: used in childish speech and in certain slang forms, considered rude or uneducated otherwise.
* '''lilyā hulineh''': literally "my woman", informal or semi-formal, implies superiority.
* '''paralonį emmā''': literally "the person [humble] who is a disciple" or "I, [your] disciple". Used almost exclusively in writing, by students or pupils when talking to their professors or teachers.
* '''lilyā jāyim''' (in Archaic Chlouvānem only); literally "my girl", implying humbleness. Notably used by the Chlamiṣvatrā to refer to herself throughout the Holy Books.


A special case of saṃdhi occurs in roots which end in a single '''-g''' or '''-k''': this consonant becomes '''-gh''' and the '''-n''' in the suffix becomes retroflex, e.g. ''mūmikke'' "to dance", root ''mūmik-'' > ''mumūmighṇā-'' ; ''dilge'' “to pour", root ''dig-'' > ''dideghṇā-''.
====Second person singular (You)====
* Given name plus '''lāma''': the general polite form. '''lāma''' can be replaced by an appropriate title.
* '''yamei''' + given name + '''lāma''': similar to the above, but more polite, typically used for people of much higher rank or public officials.
* '''yamei''' + title: very polite, alternative to the above two.
* Appropriate honorific formula: the most polite usage, usually progressively reduced to (''yamei'') given name + ''lāma'' or ''yamei'' + title during the course of a conversation<ref>This is due to many honorific formulae being quite long - for example, the standard honorific formula when talking to an Inquisitor is (''lallāmaha'') [matronymic] ''yamei murkadhāna'' [given name] ''lāma''.</ref>.
* Given name + '''tanta''': same politeness as ''lāma'', used respectfully towards lower-ranked people, for example workers and colleague with less experience, soldiers of lower rank, employees, apprentices, and (from seventh class onwards) by teachers towards their students.
* Given name alone: used in semi-formal speech between (equal ranked) colleagues and friends with a moderate degree of acquaintance. Can be or is rude otherwise. Note that it is considered especially rude to use the given name (or any other form of the personal name) towards older family members, or family members of the same generation who are not siblings (e.g. brothers/sisters-in-law, unless they're close friends).
* [[Chlouvānem/Names#Informal_names_.28laltihalen.C4.AB.29|Informal name]]: used in informal speech among friends, siblings (and possibly cousins<ref>With cousins, whether the informal or the given name is used depends on how close they are; with first cousins using the informal name is nearly universal, while with farther cousins the given name may be more common.</ref>), partners, and all family members of a younger generation.
* Kinship term alone: used for older family members or non-siblings (excluding cousins) of the same generation.
* '''sāmi''' (pronominal declension): the morphological pronoun used in informal speech. Often replaced by the given name or by the hypocoristic form.
* '''nami''' (pronominal declension): the morphological pronoun of formal speech towards higher ranked people. Often used (and even more often in non-core forms such as the genitive '''namyā'''), but it is also common to use the given name + ''lāma'' formula instead.
* '''tami''' (pronominal declension): morphological pronoun of formal speech towards equal ranked people. Often used alternatively to the given name (with or without ''lāma''), even in the same conversation.
* '''rami''' (pronominal declension): morphological formal pronoun for lower ranked people; same usage pattern as ''tami''.
* '''udhyāras''': translatable as "Comrade" and introduced during the Kaiṣamā era, it is a formal second-person pronoun used for people in situations transcending social rank. It is particularly used among political activists, volunteers in any organization, or in cooperative activities distinct from one's usual work. It is also the preferred option when one has no information about the addressed person, or as a general second person pronoun not referring to any particular person.
* '''ṣari''': quite old-fashioned (but still actively used by older people), used by guests towards homeowners (or innkeepers) and by soldiers towards their superiors.
* '''ūttuka''' (mostly historical except for the Northeast): similar to '''ṣari''' but mostly used by servants towards their superiors or landowners; rapidly disappeared because of the Kaiṣamā era reforms except for the Northeast, where it was used in most contexts ''ṣari'' was elsewhere.
* '''blikā'''; an endearing term for "girl", used by sisters among themselves.
* '''lorkhās'''; male counterpart to ''blikā''.
* Informal name + '''cuca''': endearing form used in informal speech by parents towards their children.
* '''nūrya''', literally "kid, child": used in formal instances by parents towards their children.


===The permissive mood===
The following pronouns are mostly used for specific people, and only as reductions of other formulae:
The permissive mood also conjugates in all tenses and aspects and is formed, without reduplication, by vowel lengthening and adding '''-ippu-''' before consonantal endings and '''-īpr-''' before vocalic ones. Note that in the present tense, dual terminations use ''-ippu-'' and the ''-dā-'' ending (not ''-odā-''); for the third plural, ''-ippuyąt'' is the commonly used form: ''-ipryąt'' is attested but extremely archaic.
* '''aveṣyotariri nami''': literally "You excellent one"; extremely formal locution for non-religious superiors several ranks ahead.
* '''gopūrṭham''': used for public/religious and military officials.
* '''gopūrṭhami brausa''': used for the highest ranked Inquisitors, bishops, head monks, and the Baptist.
* '''yobrausa''': same as ''gopūrṭhami brausa''.
* '''lalla yobrausa''': used for the Great Inquisitor.


Examples: ''mišake'' → ''mīšippu-'' > ''mīšipru'' "I am allowed to see", ''mīšippum'' “I was allowed to see”.
With second-person pronouns, the possessives used are in nearly every case those of the corresponding morphological pronouns; however, in very informal speech, it is not uncommon to use the genitive of the informal name or of pronoun-equivalents such as ''blikā'' or ''lorkhās''.


Bisyllabic roots which have as their second syllable an unstressed vowel between two consonants that may form an allowed cluster (thus sonorant-vowel-stop/fricative, except ''-m-velar'') lose this vowel while adding the suffix, e.g. ''nąroṃke'' > ''nąrmippu-''.
====Third person singular====
Chlouvānem does not have any morphological third person pronoun; the demonstratives are used instead for non-human referents. For human referents, however, it is considered extremely rude to address them using a demonstratives. The choice of pronoun in the third person is especially complex because not just the relative rank of speaker and listener should be kept in mind, but also the rank of the addressee relative to both the speaker and the listener.


===Secondary moods: evidentiality===
All titles listed in the section [[#Honorific titles|"Honorific titles"]] may be freely used with and without names. Furthermore, it is common in not excessively formal speech to use ''nāḍima'' (honorific word for "mother") for all female older relatives - of previous generations, not older siblings - of the interlocutor and similarly ''tamvāram'' (honorific for "father") for male older relatives.
'''NOTE: This section is currently outdated'''


The four secondary moods expressing evidentiality are formed in two different ways. One of them has a special set of endings, while the other three add a morpheme to the verb. They are only used in the indicative, desiderative, necessitative, permissive, and potential moods, plus in first person imperatives.
'''udhyāras''', equivalent to "Comrade", is in contemporary Chlouvānem the least controversial third person pronoun, at least the only one that is never considered rude to use. However, depending on the situation, other pronouns may be more appropriate.


The ''visual evidential'' is made by adding '''-mī''' at the end of the verb, e.g. ''yąlėmī'' "it is [being] eaten (I see it)", ''yąlėnilьmī'' "(s)he eats (I see it)". The ending is actually a worn down version of ''mešė'', meaning "it is seen".
=====Reference table=====
The following table is meant as a ''non-exhaustive'' reference for the ''most common'' ways used to refer to third person human referents in different situations, excluding titles:


The ''first inferential'', which refers to any non-visual inference that is probably true (often translatable with "apparently", "looks like"), is formed by special endings, which replace the normal ones (example with ''pūnake'' "to work"):
{| class="redtable lightredbg" style="textalign:center"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 | !! colspan=4 | First inferential endings
! colspan=2 | If... !! Speaker is higher than Listener !! Speaker is equal to Listener !! Speaker is lower than Listener
|-
|-
! Present !! Past !! Perfect !! Future
! rowspan=3 | 3SG is higher than... !! both Speaker and Listener
| ''yamei'' (name) ''lāma''<br/>''yamei'' (name) ''suntam/sintam'' || ''(yamei)'' (name) ''suntam/sintam(/lāma)'' || ''yamei'' (name) ''suntam/sintam''
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Sing. !! 1st
! Listener,<br/>but lower than or equal to Speaker
| pūn'''itasu''' || pūn'''itto''' || upūn'''itenim''' || pūn'''išenim'''
| ''udhyāras''<br/>''yamei lātiṃṣin''<br/>(name) ''lāma'' || / || /
|-
|-
! 2nd
! Speaker,<br/>but lower than or equal to Listener
| pūna'''se''' || pūn'''itte''' || upūn'''itenis''' || pūn'''išenis'''
| / || / || ''yamei'' (name) ''lāma''
|-
|-
! 3rd
! rowspan=3 | 3SG is equal to... !! Listener
| pūna'''te''' || pūn'''itti''' || upūn'''itena''' || pūn'''išena'''
| ''udhyāras''<br/>''yamei'' (name) ''tanta''<br/> (name) ''lāma'' || / || ''yamei'' (name) ''suntam/sintam''
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! 1st
! both Speaker and Listener
| pūna'''dāsu''' || pūna'''daitu''' || upūn'''itanda''' || pūn'''iṣṭāsu'''
| / || ''udhyāras''<br/>''lātiṃṣin''<br/> (name) ''lāma''<br/>''yamei'' (name) ''tanta'' || /
|-
|-
! 2nd
! Speaker
| pūna'''dāse''' || pūna'''daiti''' || upūn'''itandes''' || pūn'''iṣṭāse'''
| ''udhyāras''<br/>''lātiṃṣin''<br/> (name) ''lāma'' || / || ''yamei'' (name) ''lāma''<br/>''udhyāras''<br/>''lātiṃṣin''
|-
|-
! 3rd
! rowspan=3 | 3SG is lower than...  !! Listener
| pūna'''dātte''' || pūna'''daite''' || upūn'''itena''' || pūn'''iṣṭātte'''
| ''udhyāras''<br/>(name) ''tanta'' || / || /
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Pl. !! 1st
! both Speaker and Listener
| pūn'''itami''' || pūn'''ichlīm''' || upūn'''itemna''' || pūn'''iṣyāmna'''
| / || ''udhyāras''<br/>(name) ''tanta'' || /
|-
|-
! 2nd
! Speaker
| pūn'''itai''' || pūn'''ichlīs''' || upūn'''iteṃša''' || pūn'''iṣyāṃša'''
| / || / || (name) ''lāma''<br/> ''udhyāras''
|-
! 3rd
| pūn'''itet''' || pūn'''itāl''' || upūn'''itena''' || pūn'''iṣyāna'''
|}
|}
Interior forms add these endings after ''-ir-'' (e.g. ''dældirte'' "(s)he apparently speaks"); causative forms add them after ''-ild-'' for interior verbs and ''-ilder-'' for exterior ones, e.g. ''maišilditenilь'' "(s)he apparently shows", ''maišilderite'' "(s)he apparently learns".


The ''second inferential'' has a similar function to the first inferential, but the situation is unlikely to be true (translatable e.g. with "might/apparently... but probably don't/doesn't"); it is formed by adding '''-mū''' after the first inferential endings, e.g. ''pūnatemū'' "(s)he might be working, but probably isn't". This is a worn down version of ''mbu gu'' (or not).
====Dual pronouns====
====Plural pronouns====
====Other personal pronouns====


The ''reported'' evidential marks something the speaker does not know first hand; it is formed by adding '''-kye''' after the normal endings, e.g. ''pūnėkye'' "[I was told/I heard] (s)he works". The ending is a worn down version of ''kulė'' (it is said).
====Pronominal declension====
The pronominal declension has two variants: one used for the first person pronouns and another for the 2nd person ones. First person pronouns are the most archaic: they have a single-phoneme stem in all cases bar the direct, and a different stem in the direct case ('''lili''', derived from the original pronoun *li, in the singular, and suppletive '''amūt''' and '''amūvi''' in the dual and plural respectively).<br/>The second person pronouns are a Pre-Chlouvānem innovation, from the original short stem attached to the demonstrative ''ami'', and therefore they follow that word's declension. However, the original short stems are kept as alternative, shorter forms, for the accusative, ergative, and dative cases. Second-person plural pronouns exist, but are virtually unused outside of Archaic Chlouvānem.


=== The consequential secondary moods===
All ergative singular forms in ''-ei'' have literary variants in ''-eis'' (cf. ''emeis'', ergative of ''emibe'' "one").
The two consequential secondary moods can actually be tertiary moods, as they can be added to evidential secondary moods too.


The consequential mood of cause is formed by adding '''-ę''' + '''pian(e)-''' to the verb stem. For example ''pūnu'' → ''pūnępianu'' (given that I work, ...); ''pupūṃsi'' → ''pupūṃsępiani'' (given that you want to work, ...), or ''pūnitti'' → ''pūnępianitti'' (given that, apparently, (s)he worked, ...).
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
 
The consequential mood of opposition is similarly formed by adding '''-ę''' + '''gām(u)-''' to the verb stem. For example ''pūnu'' → ''pūnęgāmu'' (even if I work, ...); ''pupūṃsi'' → ''pupūṃsęgāmi'' (even if you want to work, ...), or ''pūnitti'' → ''pūnęgāmitti'' (even if, apparently, (s)he worked, ...).
 
===Participles and adverbials===
'''Participles''' (''maihaleniausis daradhūs'', pl. ''maihaleniausī daradhūvī'') are formed by suffixing the appropriate set of participle endings to the stem. The set marks the tense/aspect combination; the stem may be in indicative, necessitative, desiderative, permissive, or potential mood, plus any secondary evidential mood.
 
The endings are (in patient-trigger/common voice):
* Present: exterior '''-susas''', ''-susam'', ''-susah'' — interior '''-sūnis''', ''-sūnim'', ''-sūneh''
* Past: exterior '''-(n)das''', ''-(n)dam'', ''-(n)dah'' — interior '''-dris''', ''-drim'', ''-dreh''
* Perfect: exterior '''-cās''', ''-cām'', ''-cāh'' — interior '''-cænas''', ''-cænam'', ''-cænah''
* Future: exterior '''-iṣvas''', ''-iṣvam'', ''-iṣvah'' — interior '''-iṣunis''', ''-iṣunim'', ''-iṣuneh''
 
Voice endings are inserted after the participle, but after all prefixes in prefixed stems. Saṃdhi is fairly regular, but direct case ''-s'' is deleted except with the dative-trigger affix. Examples: ''męlьsusas'', ''męlьsusanilь'' but ''primęlьsusas'', ''prinilьmęlьsusas''.
 
Note that voice endings, if final, are always at the end, even if the participle is inflected for case: direct ''męlьsusakæ'' (the one benefacted by giving) but dative ''męlьsusoṃkæ'' (to the one benefacted by giving).
 
'''Adverbials''' (''khladaradhausis daradhūs'', pl. ''khladaradhausī daradhūvī'') are formed just like participles by adding a set of endings to the stem. There are two types of adverbials: '''homofocals''' (''tūtulūtimūkas'', pl. ''-ūke''), used when the trigger of the adverbial and of the main verb are the same, and '''heterofocals''' (''vālūtimūkas'', pl. ''-ūke''), used when they are different.
* Present: homofocal '''-lie''' (ext), '''-līne''' (int) — heterofocal '''-nikai''' (ext), '''-ninėk''' (int)
* Past: homofocal '''-lūte''' (ext), '''-lūnde''' (int) — heterofocal '''-nakte''' (ext), '''-nalget''' (int)
* Perfect: homofocal '''-līse''', (ext) '''-līmen''' (int) — heterofocal '''-nikṣe''' (ext), '''-nikñe''' (int)
* Future: homofocal '''-iṣre''' (ext), '''-iṣrāṇi''' (int) — heterofocal '''-iṣṇei''' (ext), '''-iṣāṇin''' (int).
 
Like participles, adverbials have voice affixes after them, but before the root in prefixed verbs. A palatalized consonant becomes a consonant followed by '''i'''. Examples: ''męlilie'', ''męlilienilь'', ''primęlilie'', ''prinilьmęlilie''.
 
===Impersonal verbs===
Impersonal verbs, in Chlouvānem, are those verbs that are defective and only conjugated in third person exterior (with the partial exception of ''giṃšake'') and only used in patient-trigger voice. There are six such -basic- verbs:
* ''gårḍake'' (to be meant to)
* ''hælьte'' (to be moved, touched)
* ''maṣvake'' (to feel compassion, pity)
* ''ñælftake'' (to repent, to feel remorse, to be sorry for)
* ''prābake'' (to be disgusted)
* ''giṃšake'' (to get/be bored) — usually termed “half-impersonal” because it has a full interior conjugation, but with a different meaning (to be boring).
 
These verbs all have their cause in the exessive case (or a subjunctive verb) and the affected being in the dative; gårḍake usually only has a subjunctive. Examples:
: ''låh tamiāt maivat hælьtitь'' “what (s)he said <small>(literally: his/her word)</small> moved me.”
: ''glidrirāyem låh ñælftė'' “I’m sorry for how I behaved.”
: ''priūsimęlīṃsętå gårḍitь'' “you were meant to give it back to me” (literally: it was meant that you give it back to me<ref>Note that in such a phrase the perfective subjunctive would have a different meaning, namely “to have already given it back to me”.</ref>) .
 
Derived forms usually behave as impersonal too, like ''taprābake'' (to hate).
 
===Irregular verbs===
Chlouvānem has fourteen major irregular verbs, plus other three with peculiar irregularities. The thirteen major irregular verbs all have different stems in either past and perfect or both; the verb ''gyake'' (to be) is extremely irregular due to suppletion, while ''æflike'' (to plan, to be going to) is a truly defective verb.<br/>The other twelve major suppletive verbs are (regular stems are <small>''in smaller size italic''</small>):
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! Verb !! Present stem (without ablaut) !! Past stem !! Perfect stem
! colspan=4 | !! Direct !! Accusative !! Ergative !!  Genitive !! Translative !! Exessive !! Essive !!  Dative !! Ablative !! Locative !! Instrumental
|-
|-
| ''aphake'' (to turn) || aph-a- || <small>''aph-a-''</small> || āft-a-
! rowspan=5 | Singular !! colspan=3 | 1st person
| '''lili''' || lū || lei || lyai<br/>lilyā || lan || lat || lįs || lum || ląu || lēn || lāni
|-
|-
| ''einerke'' (to float (multidir.)) || einer- || paiṇṣ- || iʔīneṣ-
! rowspan=4 | 2nd person !! colspan=2 | Informal
| '''sāmi''' || sāmyū<br/>sū || sāmī<br/>sei || sāmī || sāmīn || sāmīt || sāmįs || sāmūm<br/>som || sāmų || sāmǣ || sāmūni
|-
|-
| ''flulke'' (to go, walk (monodir.)) || flun- || dām-a- || elīs-
! colspan=2 | Form. sup.
| '''nami''' || namyū<br/>nū || namī<br/>nei || namī || namīn || namīt || namįs || namūm<br/>num || namų || namǣ || namūni
|-
|-
| ''ghūmake'' (to blow) || ghūm-a- || <small>''ghūm-a-''</small> || ghumuṣṭ-a-
! colspan=2 | Form. equal
| '''tami''' || tamyū<br/>tū || tamī<br/>tei || tamī || tamīn || tamīt || tamįs || tamūm<br/>tum || tamų || tamǣ || tamūni
|-
|-
| ''ikhlake'' (to stab) || ikhl-a- || <small>''ikhl-a-''</small> || īkheṣṭ-a-
! colspan=2 | Form. inf.
| '''rami''' || ramyū<br/>nū || ramī<br/>nei || ramī || ramīn || ramīt || ramįs || ramūm<br/>rum || ramų || ramǣ || ramūṇi
|-
|-
| ''keṃšake'' (to use) || caṃš-a- || keṃš-a- || <small>''ekeṃš-a-''</small>
! colspan=4 | Reflexive pronoun
| '''demi''' || || jei || jai<br/>demyā || jen || jet || jįs || jum || jąu || jēn || jāni
|-
|-
| ''khilyake'' (to write) || khily-a- || paṃšy-a- || <small>''ikhily-a-''</small>
! rowspan=5 | Dual !! colspan=3 | 1st person
| '''amūt''' || lūṣa || lūra || lūva || lūh || lūbhan || lūnne || lūh || lūbhan || lūnne || lūbhan
|-
|-
| ''milke'' (to take, seize, catch, capture) || milūk-/milk- || milk- || ilak-
! rowspan=4 | 2nd person !! colspan=2 | Informal
| '''sāmīt''' || sāmīṣa<br/>seṣa || sāmīra<br/>sera || sāmīva || sāmirį || sāmibhan || sāminne || sāmirį<br/>seh || sāmibhan || sāminne || sāmibhan
|-
|-
| ''mṛcce'' (to run (monodir.)) || mṛc- || pañc- || <small>''amṛc-''</small>
! colspan=2 | Form. sup.
| '''namīt''' || namīṣa<br/>nīṣa || namīra<br/>nira || namīva || namirį || namibhan || naminne || namirį<br/>nih || namibhan || naminne || namibhan
|-
|-
| ''peithake'' (to go, walk (multidir.)) || peith-a- || papth-a- || apoth-a-
! colspan=2 | Form. equal
| '''tamīt''' || tamīṣa<br/>tīṣa || tamīra<br/>tira || tamīva || tamirį || tamibhan || taminne || tamirį<br/>tih || tamibhan || taminne || tamibhan
|-
|-
| ''yahike'' (to read; <small>''arch.:'' to understand</small>) || yahь- || taiši- || ašahь-
! colspan=2 | Form. inf.
| '''ramīt''' || ramīṣa<br/>rīṣa || ramīra<br/>rira || ramīva || ramirį || ramibhan || raminne || ramirį<br/>rih || ramibhan || raminne || ramibhan
|-
|-
| ''yuṇake'' (to powder; to break with the hands) || yuṇ-a- || <small>''yuṇ-a-''</small> || yuṇuṣṭ-a-
! Plural !! colspan=3 | 1st person
| '''amūvi''' || laih || lān || lumi || lemān || lenīs || lāra || lisām || lenīs || lelīm || lenīka
|}
|}
Note that ''paiṇṣ-'', ''dām-'', ''paṃšy-'', ''pañc-'', ''papth-'', and ''taiši-'' all use the '''present''' endings instead of the '''past''' ones.


''æflike'' (to plan, to be going to) is an unmarked agentive verb, which is only conjugated as agentive, and has an irregular present stem ''æftil-'', with a zero ending for the third person singular. It usually only takes verbs or verbal phrases as arguments, e.g. ''keitu dhāsmike æftil'' "(s)he is going/plans to save the whale".<br/>
====Honorific titles====
Note that the defectiveness does not apply to its derived forms - e.g. ''švæflike'' (to believe): ''švæftilu'' "I am believed", ''šunilьyæftilu'' "I believe" - and ''æflike'' itself has regular causative forms (with the meaning of "make X intend to do").
''→ See also: [[Chlouvānem/Names#Using_names|Chlouvānem names § Using names]]''
 
Chlouvānem uses many honorific titles, which are always used in non-familiar speech. The "honorific" adjective ''yamei'' is often added to many of them - especially ''lāma'' - and is mandatory in other ones.
* '''lāma''' - used after the noun, it is the most common honorific title; almost every time someone is being addressed, ''lāma'' is used - the only exceptions being when it is already known another honorific should be used, or in familiar situations. It usually follows the given name alone (e.g. ''Namihūlša lāma''); if the matronymic is added (sometimes done in order to disambiguate), then ''lāma'' comes between matronymic and noun (e.g. ''Līṭhaljāyimāvi lāma Namihūlša''). All three names matronymic, surname, and given name together with ''lāma'' (e.g. ''Līṭhaljāyimāvi Kaleñchokah Namihūlša lāma'') are only used in very formal addressing from a list of nouns; should matronymic+noun be not enough to distinguish two people, simply surname+noun is used.
* '''tanta''' - used for people in a lower position, e.g. used towards one's employees or (usually from seventh class onwards) by teachers and professors towards their students. Also used by militars towards lower-ranked soldiers.
* '''suntam''' (regionally also ''sintam'') - used for people in a higher position in certain situations, most commonly towards older and more experienced colleagues (but not teachers or professors, nor work bosses if they're roughly the same age as the speaker).
* '''lallāmaha''' - an extremely formal honorific, used for public authorities and all Inquisitors. Most often used together with ''yamei''. Inquisitors may also be referred to as ''lallāmaha + <small>matronymic</small> + yamei + <small>given name</small> + murkadhāna (lāma)''
* '''jūlin''' - less formal than ''lāma'', used for people who work in one's home but are not part of the family.
* '''tallam''' - less formal than ''lāma'', used by men for unmarried women whom they know somewhat well. Currently less frequently used than it was up to about 10 years ago.
* '''jāmilšīreh''' - used in military contexts towards higher-ranked people, or by common people towards military commanders in service.
* '''udhyā(ras)''' - neutral but respectful title of address, often used when generally speaking and without knowing who the listener is. Sometimes used, when in a plural sense, in the form '''yamei dāvudhyāre'''. In its neutralness relative to rank, it can be compared with the Soviet-era use of ''товарищ''. It is also how high-ranked Inquisitors and most monks address the general public.<br/>Note that ''udhyāras'' is the direct form, ''udhyā'' the irregular vocative.
* '''pūrivāla''' - an impersonal term of address used in written language, towards unfamiliar people never met personally. Often used as ''yamei'' [name] ''pūrivāla''.
* '''cuca''' is not strictly an honorific, as it pertains to more colloquial forms of speech, but it works the same way. It has a diminutive and endearing meaning, not unlike Japanese ''-chan''. In formal speech, it is often used towards and when speaking about children.


Three verbs have further irregularities:
=====Occupations commonly used as titles=====
* The singular present indicative forms of ''flulke'' are irregular ''flå'', ''flin'', and ''fliven''.
* '''camitorai''' — head of a company (usually as [matronymic] ''yamei'' [name] ''camitorai lāma'')
* ''milke'' uses the stem ''milk-'' also in the singular present indicative: ''milku'', ''milki'', ''milkė''.
* '''kauchlærīn''' (voc.: ''kauchlærī'') — professor (in universities, seminaries, institutions, and work schools)
* ''flulke'' and ''męlike'' have the irregular optative stems ''fleina-'' and ''męliouna-'' (instead of expected *fluneina- and *męlieina-).
* '''tatnāmęlīn''' (voc.: ''tatnāmęlī'') — teacher (in first and basic schools)


The pair ''tamišake⁓tildake'' (to look at) is not counted as one of the thirteen irregular verbs, but ''tildake'' is an unmarked agentive verb, while ''tamišake'' is used in all other voices. Note that however ''tamišake'' also has a regular agentive voice, synonymous with ''tildake'': ''teldu'' ⁓ ''tanilьmešu'' (I look at). The verb ''najake'' "to happen" (explained below among the compounds of ''gyake'') is also sometimes considered irregular, as a verb with an unmarked dative-trigger voice.<br/>Prefixed motion verbs are also not marked for voice in the patient- and agent-trigger ones (with only cases on nouns distinguishing them), but that is considered a particular but regular behaviour of a semantically defined subset of verbs.
=====Official titles=====
Where not noted, the formula is [matronymic] ''yamei'' [name] [title] ''lāma''.


====The verb "to be" (gyake)====
* '''brausamailenya''' — Baptist — rendered as ''aveṣyotārire lallāmaha'' [matronymic] ''yamei'' [surname + given name] ''brausamailenia lāma''.
The verb "to be" is suppletive as it uses various different stems (from Proto-Lahob ''*gəjó'', ''*woŋ—*'', ''*mōws'' respectively) and irregularly for example, the future indicative is morphologically a present.
* '''camimurkadhāna''' — Great Inquisitor — rendered as ''širē aveṣyotārire lallāmaha'' [matronymic] ''yamei'' [surname + given name] ''camimurkadhāna lāma''.
* '''camitorai''' — president (of diocesan parliaments or executives or of foreign countries). Rendered as ''aveṣyotārire'' [matronymic (if Chlouvānem)] ''yamei'' [name] ''camitorai lāma''.
* '''plušamelīs''' (voc.: ''plušamelī'') — Prefect (head of an Office (''plušamila'') of the Inquisition). Rendered as ''aveṣyotārire'' [matronymic] ''yamei'' [name] ''plušamelī(s) lāma''.
* '''gatvā''' — leader/head/president/mayor — preceded by the genitive of the respective administration (''ṣramāṇa'' "province", ''lalka'' "circuit", ''hālgāra'' "district", ''marta'' "city"…).
* '''hurdagīn''' — Head Monk (head of a monastery) — rendered as ''kaili brausire yamei [name] hurdagīn lāma'' (+ monastery name-<small>GEN</small>)<ref>Many head monks have their own unique titles based on their monastery. For example the head monk of the Vādhaṃšvāti Lake Monastery is not referred as ''[…] hurdagīn lāma vādhaṃšvāti ga gūltayi'' but as ''[…] laliājuniāmiti jāṇi camilālta lāma'', literally "Great Guardian of the Field of the Night Bloom".</ref>
* '''rākṣaṇa''' — Bishop (head of a diocese) — rendered as ''aveṣyotārire'' [matronymic] ''yamei'' [(surname +) name] ''rākṣaṇa lāma'' (+ diocese name-<small>GEN</small>).
* '''lallaplušamelīs''' (voc.: ''lallaplušamelī'') — High Prefect (head of the Table of Offices (''flušamaili eṇāh'', the executive branch of the Inquisition). Usually rendered as ''taili aveṣyotārire'' [matronymic] ''yamei'' [name] ''lallaplušamelī(s) lāma''.
* '''lallamurkadhāna''' — High Inquisitor (one of the 612 members of the Inquisitorial Conclave (''murkadhānumi lanedāmeh'', the legislative branch of the Inquisition). Usually rendered as ''aveṣyotārire'' [matronymic] ''yamei'' [name] ''lallamurkadhāna lāma''.
* '''ñæltryam''' — monk.
* '''nīrvakṣari''' (voc.: ''nīrvakṣarī'') — Eparch (head of an Eparchy).


Note that the indicative present is very rarely used, as the copula is usually dropped in most cases; when used with the meaning of "to have" (e.g. ''lili mæn tulūʔa yambras uñyąt'' "I have six pears" (lit.: I <small>TOPIC</small> six pears are)) it is considered better not to drop it, but it is often done nevertheless in common speech.
Note that the full titles are used generally at the first mention only. For example, ''Martayināvi yamei murkadhāna Læhimausa lāma'' becomes afterwards either ''yamei murkadhāna'' or ''yamei Læhimausa lāma''. With the Great Inquisitor, this does not usually get shorter than ''širē aveṣyotārire yamei lallāmaha'' ([Her] Respectable Most Excellent Highness) or ''širē aveṣyotārire lallāmaha camimurkadhāna'' ([Her] Most Excellent Highness, the Great Inquisitor).


=====Indicative mood=====
===Correlatives===
{| class="wikitable"
Chlouvānem has a fairly regular system of correlatives, distinguishing ten types (proximal, medial, distal, interrogative, negative, assertive existential, elective existential, universal, positive alternative, and negative alternative) in eleven categories (attributive, thing, person, time, place, destination, origin, way, reason, quality, quantity).
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
|-
|-
! Person !! Present !! Past !! Perfect !! Future
! Category ↓ / Type → !! Proximal !! Medial !! Distal !! Interrogative !! Negative !! Ass. exist. !! Elect. exist. !! Universal !! Positive altern. !! Negative altern.
|-
|-
| 1SG || valu || mos || egyam || mavū
! Attributive
|-
| rowspan=2 | ''nenē''<br/><small>(and others; see below)</small><br/>this (one) || rowspan=2 | ''nunū''<br/><small>(and others; see below)</small><br/>that (one) (near you) || rowspan=2 | ''nanā''<br/><small>(and others; see below)</small><br/>that (one) (over there) || rowspan=2 | ''yanū?''<br/>what?, which (one) ? || ''gu''<br/>no || ''sora''<br/>some || ''grāṇa''<br/>any || rowspan=2 | ''yaiva''<br/>every(thing) || ''viṣam''<br/>another, other || ''guviṣam''<br/>no other
| 2SG || vali || moši || egyes || mavei
|-
| 3SG || væl || moe || egya || mavė
|-
| 1DU || uñou || moram || egyara || mayou
|-
| 2DU || undia || mores || egyari || maudia
|-
| 3DU || unde || moḍat || egya || maude
|-
| 1PL || ūlieh || monāja || egima || maulieh
|-
| 2PL || ulšin || moneši || egiša || maušin
|-
| 3PL || ulīran || mošivė || egya || mavīran
|}
 
=====Other primary moods=====
All other primary mood formations use irregular stems, except for the subjunctive, hypothetical, and imperative which are the only ones using ''gya-'' as in the infinitive: ''jeiv-a-'' for the optative and propositive, ''muñj-a-'' for the desiderative, ''mokṣy-a-'' for the necessitative, ''ginā-'' for the potential and ''maippu-/maipr-'' for the permissive.
 
Present tense or imperfective aspect of all other primary moods included as examples in this table:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! Person !! Imperative !! Subjunctive !! Optative !! Propositive !! Desiderative !! Necessitative !! Potential !! Permissive
! Thing
| ''gomi''<br/>nothing || ''sorami''<br/>something || ''grāṇami''<br/>anything || ''viṣāmi''<br/>something else || ''guviṣāmi''<br/>nothing else
|-
|-
| 1SG || gyekṣam || gyatiam || jeivu || jeivikṣam || muñju || mokṣyu || ginau || maipru
! Person
| ''·evita''<br/>this one || ''·utvita''<br/>that one (near you) || ''·ātvita''<br/>that one (over there) || ''yavita?''<br/>who? || ''guvita''<br/>no one || ''soraita''<br/>someone || ''grāmvita''<br/>anyone || ''yaivita''<br/>everyone || ''viṣvita''<br/>someone else || ''guviṣvita''<br/>no one else
|-
|-
| 2SG || gyekṣa || gīsei || jeivi || jeivikṣa || muñji || mokṣyi || ginai || maipri
! Time
| ''emiya''<br/>now || ''utiya''<br/>then || ''ātiya''<br/>then (remote) || ''yamiya?''<br/>when? || ''gumiya''<br/>never || ''soramiya''<br/>sometime, somewhen || ''grāmiya''<br/>anytime, whenever || ''yaivmiya''<br/>always, everytime || ''viṣmiya''<br/>sometime else || ''guviṣmiya''<br/>never else
|-
|-
| 3SG || gyekṣai || gīti || jeivė || jeivikṣai || muñje || mokṣyė || ginai || maiprė
! Place
| ''·ejulā''<br/>here || ''·uñjulā''<br/>there || ''·āñjulā''<br/>over there || ''yajulā?''<br/>where? || ''gujulā''<br/>nowhere || ''sorajulā''<br/>somewhere || ''grāñjulā''<br/>anywhere || ''yavijulā''<br/>everywhere || ''viñjulā''<br/>elsewhere || ''guviñjulā''<br/>nowhere else
|-
|-
| 1DU || || gīderam || jeivayou || || muñjayou || mokṣyayou || gināyou || maippuyou
! Destination
| ''·ejulyom''<br/>hither || ''·uñjulyom''<br/>thither || ''·āñjulyom''<br/> thither (remote) || ''yajulyom?''<br/>whither? || ''gujulyom''<br/>nowhither || ''sorajulyom''<br/>somewhither || ''grāñjulyom''<br/>anywhither || ''yavijulyom''<br/>everywhither || ''viñjulyom''<br/>elsewhither || ''guviñjulyom''<br/>nowhither else
|-
|-
| 2DU || || gīderes || jeivadia || || muñjadia || mokṣyadia || ginādia || maippudia
! Source
| ''·ejulų''<br/>hence || ''·uñjulų''<br/>thence || ''·āñjulų''<br/> thence (remote) || ''yajulų?''<br/>whence? || ''gujulų''<br/>nowhence || ''sorajulų''<br/>somewhence || ''grāñjulų''<br/>anywhence || ''yavijulų''<br/>everywhence || ''viñjulų''<br/>elsewhence || ''guviñjulų''<br/>nowhence else
|-
|-
| 3DU || || gīdeh || jeivade || || muñjade || mokṣyade || gināde || maippude
! Manner
| ''elīce''<br/>thus, hereby || ''ūlīce''<br/>thereby || ''ālīce''<br/>thereby; that other way || ''yalīce?''<br/>how? || ''gulīce''<br/>no way || ''soralīce''<br/>somehow || ''grāṃlīce''<br/>anyhow || ''yaivlīce''<br/>everyway || ''viṣlīce''<br/>otherwise || ''guviṣlīce''<br/>no other way
|-
|-
| 1PL || gyekṣumi || gīneja || jeivalieh || jeivikṣumi || muñjalieh || mokṣyalieh || ginālieh || maippulieh
! Reason
| ''emena''<br/>herefore || ''utmena''<br/>therefore || ''ātmena''<br/>therefore; for that other reason || ''yamenat?''<br/>why? || ''gumena''<br/>for no reason || ''soramena''<br/>somewhy || ''grāmena''<br/>whyever, for any reason || ''yaivmena''<br/>for every reason || ''viṣmena''<br/>for another reason || ''guviṣmena''<br/>for no other reason
|-
|-
| 2PL || gyekṣus || gīniši || jeivašin || jeivikṣus || muñjašin || mokṣyašin || gināšin || maippušin
! Quality
| ''esmā''<br/>this kind || ''utsmā''<br/>that kind || ''ātsmā''<br/>that other kind || ''yasmāt?''<br/>which kind? || ''gusmā''<br/>no kind || ''sorasmā''<br/>some kind || ''grāṇismā''<br/>any kind || ''yavismā''<br/>every kind || ''viṣasmā''<br/>another kind || ''guviṣasmā''<br/>no other kind
|-
|-
| 3PL || gyekṣat || gīyevatь || jeivīran || jeivikṣat || muñjīran || mokṣīran || gineran || maiprīran
! Quantity
| ''enūḍa''<br/>this much || ''utnūḍa''<br/>that much || ''ātnūḍa''<br/>that much (remote) || ''yanūḍat?''<br/>how much? || ''gunūḍa''<br/>none || ''soraṇūḍa''<br/>some of it || ''grāṇūḍa''<br/>any much || ''yaivnūḍa''<br/>all of it || ''viṣṇūḍa''<br/>another quantity || ''guviṣṇūḍa''<br/>no other quantity
|}
|}


=====In compound verbs=====
Note that in common speach ''ālīce'' and ''ūlīce'' as well as ''ātmena'' and ''utmena'' are basically interchangeable. The <small>QUALITY</small> correlatives may take an essive argument, e.g. ''lajlęs grāṇismā'' "any kind of chair".<br/><small>THING</small> and <small>PERSON</small> correlatives decline for case and, in the case of ''evita'', ''utvita'', and ''ātvita'', also for number (1h declension: ''evita'', acc. sg. ''evitu'', dir. pl. ''evitai'', dat. pl. ''evitesām''). <small>QUALITY</small> and <small>QUANTITY</small> correlatives also decline for case.
There are some compound verbs which are formed by a "meaning stem" + ''gyake''; they conjugate just like ''gyake'' does:
* ''pṛšcāṃgyake'' "to like"<ref>More properly "to be pleasing", e.g. ''lunai låh pṛšcāmvæl'' "tea is pleasing to me" → "I like tea".</ref> → present ''pṛšcāmvalu'', ''pṛšcāmvali'', ''pṛšcāmvæl''... past ''pṛšcāmmos'', ''pṛšcāmmosi'', ''pṛšcāmmoe''... perfect ''pṛšcāmegyam''... future ''pṛšcāmmavū'' ; the same in other moods, e.g. necessitative present ''pṛšcāmmokṣyu'', ''pṛšcāmmokṣyi''...<br/>Note that in colloquial speech the form of ''gyake'' is omitted in the present indicative, e.g. ''pṛšcām'' is "to be pleasing" for all persons.
* ''najake'' "to happen" (''nañ-gya-'', irregular saṃdhi) morphologically conjugates like ''gyake'' but has some peculiarities:
** Like ''gyake'', there is no agent-, dative-, and instrumental-trigger voice, but the patient-trigger voice has a dative meaning - e.g. ''navalu'' "it happens to me".
** The basic, semantically patientive forms, are the interior ones (with the stem ''nañ-gy-ir''), and they only exist for the third persons - e.g. ''najire'' "it happens", ''najirde'' "they (dual) happen", ''najirean'' "they happen", and so on.
** It uses analytic constructions for most moods, e.g. ''najakenovake'' "can happen" > ''najakenovė'' "it can happen"; ''najakedaudike'' "to be wanted to happen" > ''najakedaudiunilь'' "I want it to happen" — forms such as the synthetic ''najinai'' or ''namuñjunilь'' are found only in archaic (mostly pre-Classical) texts or with other uses - as e.g. ''najinai'' being the most common word for "maybe".


===Analytic constructions and auxiliary verbs===
Not to be confused with their literal English translations are ''yaivemibe'' (or ''yaiva emibe'') "each, every" (literally "everyone") - which is most often attributive only in Chlouvānem - and especially ''sora emibe'', literally "someone", which has a completely different meaning: ''sora emibe'' denotes "some single subjects, considered as single entities, hence inherently plural and taking plural verbs: ''sora emibe draikate'' "some single subjects did it" ''soraita dṛkte'' "someone did it".
Chlouvānem uses many analytic constructions - including auxiliary and compound verbs - in order to convey some shades of meaning. Most of these use either a participle or the infinitive as the form of the lexical verb:
* ''perfect participle'' in the needed voice + ''gyake'' in the past or future tense: compound construction used for pluperfect and future perfect. It is not wrong to use it with a present tense, but the meaning does not change from the bare perfect.<br/> Note that, for the pluperfect, the bare perfect is often used instead, both in literature as in common speech.
** ''uyųlcąnilь mos'' "I had eaten"
** ''uyųlcąnilь mavū'' "I will have eaten"
* ''present participle'' in the needed voice + ''gyake'' in the needed tense: compound construction used for the progressive aspect in the three tenses (present, past, future). In the present, the form of ''gyake'' is omitted for the third person, or for all persons if a pronoun is present.
** ''yųlasusąnilь valu'' "I am eating"
** ''yųlasusąnilь mos'' "I was eating"
** ''yųlasusąnilь mavū'' "I will be eating"
* ''infinitive'' + ''ñeaʔake'' (to be used to): compound construction used for a habitual action in present, past, or future tense. It is not used with motion verbs in the present, as the multidirectional verb already unambiguously has this meaning.
** ''yaive prājamne yahikeñeaʔunilь'' "I am used to read every evening"
** ''yaive prājamne yahikeñeaʔaṃnilь'' "I used to read every evening"
** ''yaive prājamne yahikeñeaʔiṣyaṃnilь'' "I will be used to read every evening"
* ''infinitive'' + ''nartaflulke'' (to reach): to come to X, to end up X-ing, to result in X-ing
** ''yųlakenartanilьfliven'' "(s)he ended up eating"
** ''lañšorakenartaflunirean'' "they ended up marrying each other"
* ''infinitive'' (or more formally ''perfect participle'') + ''kitte'' (to put): to keep X-ed:
** ''valdekitė'' / ''uvaldacās kitė'' "it is kept opened"
* ''infinitive'' + either ''įstiāke'' (to hang from) or ''maitiāke'' (to be in front of): prospective aspect, to be about to X
** ''yųlakayįsnilьtimu'' "I am about to eat"
** ''yahikemaitimė'' "it is about to be read"
* ''infinitive'' + ''paṣmišake'' (to look further away): to let X
** ''yahikepaknilьmešusė'' "I let you read"
* ''infinitive'' + ''mālchake'' (to run (multidirectional)): to keep X-ing (less formal alternative to ''mai-'' prefixed verbs)
**  ''yahikemālchuniliå'' "I keep reading it" (synonym of ''mainilьyašutå'')


==Pronouns==
Negatives, elective existentials, universals, and positive alternatives for thing and person correlatives may also take dual number:
Chlouvānem has a series of pronouns which are irregular when compared to other nouns, yet they follow a mostly similar pattern among themselves. As with nouns and adjectives, in Chlouvānem there is mostly no difference between possessive and demonstrative pronouns and adjectives. Note that ''pronouns'' here are defined as a morphological category, as there are many pronominal locutions or nouns acting as pronouns in the Chlouvānem honorific system. Familiar and neutral styles of Chlouvānem speech use these only.
: ''gomīt~guvitāt'' "neither";
: ''grāṇamīt~grāmvitāt'' "either";
: ''yaivāt~yaivitāt'' "both";
: ''viṣāmāt~viṣvitāt'' "the other one".


Standard Chlouvānem as spoken today uses the following pronouns:
Further correlatives not included in the above table:
* 1st person '''lili''' (sg.), '''lileidi''' (dual), and '''mayin''' (pl.).
: ''yambā?'' (whose?)
* 2nd person '''sāmi''' (sg.), '''sāmeidi''' (dual), and '''nagin''' (pl.).
: ''smāmi'' (such a...) <small>(archaic, literary)</small>
* 3rd person ''parrot'' '''tami''' (sg.), '''tameidi''' (dual), and '''toman''' (pl.).
* 3rd person ''dragon'' '''tes''' (sg.) and '''tyuše''' (pl.), and 3rd person ''lotus'' '''tem''' (sg.) and '''tyume''' (pl.) — they are only distinct from the ''parrot'' forms in direct, accusative, and ergative; ''tameidi'' is used as dual for all three genders.
* Reflexive '''demi''' (mandatory for 3rd person, commonly used also for 1st and 2nd).


The pronouns doubling as adjectives are:
====Positional demonstratives====
* Three demonstrative series, all declining for gender but not for number: proximal '''nenė''' (parrot), '''nenayes''' (dragon), '''nenayem''' (lotus); medial '''nunū''' (p.), '''numves''' (d.), '''numvem''' (l.); distal '''nanā''' (p.), '''nanās''' (d.), '''nanām''' (l.).
Chlouvānem has a large number of demonstratives, as they are integrated with the system of [[Chlouvānem/Positional_and_motion_verbs#Positional_verbs_.28jalyadaradhaus.29|positional verbs]], combining a general proximal-medial-distal distinction with positional prefixes, further localizing them in space. Only a subset of 10 out of the 24 positional prefixes are used to build demonstratives; the ones with a ∅- prefix correspond to most of the unused ones, and may be translated as "this/that one in front/ahead/in the middle" when a disambiguation from another one is needed. The same ten prefixes (except for ''įs-'') are also used together with the <small>PERSON</small> series (with the same logic), and with the <small>PLACE</small>, <small>DESTINATION</small>, and <small>SOURCE</small> correlatives, which act as adverbial anaphoras of positional and motion verbs. This results in forms like ''kamyejulā'' "here, around" or ''māhāñjulyom'' "thither (remote), rightwards".
* The possessives: '''liliā''' (''lilem, liles''); '''meyā''' (''meyem, meyes''); '''sāmiā''' (''sāmim, sāmes''); '''negā''' (''negem, neges''); '''tamiā''' (''tamim, tames''); '''tašñā''' (''tašñem, tašñes''); '''demiā''' (''demim, demes'').


Note that both the demonstrative and the possessives are often not declined for gender in common speech in certain areas, most notably the densely populated area of the Jade Coast, including Līlasuṃghāṇa, Līlta, Galiākina, Ilėnimarta, and a few areas near Līṭhalyinām, Talliė, and Lāltaṣveya — an area inhabited by around 100 million people. This also happens in and near Līlikanāna, fourth largest city of the Inquisition, largest in the Southern Far East.<br/>
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
Among younger speakers in some areas the Jade Coast, most notably in Līlasuṃghāṇa, Taitepamba, and Mileyīkhā, they are not inflected at all, e.g. ''lili nanā phėcamu mišau'' "I saw that cat", standard ''lili nanāmu phėcamu mišau''.
 
In addition, '''yani''' is an emphatic pronoun not properly part of common speech (''demi'' is used instead) but sometimes found in high style. Archaic Chlouvānem had a demonstrative series consisting of proximal '''ami''' (''em, es''), medial '''uteni''' (''utam, utas''), and distal '''āteni''' (''ātam, ātas''), which declined in use throughout Classical times, when they were replaced by the newer ''nenė — nunū — nanā'' forms.
 
''ami - em - es'' is still used regionally around the mid-course of the Lāmiejāya where it has been repurposed as a definiteness marker for non-triggered arguments - Standard Chlouvānem usually topicalizes the argument or uses ''nanā'', or, colloquially, leaves it unmarked and only understandable by context; c.f. "the tiger is seen by the wolf":
: ''<small>(Standard):</small> ėmīla nanie bāḍhmānei mešė'', or ''bāḍhmān mæn ėmīla mėšė'', or ''ėmīla bāḍhmānei mėšė''.
: ''<small>(Mid-Lāmiejāyi):</small> ėmīla emie bāḍhmānei mešė''.
 
=== Personal pronouns ===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan=2 colspan=3 | !! rowspan=2 | Direct !! colspan=2 | Accusative !! colspan=2 | Ergative !! rowspan=2 | Genitive !! rowspan=2 | Translative !! rowspan=2 | Exessive !! rowspan=2 | Essive !! rowspan=2 | Dative !! rowspan=2 | Ablative !! rowspan=2 | Locative
|-
! <small>Full</small> !! <small>Clitic</small> !! <small>Full</small> !! <small>Clitic</small>
|-
|-
! rowspan=5 | Singular !! colspan=2 | 1st person
! Prefix ↓ / Type → !! Proximal !! Medial !! Distal
| '''lili''' || læl || <small>-(y)æl</small> || lilęi || <small>-(i)lį</small> || liliā || liñ || litь || lęsь || låh || ląu || lea
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | 2nd person
! ∅- (ahead)
| '''sāmi''' || saim || <small>-(s)es</small> || sāmęi || <small>-(i)</small> || sāmiā || sāñ || sātь || sąsь || såh || sąu || sea
| ''nenē''<br/>this one ahead || ''nunū''<br/>that one (near you) ahead || ''nanā''<br/>that one ahead
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | 3rd person !! Parrot
! ān- (above)
| '''tami''' || tamiu || rowspan=3 | <small>-(t)å*</small> || tamie || rowspan=3 | <small>-(i)tę</small> || tamiā<br/><small>''arch.:'' tamiai</small> || rowspan=3 | tañ || rowspan=3 | tatь || rowspan=3 | tąsь || rowspan=3 | tåh || rowspan=3 | tąu || rowspan=3 | tea
| ''āninē''<br/>this one above || ''ānnū''<br/>that one (near you) above || ''ānnā''<br/>that one above
|-
|-
! Dragon
! šu- (below)
| '''tes''' || teṣu || tesie || tamiā<br/><small>''arch.:'' tesiai</small>
| ''šunē''<br/>this one below || ''šūnū''<br/>that one (near you) below || ''šonā''<br/>that one below
|-
|-
! Lotus
! įs- (hanging)
| '''tem''' || temu || temie || tamiā<br/><small>''arch.:'' temñi</small>
| ''įsinē''<br/>this one hanging || ''įsunū''<br/>that one (near you) hanging || ''įsanā''<br/>that one hanging
|-
|-
! colspan=3 | Reflexive pronoun
! na(ñ)- (inside)
| '''demi''' || deim || <small>-(i)dan</small> || demęi || <small>-(i)</small> || demiā || deñ || detь || dęsь || dåh || dąu || dea
| ''najinē''<br/>this one inside || ''najunū''<br/>that one (near you) inside || ''najanā''<br/>that one inside
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | Dual !! colspan=2 | 1st person
! kau- (outside)
| '''lileidi''' || lildū || <small>-(y)ælda</small> || lilden || <small>-(i)lįda</small> || lildes || lildoh || lildās || lildūn || lildotь || lildīs || lildīm
| ''kaunē''<br/>this one outside || ''kaunū''<br/>that one (near you) outside || ''kaunā''<br/>that one outside
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | 2nd person
! kami- (around)
| '''sāmeidi''' || sādhū || <small>-(s)erda</small> || sādhen || <small>-(i)sęda</small> || sādhes || sādhoh || sādhās || sādhūn || sādhotь || sādhīs || sādhīm
| ''kaminē''<br/>this one around || ''kamyunū''<br/>that one (near you) around || ''kamyanā''<br/>that one around
|-
|-
! 3rd person !! <small>All genders</small>
! pri- (behind)
| '''tameidi''' || tadhū || <small>-(t)åda*</small> || tadhen || <small>-(i)tęda</small> || tadhes || tadhoh || tadhās || tadhūn || tadhotь || tadhīs || tadhīm
| ''prinē''<br/>this one behind || ''prinū''<br/>that one (near you) behind || ''prinā''<br/>that one behind
|-
|-
! rowspan=5 | Plural !! colspan=2 | 1st person
! vai- (beside; in the corner)<br/><small>(''sāṭ-'' for the main meaning)</small>
| '''mayan''' || mau || <small>-(y)ælnu</small> || mayęi || <small>-(i)lįnu</small> || maiyā || maiñ || maitь || maisь || måyoh || mayąu || męea
| ''vainē''<br/>this one beside || ''vayunū''<br/>that one (near you) beside || ''vayanā''<br/>that one beside
|-
|-
! colspan=2 | 2nd person
! vyā- (left)
| '''nagan''' || nåk || <small>-(s)esnu</small> || nagęi || <small>-(i)sęnu</small> || najyā || negiñ || negitь || negisь || någoh || nagąu || nagea
| ''vyāɂinē''<br/>this one to the left || ''vyāɂunū''<br/>that one (near you) to the left || ''vyāɂanā''<br/>that one to the left
|-
|-
! rowspan=3 | 3rd person !! Parrot
! māha- (right)
| '''toman''' || tomau || rowspan=3 | <small>-(t)ånu*</small> || tomān || rowspan=3 | <small>-(i)tęnu</small> || rowspan=3 | tomiā || rowspan=3 | tomiñ || rowspan=3 | tomitь || rowspan=3 | tomesь || rowspan=3 | tomåh || rowspan=3 | tomąu || rowspan=3 | tomyea
| ''māhenē''<br/>this one to the right || ''māhonū''<br/>that one (near you) to the right || ''māhānā''<br/>that one to the right
|-
! Dragon
| '''tyuše''' || tyušau || tyušān
|-
! Lotus
| '''tyune''' || tyumau || tyumān
|-
! colspan=3 | <small>Emphatic pronoun (archaic)</small>
| '''yani''' || colspan=2 | yaim || colspan=2 | yanęi || yaniā || yañ || yatь || yąsь || yåh || yąu || yea
|}
|}
The ''įs-'' forms may also be used for things lying on people's hands.


====Honorific second person pronouns====
The forms for the <small>PERSON</small>, <small>PLACE</small>, <small>DESTINATION</small>, and <small>SOURCE</small> series are mostly formed through regular saṃdhi (with the partial exception of the ''na(ñ)-'' and ''vyā-'' prefixes):
Most honorific second person pronouns have been adapted to the ''-i'' declension of pronouns, with some exceptions (taken by nominal declensions). Clitic forms are always ''-(s)es''/''-(i)sę'' for singular, ''-(s)erda''/''-(i)sęda'' for dual, and ''-(s)esnu''/''-(i)sęnu'' for plural:
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! !! Direct !! Accusative !! Ergative !! Genitive !! Translative !! Exessive !! Essive !! Dative !! Ablative !! Locative
! Prefix ↓ / Base → !! ''·evita<br/>·ejulā<br/>·ejulyom<br/>·ejulų'' !! ''·utvita<br/>·uñjulā<br/>·uñjulyom<br/>·uñjulų'' !! ''·ātvita<br/>·āñjulā<br/>·āñjulyom<br/>·āñjulų''
|-
|-
! rowspan=6 | Singular
! ∅- (ahead)
| '''nujābi'''<br/><small>also ''yonujābi''</small> || nujābyu || nujābęi || nujābeah || nujāñ || nujātь || nująsь || nujåh || nująu || nujea
| ''evita'' || ''utvita'' || ''ātvita''
|-
|-
| '''fåri''' || fåriu || fåręi || fåreah || fåñ || fåtь || fąsь || fåh || fąu || fea
! ān- (above)
| ''ānevita'' || ''ānutvita'' || ''ānātvita''
|-
|-
| '''yomahi''' || yomašu || yomahęi || yomaheah || yomañ || yomatь || yomąsь || yomåh || yomąu || yomea
! šu- (below)
| ''švevita'' || ''šūtvita'' || ''švātvita''
|-
|-
| '''yañji''' || yañju || yañjęi || yañjeah || yañjiñ || yañjitь || yañjęsь || yañjåh || yañjąu || yañjea
! na(ñ)- (inside)
| ''naivita'' || ''notvita'' || ''nātvita''
|-
|-
| '''ūṣṭhi''' || ūṣṭhi || ūṣṭhęi || ūṣṭheah || ūṣṭhiñ || ūṣṭhitь || ūṣṭhęsь || ūṣṭhåh || ūṣṭhąu || ūṣṭhea
! kau- (outside)
| ''kāvevita'' || ''kāvutvita'' || ''kāvātvita''
|-
|-
| '''yavaṣi''' || yavaṣyu || yavaṣęi || yavaṣeah || yavṣañ || yavṣatь || yavṣęsь || yavṣåh || yavṣąu || yavṣea
! kami- (around)
| ''kamyevitai'' || ''kamyutvitai'' || ''kamyātvitai''
|-
|-
! rowspan=4 | Dual
! pri- (behind)
| '''nujāvdi''' || nujāvdhū || nujāvdhen || nujāvdhes || nujāvdhoh || nujāvdhās || nujāvdhūn || nujāvdhotь || nujāvdhīs || nujāvdhīm
| ''pryevita'' || ''pryutvita'' || ''pryātvita''
|-
|-
| '''fårdi''' || fårdhū  || fårdhen || fårdhes || fårdhoh || fårdhās || fårdhūn || fårdhotь || fårdhīs || fårdhīm
! vai- (beside, in the corner)
| ''vāyevita'' || ''vāyutvita'' || ''vāyātvita''
|-
|-
| '''yañjadi''' || yañjadhū || yañjadhen || yañjadhes || yañjadhoh || yañjadhās || yañjadhūn || yañjadhotь || yañjadhīs || yañjadhīm
! vyā- (left)
| ''vyāɂevita'' || ''vyāɂutvita'' || ''vyāɂātvita''
|-
|-
| '''ūṣṭhodi''' || uṣṭhodū || ūṣṭhoden || ūṣṭhodes || ūṣṭhodoh || ūṣṭhodās || ūṣṭhodūn || ūṣṭhodotь || ūṣṭhodīs || ūṣṭhodīm
! māha- (right)
| ''māhaivita'' || ''māhotvita'' || ''māhātvita''
|}
|}
Note that, in the <small>PERSON</small> series, the ''kami-'' forms are only used with a plural meaning, as reflected in the table above.


=== Correlatives ===
====Declensions of correlatives and possessives====
Chlouvānem has a fairly regular system of correlatives, distinguishing eleven types (proximal, medial, distal, relative, interrogative, negative, assertive existential, elective existential, universal, positive alternative, and negative alternative) in eleven categories (attributive, thing, person, time, place, destination, origin, way, reason, quality, quantity).
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! Category ↓ / Type → !! Proximal !! Medial !! Distal !! Relative !! Interrogative !! Negative !! Ass. exist. !! Elect. exist. !! Universal !! Positive altern. !! Negative altern.
! rowspan=2 | Case || ā-paradigm !! ē-paradigm !! ū-paradigm !! t-paradigm
|-
|-
| Attributive || ''nenė''<br/>this || ''nunū''<br/>that (near you) || ''nanā''<br/>that (over there) || — || ''yananū?''<br/>what?, which? || ''gu''<br/>no || ''nūši''<br/>some || ''læti''<br/>any || ''yaiva''<br/>every || ''viṣam''<br/>another || ''guviṣam''<br/>no other
! <small>All possessives, ''nanā'' and other distals,<br/> ''yambā?'', ''ami'', correlatives in ''-i''<ref>e.g. ''sorami'', ''grāṇami''…</ref></small> !! <small>''nenē'' and other proximals</small> !! <small>''nunū'', and other medials, ''yanū?''</small> !! <small>''yasmāt?'' and ''yanūḍat?''</small>
|-
|-
| Thing || ''nenė''<br/>this one || ''nunū''<br/>that one (near you) || ''nanā''<br/>that one (over there) || ''tejāmi'' || ''yananū?''<br/>what?, which? || ''gvami''<br/>nothing || ''nūšami''<br/>something || ''lætyami''<br/>anything || ''yaiva''<br/>everything || ''viṣāmi''<br/>something else || ''guviṣāmi''<br/>nothing else
! Direct<br/>Vocative
| '''lilyā''' || '''nenē''' || '''nunū''' || '''yasmāt'''
|-
|-
| Person || ''evita''<br/>this one || ''utvita''<br/>that one (near you) || ''ātvita''<br/>that one (over there) || ''tėvita'' || ''yavita?''<br/>who? || ''guvita''<br/>no one || ''nūšvita''<br/>someone || ''lævita''<br/>anyone || ''yaivita''<br/>everyone || ''viṣvita''<br/>someone else || ''guviṣvita''<br/>no one else
! Accusative
| lilyau || nenyu || nunūyu || yasmau
|-
|-
| Time || ''emiya''<br/>now || ''utiya''<br/>then || ''ātiya''<br/>then (remote) || ''tėmiya'' || ''yamiya?''<br/>when? || ''gumiya''<br/>never || ''nūšmiya''<br/>sometime, somewhen || ''lætmiya''<br/>anytime, whenever || ''yaivmiya''<br/>always, everytime || ''viṣmiya''<br/>sometime else || ''guviṣmiya''<br/>never else
! Ergative
| lilye || nenye || nunūye || yasmātei
|-
|-
| Place || ''ejulā''<br/>here || ''uñjulā''<br/>there || ''āñjulā''<br/>over there || ''tėjulā'' || ''yajulā?''<br/>where? || ''gujulā''<br/>nowhere || ''nūñjulā''<br/>somewhere || ''læjulā''<br/>anywhere || ''yavijulā''<br/>everywhere || ''viñjulā''<br/>elsewhere || ''guviñjulā''<br/>nowhere else
! Genitive
| lilyai || neniai || nunūyai || yasmai
|-
|-
| Destination || ''ejulåh''<br/>hence || ''uñjulåh''<br/>thence || ''āñjulåh''<br/>thence (remote) || ''tėjulåh'' || ''yajulåh?''<br/>whence? || ''gujulåh''<br/>nowhence || ''nūñjulåh''<br/>somewhence || ''læjulåh''<br/>anywhence || ''yavijulåh''<br/>everywhence || ''viñjulåh''<br/>elsewhence || ''guviñjulåh''<br/>nowhence else
! Translative
| lilyān || nenēn || nunūn || yasmān
|-
|-
| Source || ''ejulųu''<br/>hither || ''uñjulųu''<br/>thither || ''āñjulųu''<br/>thither (remote) || ''tėjulųu'' || ''yajulųu?''<br/>whither? || ''gujulųu''<br/>nowhither ||  ''nūñjulųu''<br/>somewhither || ''læjulųu''<br/>anywhither || ''yavijulųu''<br/>everywhither || ''viñjulųu''<br/>elsewhither || ''guviñjulųu''<br/>nowhither else
! Exessive
| lilyāt || nenēt || nunūt || yasmātat
|-
|-
| Manner || ''elīce''<br/>thus, hereby || ''ūlīce''<br/>thereby || ''ālīce''<br/>thereby; that other way || ''tėlīce'' || ''yalīce?''<br/>how? || ''gulīce''<br/>no way || ''nūšlīce''<br/>somehow || ''lælīce''<br/>anyhow || ''yaivlīce''<br/>everyway || ''viṣlīce''<br/>otherwise || ''guviṣlīce''<br/>no other way
! Essive
| lilyą || nenę || nunų || yasmātą
|-
|-
| Reason || ''emena''<br/>herefore || ''utmena''<br/>therefore || ''ātmena''<br/>therefore; for that other reason || ''tėmena''  || ''yamenat?''<br/>why? || ''gumena''<br/>for no reason || ''nūšmena''<br/>somewhy || ''lætmena''<br/>whyever, for any reason || ''yaivmena''<br/>for every reason || ''viṣmena''<br/>for another reason || ''guviṣmena''<br/>for no other reason
! Dative
| lilyåh || nenǣh || nunǣh || yasmātom
|-
|-
| Quality || ''esmā''<br/>this kind || ''uçmā''<br/>that kind || ''āçmā''<br/>that other kind || ''tėsmā'' || ''yasmāt?''<br/>which kind? || ''gusmā''<br/>no kind || ''nūkṣmā''<br/>some kind || ''læsmā''<br/>any kind || ''yavismā''<br/>every kind || ''viṣasmā''<br/>another kind || ''guviṣasmā''<br/>no other kind
! Ablative
| lilyąu || nenēhu || nunūvu || yasmąu
|-
|-
| Quantity || ''enūḍa''<br/>this much || ''utnūḍa''<br/>that much || ''ātnūḍa''<br/>that much (remote) || ''tėnūḍa'' || ''yanūḍat?''<br/>how much? || ''gunūḍa''<br/>none || ''nūšinūḍa''<br/>some of it || ''lætnūḍa''<br/>any much || ''yaivnūḍa''<br/>all of it || ''viṣṇūḍa''<br/>another quantity || ''guviṣṇūḍa''<br/>no other quantity
! Locative
| lilǣ || neniǣ || nunūvǣ || yasmātǣ
|-
! Instrumental
| lileni || nenēni || nunauni || yasmaini
|}
|}


Note that in common speach ''ālīce'' and ''ūlīce'' as well as ''ātmena'' and ''utmena'' are basically interchangeable, except for main clauses in relative structures where only ''ālīce'' and ''ātmena'' are used. The quality correlatives may take an essive argument, e.g. ''kadięs læsmā'' "any kind of chair".<br/>Thing and person correlatives decline for case and, in the case of proximal, medial, and distal, also for number. Those which end in ''-i'' decline like pronouns.
<!-- ==Honorifics==
 
Negatives, elective existentials, universals, and positive alternatives for thing and person correlatives may also take dual number: ''gvamidi''/''guvitadi'' "neither"; ''lætyamidi''/''lævitadi'' "either"; ''yaivadi''/''yaivitadi'' "both"; ''viṣāmidi''/''viṣvitadi'' "the other one".
 
==Honorifics==
===Honorific pronouns===
===Honorific pronouns===
There are many different pronouns used for second and third person in honorific speech. The rules for using them are mostly dictated by the distance between the two speakers, and, for third persons, the relative distance between them. If a pronoun has no dual form, in dual contexts either one of the plural pronouns, depending on context, is used.
====Second person====
The rules for second person pronouns are mostly fairly easy. There are usually two contexts: formal and informal.  


Second person generally used these pronouns:
Formal pronouns are three and (in contemporary Chlouvānem) invariable for gender, but they vary for relative rank instead: '''nami''' is used towards a superior, '''tami''' towards one of the same rank, and '''ravi''' towards a lower ranked person (until around 6350, ''nani'' was strictly feminine and ''ravi'' strictly masculine, and the rules for all three varied also according to the relative genders). '''nanak''', '''tanak''', and '''raṇak''' are their respective dual forms.<br/>
Plural second person pronouns are usually two: '''yakaliyātam''' is used towards the representative of a specifically defined group - an institution or a company -, while '''yavyāta''' (but also, in not extremely formal styles, ''nami'') is used for less defined groups.
* '''sāmi''', is used in familiar registers and between females or between males if they are not strangers and they're all of the same rank or of similar age.
* '''nujābi''' is used by females for all strangers and for males and nonbinary people of the same rank as them; males use it for male strangers and males of higher rank. Dual: ''nujāvdi''.
* '''yonujābi''' is a somewhat more formal alternative to ''nujābi''.
* '''fåri''' is used by females for all non-stranger females and nonbinary people of higher rank. Males and nonbinary people use it for all females except close friends and relatives. Dual: ''fårdi''.
* '''yomahi''' is a moderately familiar pronoun, kinda intermediate between ''sāmi'' and ''fåri/nujābi''.
* '''yañji''' is used by females and nonbinary people for same rank nonbinary people, and by males for same- and higher rank nonbinary people. Dual: ''yañjyadi''.
* '''ūṣṭhi''' is used by females for all people of lower rank, by males for lower rank males, and by nonbinary people for lower rank nonbinary people. Dual: ''ūṣṭhodi''.
* '''yavaṣi''' is used by males for lower rank nonbinary people and by nonbinary people for lower rank males.
* '''gopūrṭham''' is an extremely formal pronoun, used with public officials.
** '''(go)pūrṭhami brausa''' or '''yobrausa''' is used for the highest ranked Inquisitors and for the Baptist.
*** '''lalla yobrausa''' is used exclusively for the Great Inquisitor.
* '''yakaliyātam''' is a ''plural'' pronoun, used when speaking to a representative of a specifically defined group (institution or company).
* '''yavyāta''' is a ''plural'' pronoun used for generic, less defined groups.


Third person pronouns vary according to whether the third person referent is higher, lower, or equal to the second person, and for each of these cases the relative rank of first and second person further determine which pronoun should be used. In some cases, a third person feminine person requires a different pronoun from a masculine one.<br/> Note that all forms here are for singular pronouns; unless noted they're all nouns (except ''tami'') and they are pluralized regularly if needed.
There are, however, more formal second-person pronouns with a limited use. All of these (here listed in Latin alphabetical order), unless noted, are morphologically nouns, but they are used with second person verbs anyway:

* '''aveṣyotariri nami''' (locution with the pronoun ''nami'') is sometimes used towards the highest ranked non-religious superiors, if they are several ranks ahead: examples include commanders of a military brigade or presidents of a company. However, ''nami'' is in most cases respectful enough; it is however invariably used in the set phrase ''lālyu nanyau aveṣyotariri yaccechlašute nami'' "I humbly ask for your forgiveness".
* '''gopūrṭham''' is often used towards public/religious and military officials.
* '''gopūrṭhami brausa''' (or '''yobrausa''') are used for the highest ranked Inquisitors, bishops, head monks, and the Baptist.
* '''lalla yobrausa''' is used exclusively for the Great Inquisitor.

* '''ṣari''', nowadays mostly old-fashioned, was used by guests towards homeowners and also by soldiers towards their superiors. It also meant, aside from being a pronoun, "landowner" or "head of a non-religious state"; in contemporary Chlouvānem it mostly only survives as a vocative expression towards homeowners when used by guests<ref>It also survives as a morpheme in some words, most notably ''ṣarivāṇa'' "state, country".</ref>.
* '''ūttuka''' is today only used in parts of the Northeast (aside by fictional characters in historical settings), but until about 6300 was a common pronoun word used by servants towards their superiors, particularly landowners (it thus partially overlapped with ''ṣari'').
* '''yobrausa''' — see ''gopūrṭhami brausa'' above.


If 3S is higher than 2S and...


It is also important to note that it's increasingly common to simply use the vocative formula - given name plus ''lāma'' - instead of any pronoun in formal context: when speaking to a superior named Lārtāvi Vaihātiai ''Lælithiam'', in order to say a sentence like "have you already done (it)?", ''nami nanau dadrāste nāṭ dām?'' and ''lælicham lāma nanau dadrāste nāṭ dām?'' are both just as correct. The pronoun forms are more commonly used in other cases, particularly in the genitive.<br/>Note that ''lāma'' itself does <small>NOT</small> decline: only the noun does – e.g. ''lælichamom lāma lę emęlya'' "it has been given by me to you/Mr. Lælithiam".
* ...1S is lower than 2S, '''lalla yañša''' is used.
* ...1S is equal to 2S, '''lalla yañša''' is used, or just '''tami''' in familiar registers.
* ...1S is higher than 2S, then:
** if 3S is lower than 1S, '''āteliluyani''' (inflects as the pronoun ''yani'') is used invariably if 1S is female; for male 3S only if 1S is male too.
** if 3S is lower than 1S, '''yañša''' is used for female 3S by male 1S; it is optional by female 1S.
** if 3S is equal to 1S, '''yoyardam''' is used.
** if 3S is higher than 1S, '''lallayuṭhā''' is used (rarely pluralized even if referring to a plural subject).
If 3S is equal to 2S and...
* ...1S is lower than both, '''yoyardam''' is used.
* ...1S is equal to both, '''kemura''' is used, or just '''tami''' in familiar registers.
* ...1S is higher than both, '''yardam''' is used.
If 3S is lower than 2S and...
* ...1S is also lower than 2S, '''tami''' is invariably used by females and by 1S males for 3S males; '''dŏhulin''' is used by 1S males for 3S females.
* ...1S is equal to 2S, '''kemura''' is used, or just '''tami''' in familiar registers.
* ...1S is higher than both, '''kemura''' is used for all 3S males and usually by 1S females for 3S females; '''yañsa''' is mandatory by 1S males for 3S females, and optional by 1S females.


Note that familiar registers (which often include code-switching between Chlouvānem and a local vernacular), when used, may override any convention: as an extreme example, any very close friend or relative of the Great Inquisitor would refer to her as ''sāmi'' (and not ''lalla yobrausa''); however this is obviously only possible in private contexts (while same-ranked people may use a familiar register in public - e.g. on the workplace).
In '''informal''' contexts, the only basic morphological second-person pronoun is '''sāmi''', which has the dual form '''sanak''' and uses '''nami''' as the plural form (with plural agreement on verbs). However, there may be even more informal contexts where other nouns may be used: the prototypical example is among siblings, where '''blikā''' (dual ''blikāt'', plural ''blikai''), an endearing term for girls (think of Japanese ''-chan'' or ''-tan'') is used as a pronoun for and among sisters — e.g. ''blikā meyom umuṣeste tane<ref>''tane'' is a colloquial contraction of ''dām'' (interrogative particle) and ''nane'' (emphatic tag question particle).</ref>?'' meaning "did you ask mum or not?"; as for all nouns standing for pronouns, this is not a vocative expression as it declines for case - e.g. ''blikom emęliaṃte nāṭ!'' "I've already given it to you!"; other such pro-nouns used among siblings are '''lorkhās''' (for and among brothers; literally "guy", can be rude outside this context), '''nājhali''' (non-binary equivalent to "girl" and "boy" — somewhat rarer as even in general use it's a more neutral term than either ''blikā'' or ''lorkhās''), and even '''samin''' (literally "kid"). [[Chlouvānem/Names#Informal_names_.28laltihalen.C4.AB.29|Informal names]] are also sometimes used instead of pronouns among siblings, and they're more often than not used that way among close friends and ''kaleyai''<ref>A ''kaleya'' is a "spiritual friend" in Chlouvānem culture — this word can be translated with "best friend", but it also evokes particular religious meanings.</ref>.


===Honorific titles===
====Third person====
''→ See also: [[Chlouvānem/Names#Using_names|Chlouvānem names § Using names]]''
In Chlouvānem, the third person pronouns – which are the demonstrative sets, most commonly the distal ''nanā'' – are not used for people; the name of the person referred to with the appropriate honorific title is used instead.


Chlouvānem uses many honorific titles, which are always used in non-familiar speech. The "honorific" adjective ''yamei'' is often added to many of them - especially ''lāma'' - and is mandatory in other ones.
Repetition of names is usually not considered strange in Chlouvānem, but there are a few ways to avoid excessive repetition. The most natural one is obviously to state the person once at the beginning as the topic and then have all following verbs agree with it through the trigger system.
* '''lāma''' - used after the noun, it is the most common honorific title; almost every time someone is being addressed, ''lāma'' is used - the only exceptions being when it is already known another honorific should be used, or in familiar situations. It usually follows the given name alone (e.g. ''Namihūlša lāma''); if the matronymic is added (sometimes done in order to disambiguate), then ''lāma'' comes between matronymic and noun (e.g. ''Līṭhaljāyimāvi lāma Namihūlša''). All three names matronymic, surname, and given name together with ''lāma'' (e.g. ''Līṭhaljāyimāvi Kaleñchokah Namihūlša lāma'') are only used in very formal addressing from a list of nouns; should matronymic+noun be not enough to distinguish two people, simply surname+noun is used.
* '''tanta''' - used for people in a lower position, e.g. used towards one's employees or (usually from seventh class onwards) by teachers and professors towards their students. Also used by militars towards lower-ranked soldiers.
* '''suntam''' (regionally also ''sintam'') - used for people in a higher position in certain situations, most commonly towards older and more experienced colleagues (but not teachers or professors, nor work bosses if they're roughly the same age as the speaker).
* '''lallāmaha''' - an extremely formal honorific, used for public authorities and all Inquisitors. Most often used together with ''yamei''. Inquisitors may also be referred to as ''lallāmaha + <small>matronymic</small> + yamei + <small>given name</small> + murkadhāna (lāma)''
* '''jūlin''' - less formal than ''lāma'', used for people who work in one's home but are not part of the family.
* '''telen''' - less formal than ''lāma'', used by men for unmarried women whom they know somewhat well. Currently less frequently used than it was up to about 10 years ago.
* '''jāmilšīreh''' - used in military contexts towards higher-ranked people, or by common people towards military commanders in service.
* '''dhārāti''' - neutral but respectful title of address, often used when generally speaking and without knowing who the listener is. Sometimes used, when in a plural sense, in the form '''yamei ui-dhārātīye'''. In its neutralness relative to rank, it can be compared with the Soviet-era use of ''товарищ''.
* '''cuca''' is not strictly an honorific, as it pertains to more colloquial forms of speech, but it works the same way. It has a diminutive and endearing meaning, not unlike Japanese ''-chan''. In formal speech, it is often used towards and when speaking about children.


Two special formulas are used for the most important people in the Inquisition:
Especially in contemporary Chlouvānem, the rank-neutral ''udhyāras'' (cf. "Comrade") is increasingly commonly used as a generic third person pronoun, though only after stating the name before.
* ''aveṣyotāra lallāmaha'' + matronymic + ''yamei'' + surname + given name + ''brausamailenia lāma'' for the Baptist (roughly "[Her]<ref>Since the laws on gender equality of 4E 56 (77 years ago), the role of Baptist, the second most important in the Inquisition, may be held by a male, but so far no male person has ever been Baptist. On the other hand, only females may be Great Inquisitors.</ref> Excellent Highness, Baptist ...");
* ''nanū aveṣyotāra lallāmaha'' + matronymic + ''yamei'' + surname + given name + ''camimurkadhāna lāma'' for the Great Inquisitor ("[Her] Most Excellent Highness, Great Inquisitor ...").


===Honorific particles===
===Honorific particles===
There are a few honorific particles - mostly of Ancient Kūṣṛmāthi origin - that are used to make names or nouns honorific:
There are a few honorific particles - mostly of Ancient Kūṣṛmāthi origin - that are used to make names or nouns honorific:
* '''spa''' makes a verb polite and is put after a verb.
* '''yoṣa''' has roughly the same function as ''spa'', but is more polite; pay attention that while ''spa'' may be used freely with same- and lower-ranked people, ''yoṣa'' in those contexts is considered excessive to the point of being insulting.
* '''īvai''' makes a verb humble, and is put after a verb, too.
* '''īvai''' makes a verb humble, and is put after a verb, too.
* '''yaši''' is an alternative to ''spa'' and ''yoṣa'' but always used with third-person verbs. It is always after personal suffixes but, in unprefixed verbs, before the voice, e.g. ''darė yaši'' → ''darėyašisŏ''
* '''nami''' denotes respect towards the trigger of the verb. It was common in the past alongside the honorific verb ''tilah'', but today it rarely used.
* '''nami''' denotes respect towards the trigger of the verb.
* '''yo-''' is a prefix for things pertaining to a honourable person, often used together with a verb with '''nami'''.
* '''yo-''' is a prefix for things pertaining to a honourable person, often used together with a verb with '''nami'''.
* '''-''' is a prefix that makes nouns honorific.
* '''dau-''' is a prefix that makes nouns honorific. -->


==Numerals - Mālendān ==
==Numerals (''māltsāk'') ==
Chlouvānem is one of the few human Calemerian languages - together with all other [[Lahob languages]] and a few ones of the southern hemisphere, as well as others like [[Qualdomelic#Numerals|Qualdomelic]] or vernaculars of the Inquisition which have had considerable Chlouvānem influence - with a pure duodecimal number system.


Chlouvānem is one of the few human Calemerian languages - together with all other [[Lahob languages]] and a few ones of the southern hemisphere - with a pure duodecimal number system.
Numbers (sg ''māltsām'', pl. ''māltsāk'') have six different forms: cardinal, ordinal, collective, distributive, adverbial/multiplicative, and fractionary. 1-4 have separate adverbial multiplicative forms, while all other ones have an invariable form used both as adverbial and 'adjectival' multiplicatives. Cardinals from 1 to Ɛ and their compounds decline for case (see below); collectives, multiplicatives, and fractionaries always decline, while ordinals are only declined if used without an accompanying noun. Distributives do not decline.


Numbers (sg/pl. ''mālendān'') have six different forms: cardinal, ordinal, collective, distributive, adverbial/multiplicative, and fractionary. Cardinal 1, 2, 3, and 4 are declinable adjectives, as are all ordinal and collective ones; 1-4 have separate adverbial forms, while all other ones have an invariable adjective used as multiplicative and a derived adverb used as adverbial. All distributive, fractionary, and cardinal (except 1-4 and compounds) numbers are invariable.
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|-
! Digit<sub>12</sub> !! <small>Base 10</small> !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Collective !! Distributive !! Adv./Multiplicative !! Fractionary
! Digit<sub>12</sub> !! <small>Base 10</small> !! Cardinal !! Ordinal !! Collective !! Distributive !! Adv./Multiplicative !! Fractionary
|-
|-
! 0
! 0
| 0 || '''ajrā''' || <small>''(ajrāyendes)''</small> || <small>''(ajrāmūh)''</small> || <small>''(ajrehaicė)''</small> || <small>''(lājrā)''</small> || —
| 0 || '''ajrā''' || <small>''(ajrāyende)''</small> || rowspan=2 | — || <small>''(ajrehaicē)''</small> || <small>''(māgajrā)''</small> || —
|-
|-
! 1
! 1
| 1 || '''leil'''<br/>leilum<br/>leila || lahīlas || leilamūh || leiluhaicė || leilahæl / lāleil<br/><small>(lāleilum, lāleila)</small> || lahīlvāṭ
| 1 || '''emibe'''<br/>''emi'' || lahīla || emibhaicē || māgemibe <small>''(adv.)''</small><br/>emibarvīm || lahīlvāṭ
|-
|-
! 2
! 2
| 2 || '''dani'''<br/>danīm<br/>danīh || hælinaikas || daniamūh || danihaicė || danihæl / lādani<br/><small>(lādanīm, lādanīh)</small> || hælinaivāṭ
| 2 || '''dani'''|| hælinaika || danyatām || danihaicē || māgdani <small>''(adv.)''</small><br/>danirvīm || hælinaivāṭ
|-
|-
! 3
! 3
| 3 || '''pāmvi'''<br/>pāmvim<br/>pāmveh || pāmvendes || pāmvimūh || pāmvihaicė || pāmvihæl / lāpāmvi<br/><small>(lāpāmvim, lāpāmveh)</small> || pāmvendvāṭ
| 3 || '''pāmvi''' || pāmvende || pāmvyatām || pāmvihaicē || māmpāmvi <small>''(adv.)''</small><br/>pāmvirvīm || pāmvendvāṭ
|-
|-
! 4
! 4
| 4 || '''yårṣe'''<br/>yårṣem<br/>yårṣeh || yårṣendes || yårṣmūh || yårṣhaicė || yårṣhæl / lāyårṣe<br/><small>(lāyårṣem, lāyårṣeh)</small> || yårṣendvāṭ
| 4 || '''nęlte''' || nęltende || nęltitām || nęltehaicē || māgnęlte <small>''(adv.)''</small><br/>nęltarvīm || nęltendvāṭ
|-
|-
! 5
! 5
| 5 || '''furḍe''' || furḍendes || furḍamūh || furḍhaicė || lāfurḍe || furḍendvāṭ
| 5 || '''šulka''' || šulkende || šulkatām || šulkhaicē || šulkarvīm || šulkendvāṭ
|-
|-
! 6
! 6
| 6 || '''tulūʔa''' || tulūʔendes || tulūʔamūh || tulūʔihaicė || lātulūʔa || tulūʔendvāṭ
| 6 || '''tulūɂa''' || tulūɂende || tulūɂatām || tulūɂihaicē || tulūrvīm || tulūɂendvāṭ
|-
|-
! 7
! 7
| 7 || '''chīka''' || chīcændes || chīkamūh || chīcihaicė || lāchīka || chīcændvāṭ
| 7 || '''chīka''' || chīcænde || chīcætām || chīcihaicē || chīkarvīm || chīcændvāṭ
|-
|-
! 8
! 8
| 8 || '''tītya''' || tītyendes || tītyamūh || tītihaicė || lātītya || tītyendvāṭ
| 8 || '''mbula''' || mbulende || mbulatām || mbulhaicē || mbularvīm || mbulendvāṭ
|-
|-
! 9
! 9
| 9 || '''moja''' || mojendes || mojmūh || mojihaicė || lāmoja || mojendvāṭ
| 9 || '''moja''' || mojende || mojatām || mojihaicē || mojarvīm || mojendvāṭ
|-
|-
! ᘔ
! ᘔ
| 10 || '''tålda''' || tåldendes || tåldamūh || tåldihaicė || lātålda || tåldendvāṭ
| 10 || '''tålda''' || tåldende || tåldatām || tåldihaicē || tåldarvīm || tåldendvāṭ
|-
|-
! Ɛ
! Ɛ
| 11 || '''vælden''' || vældindes || vældemūh || vældihaicė || lāvælden || vældindvāṭ
| 11 || '''vælden''' || vældinde || vælditām || vældihaicē || vældirvīm || vældindvāṭ
|-
|-
! 10
! 10
| 12 || '''māmei''' || māmindes || māmeimūh || māmeihaicė || lāmāmei || māmindvāṭ
| 12 || '''māmei''' || māminde || māmintām || māmeihaicē || māmairvīm || māmindvāṭ
|-
|-
! 11  
! 11  
| 13 || '''lelimaye''' || lelimayindes || lelimaimūh || lelimaihaicė || lālelimaye || lelimayindvāṭ
| 13 || '''emibumaye''' || emibumayinde || emibumaintām || emibumaihaicē || emibumairvīm || emibumayindvāṭ
|-
|-
! 12
! 12
| 14 || '''danimaye''' || danimayindes || danimaimūh || danimaihaicė || lādanimaye || danimayindvāṭ
| 14 || '''danimaye''' || danimayinde || danimaintām || danimaihaicē || danimairvim || danimayindvāṭ
|-
|-
! 13
! 13
| 15 || '''pamihælī''' || pamihælīndes || pamihælīmūh || pamihælīhaicė || lāpamihælī || pamihælīndvāṭ
| 15 || '''pamihælī''' || pamihælīnde || pamihælītām || pamihælīhaicē || pamihælīrvīm || pamihælīndvāṭ
|-
|-
! 14  
! 14  
| 16 || '''māmiyårṣe'''<br/><small>(-m, -h)</small> || māmiyårṣendes || māmiyårṣmūh || māmiyårṣhaicė || lāmāmiyårṣe || māmiyårṣendvāṭ
| 16 || '''māminęlte'''|| māminęltende || māminęltitām || māminęltehaicē || māminęltarvīm || māmiynęltendvāṭ
|-
|-
! 15
! 15
| 17 || '''māmifurḍe''' || māmifurḍendes || māmifurḍamūh || māmifurḍhaicė || lāmāmifurḍe || māmifurḍendvāṭ
| 17 || '''māmišulka''' || māmišulkende || māmišulkatām || māmišulkhaicē || māmišulkarvīm || māmišulkendvāṭ
|-
|-
! 16
! 16
| 18 || '''māmivælka''' || māmivælkendes || māmivælkamūh || māmivælkihaicė || lāmāmivælka || māmivælkendvāṭ
| 18 || '''māmivælka''' || māmivælkende || māmivælkatām || māmivælkihaicē || māmivælkarvīm || māmivælkendvāṭ
|-
|-
! 17
! 17
| 19 || '''māmichīka''' || māmichīcændes || māmichīkamūh || māmichīcihaicė || lāmāmichīka || māmichīcændvāṭ
| 19 || '''māmichīka''' || māmichīcænde || māmichīcætām || māmichīcihaicē || māmichīkarvīm || māmichīcændvāṭ
|-
|-
! 18
! 18
| 20 || '''māmitītya''' || māmitītyendes || māmitītyamūh || māmitītihaicė || lāmāmitītya || māmitītyendvāṭ
| 20 || '''māmimbula''' || māmimbulende || māmimbulyatām || māmimbulhaicē || māmimbularvīm || māmimbulendvāṭ
|-
|-
! 19
! 19
| 21 || '''māmimoja''' || māmimojendes || māmimojmūh || māmimojihaicė || lāmāmimoja || māmimojendvāṭ
| 21 || '''māmimoja''' || māmimojende || māmimojatām || māmimojihaicē || māmimojarvīm || māmimojendvāṭ
|-
|-
! 1ᘔ
! 1ᘔ
| 22 || '''māmitålda''' || māmitåldendes || māmitåldamūh || māmitåldihaicė || lāmāmitålda || māmitåldendvāṭ
| 22 || '''māmitålda''' || māmitåldende || māmitåldatām || māmitåldihaicē || māmitåldarvīm || māmitåldendvāṭ
|-
|-
! 1Ɛ
! 1Ɛ
| 23 || '''māmivælden''' || māmivældindes || māmivældemūh || māmivældihaicė || lāmāmivælden || māmivældindvāṭ
| 23 || '''māmivælden''' || māmivældinde || māmivælditām || māmivældihaicē || māmivældirvīm || māmivældindvāṭ
|-
|-
! 20
! 20
| 24 || '''hælьmāmei''' || hælьmāmindes || hælьmāmeimūh || hælьmāmeihaicė || lāhælьmāmei || hælьmāmindvāṭ
| 24 || '''hælmāmei''' || hælmāminde || hælmāmintām || hælmāmeihaicē || hælmāmairvīm || hælmāmindvāṭ
|}
|}
As for the two forms for one, ''emi'' is used in disjunctive counting (e.g. count-ins or countdowns) while ''emibe'' is used elsewhere. Compounds always have the full form, i.e. forms such as *hælmāmyemi do not exist.<br/>Some compound words, especially technical and scientific ones, use [[Lällshag]] morphemes for the quantities from 1 to ᘔ (though from 5 onwards they're rarer): ''mån-''&nbsp;1, ''yūn-''&nbsp;2, ''lyāš-''&nbsp;3, ''alan-''&nbsp;4, ''tamb-''&nbsp;5, ''jiruṇ-'' or ''ciruṇ-''&nbsp;6, ''tulyæn-''&nbsp;7, ''neim-''&nbsp;8, ''šid-''&nbsp;9, ''abar-''&nbsp;ᘔ.


Numbers from 20<sub>12</sub> above are simply made by compounding teens and units with the appropriate saṃdhi changes, like 21<sub>12</sub> <small>(25<sub>10</sub>)</small> ''hælьmāmileil'' (-um, -a), and then ''hælьmāmidani'' (-īm, īh), ''hælьmāmipāmvi'' (-m, -eh), and so on. Note that other compounds with 6 use -tulūʔa and not -vælka as in 16<sub>12</sub>.<br/>
Numbers from 20<sub>12</sub> above are simply made by compounding teens and units with the appropriate saṃdhi changes, like 21<sub>12</sub> <small>(25<sub>10</sub>)</small> ''hælmāmyemibe'', and then ''hælmāmidani'', ''hælmāmipāmvi'', and so on. Note that other compounds with 6 use -tulūɂa and not -vælka as in 16<sub>12</sub>.<br/>
The other teens are: '''30''' <small>(36<sub>10</sub>)</small> pāmvimāmei, '''40''' <small>(48<sub>10</sub>)</small> yårṣmāmei, '''50''' <small>(60<sub>10</sub>)</small> fūlmāmei, '''60''' <small>(72<sub>10</sub>)</small> vælknihæla, '''70''' <small>(84<sub>10</sub>)</small> māmyāvælka (regionally ''chīcæmāmei'', particularly in the East), '''80''' <small>(96<sub>10</sub>)</small> tītimāmei, '''90''' <small>(108<sub>10</sub>)</small> mojemāmei, '''ᘔ0''' <small>(120<sub>10</sub>)</small> tåldimāmei, '''Ɛ0''' <small>(132<sub>10</sub>)</small> māmimīram, and '''100''' nihæla.<br/>
The other dozens are:
The apparent irregularities in the words for 60<sub>12</sub>, 70<sub>12</sub>, and Ɛ0<sub>12</sub> are explained by etymology: ''vælka'' is the reflex of PLB *wewənko, which meant “half”, thus ''vælknihæla'' is “half hundred” and ''māmyāvælka'' is “twelve on half”; ''māmimīram'' is literally “twelve [less] from ahead”. 13<sub>12</sub> originally meant "one finger/three (''pāmvi'', the word for three, derives from ''pamih'', meaning "finger") in the second [dozen]", where the ''-hælī'' part is a worn form of ''hælinaikah''.
: '''30''' <small>(36<sub>10</sub>)</small> pāmvimāmei
: '''40''' <small>(48<sub>10</sub>)</small> nęltemāmei
: '''50''' <small>(60<sub>10</sub>)</small> šulkmāmei
: '''60''' <small>(72<sub>10</sub>)</small> vælknihæla
: '''70''' <small>(84<sub>10</sub>)</small> māmyāvælka (regionally ''chīcæmāmei'', particularly in the East)
: '''80''' <small>(96<sub>10</sub>)</small> mbulmāmei
: '''90''' <small>(108<sub>10</sub>)</small> mojemāmei
: '''ᘔ0''' <small>(120<sub>10</sub>)</small> tåldimāmei
: '''Ɛ0''' <small>(132<sub>10</sub>)</small> māmimīram
: and '''100''' <small>(144<sub>10</sub>)</small> nihæla.
The apparent irregularities in the words for 60<sub>12</sub>, 70<sub>12</sub>, and Ɛ0<sub>12</sub> are explained by etymology: ''vælka'' is the reflex of PLB *wewənko, which meant “half”, thus ''vælknihæla'' is “half hundred” and ''māmyāvælka'' is “twelve on half”; ''māmimīram'' is literally “twelve [less] from ahead”. 13<sub>12</sub> originally meant "one finger/three (''pāmvi'', the word for three, also meant "finger" in PLB (*pāmwəj) - whence also the Chlouvānem word for "finger", ''pamuvis'' (< PLB *pamwəjis)) in the second [dozen]", where the ''-hælī'' part is a worn form of ''hælinaika''.


Numbers from 100<sub>12</sub> to ƐƐƐ<sub>12</sub> are still compounds, e.g. nihælaleil, nihæladani, and so on. Note that 160<sub>12</sub> is most commonly nihæltulūʔa, but the more literary form nihælvælka may still be heard.<br/>
Numbers from 100<sub>12</sub> to ƐƐƐ<sub>12</sub> are still compounds, e.g. ''nihælaimibe'', ''nihæladani'', and so on. Note that 160<sub>12</sub> is most commonly ''nihæltulūɂa'', but the more literary form ''nihælvælka'' may still be heard.<br/>
The other hundreds are '''200''' <small>(288<sub>10</sub>)</small> daninihæla, '''300''' <small>(432<sub>10</sub>)</small>  pāmvinihæla, '''400''' <small>(576<sub>10</sub>)</small>  yårṣṇihæla, '''500''' <small>(720<sub>10</sub>)</small> furḍṇihæla, '''600''' <small>(864<sub>10</sub>)</small> tulūnihæla, '''700''' <small>(1008<sub>10</sub>)</small> chīcænihæla, '''800''' <small>(1152<sub>10</sub>)</small> tītinihæla, '''900''' <small>(1296<sub>10</sub>)</small> mojanihæla, '''ᘔ00''' <small>(1440<sub>10</sub>)</small> tåldanihæla, '''Ɛ00''' <small>(1584<sub>10</sub>)</small> vældenihæla.<br/>
The other dozenal hundreds are:
'''1.000''' <small>(1728<sub>10</sub>)</small> is ''tildhā'' and numbers above are separate words, without saṃdhi, e.g. '''6.2ᘔ9''' <small>(10785<sub>10</sub>)</small> ''tulūʔa tildhā daninihælatåldimāmimoja''.<br/>
: '''200''' <small>(288<sub>10</sub>)</small> daninihæla
Note that 2.000<sub>12</sub> may be either one of ''tildhādi'', ''danīh tildhā'', or (only emphatically) ''danīh tildhādi''. As ''tildhā'' is a parrot gender noun, 3.000<sub>12</sub> and 4.000<sub>12</sub> are respectively ''pāmveh tildhā'' and ''yårṣeh tildhā''.
: '''300''' <small>(432<sub>10</sub>)</small>  pāmvinihæla
: '''400''' <small>(576<sub>10</sub>)</small>  nęltenihæla
: '''500''' <small>(720<sub>10</sub>)</small> šulknihæla
: '''600''' <small>(864<sub>10</sub>)</small> tulūnihæla
: '''700''' <small>(1008<sub>10</sub>)</small> chīcænihæla
: '''800''' <small>(1152<sub>10</sub>)</small> mbulnihæla
: '''900''' <small>(1296<sub>10</sub>)</small> mojanihæla
: '''ᘔ00''' <small>(1440<sub>10</sub>)</small> tåldanihæla
: '''Ɛ00''' <small>(1584<sub>10</sub>)</small> vældenihæla.
'''1.000''' <small>(1728<sub>10</sub>)</small> is ''tildhā'' and numbers above are separate words, without saṃdhi, e.g. '''1.001''' ''tildhā emibe'', '''6.2ᘔ9''' <small>(10785<sub>10</sub>)</small> ''tulūɂa tildhā daninihælatåldimāmimoja''.<br/>
Note that 2.000<sub>12</sub> may be either one of ''tildhāt'', ''dani tildhā'', or (only emphatically) ''dani tildhāt''.


The other divisions - numbers over ƐƐ.ƐƐƐ<sub>12</sub> are based on groups of two digits: the two most commonly used ones in common speech are '''1.00.000''' <small>(248.832<sub>10</sub>)</small> - a ''raicė'' - and '''1.00.00.000''' <small>(35.831.808<sub>10</sub>)</small> - a ''lallaraicė''.  
The other divisions - numbers over ƐƐ.ƐƐƐ<sub>12</sub> are based on groups of two digits: the two most commonly used ones in common speech are '''1.00.000''' <small>(248.832<sub>10</sub>)</small> - a ''raicē'' - and '''1.00.00.000''' <small>(35.831.808<sub>10</sub>)</small> - a ''lallaraicē''.  


The next two groups have their separate words, but are quantities rarely used in common speech: '''1.00.00.00.000''' <small>(5.159.780.352<sub>10</sub>)</small> is a ''taiskaucis'' and '''1.00.00.00.00.000''' <small>(743.008.370.688<sub>10</sub>)</small> a ''lallataiskaucis''.
The next two groups have their separate words, but are quantities rarely used in common speech: '''1.00.00.00.000''' (12<sup>9</sup>) <small>(5.159.780.352<sub>10</sub>)</small> is a ''taiskaucis'' and '''1.00.00.00.00.000''' (12<sup>11</sup>) <small>(743.008.370.688<sub>10</sub>)</small> a ''lallataiskaucis''. The words ''khorādi'' (12<sup>7</sup>, i.e. synonym of lallaraicē), ''yaṣmūn'' (12<sup>11</sup>, i.e. lallataiskaucis), ''iriakas'' (12<sup>13</sup>), ''mairāṇa'' or ''lalleriakas'' (12<sup>15</sup>), ''nirāvah'' (12<sup>17</sup>), and ''sṝva'' or ''lallanirāvah'' (12<sup>19</sup>) were introduced in Classical-era texts, but are almost never used today. However, they form the base for the scientific measurement system's prefixes.


Their non-cardinal forms are all regular, with ''-endes'' (''-indes'' after ''-m'' or for Ɛ<sub>12</sub>) for ordinals, ''-mūh'' for collectives, ''-haicė'' for distributives, ''-'' for adverbials/multiplicatives, and ''-endvāṭ/-indvāṭ'' for the fractionaries. Compounds of 1-4 retain all irregularities (suppletive forms, gender), e.g. ''hælьmāmihælinaikas'' 22<sub>12</sub>nd (26<sub>10</sub>th).
Their non-cardinal forms are all regular, with ''-ende'' (''-inde'' after ''-m'' or for Ɛ<sub>12</sub>) for ordinals, ''-tām'' for collectives, ''-haicē'' for distributives, ''-rvīm'' for adverbials/multiplicatives (prefixed ''māg-'' for the separate adverbial forms), and ''-endvāṭ/-indvāṭ'' for the fractionaries. Compounds of 1-2 retain all irregular suppletive forms, e.g. ''hælmāmilahīla'' 21<sub>12</sub>st (25<sub>10</sub>th); ''hælmāmihælinaika'' 22<sub>12</sub>nd (26<sub>10</sub>th).


=== Using numerals ===
Finally, there are few other cardinals commonly used in speech: ''vālhælya'' 1½, ''vālpāmvya'' 2½, ''vālnęlca'' , ''vālšulca'' 4½, and ''vāltulūya'' 5½. The forms ''vālchīca'', ''vālambulya'' (or ''vālumbulya''), and ''vālmojya'' are used in telling the time only and obsolete otherwise, while other similar forms are sparingly attested in older mathematical texts, but periphrastical constructions such as ''tulūɂa hælinaivāṭ no'' (or, sometimes, ''- vælka no'') are more commonly heard and used nowadays. A form that, however, is sometimes found up to the present day is ''vālhælnihæla'', meaning 160<sub>12</sub> (216<sub>10</sub>), i.e. one dozenal hundred and a half.
Cardinal numerals may be used in two ways, depending on whether emphasis is given to the number or to the thing counted.
* In the most common use, the counted thing is emphasized: the numeral is put '''before''' the noun and the noun is always '''singular''' (except for "two", see below) plus the appropriate case: e.g. ''leilum yujam'' (a lotus flower); ''danīh māra'' (two mango fruits); ''pāmvi haloe'' (three names), ''vælden ñaiṭa'' (eleven stars), and so on.
* If emphasis is given to the number, then the counted thing comes first, and, if it should be in direct, ergative, or accusative case, it is in '''genitive singular''' instead; the semantic direct, ergative, or accusative case is taken by the numeral itself if it is one, two, three, or compounds. Examples: ''yujami leilum'' (one lotus flower), ''māri danīh'' (two mango fruits), ''halenies pāmvi'' (three names), ''ñaiṭi vælden'' (eleven stars). In other cases, the noun follows the semantic case (but is always singular anyway), e.g. ''marti pāmveh'' (three cities) but ''marte pāmviye'' (in the three cities).<br/>This form is increasingly less common in everyday use.
* "Two" may be used with either singular or dual number: ''danīh māra'' or ''māri danīh'' are both as correct as ''danīh māradi'' and ''māradais danīh'' - note that the dual number alone, without the numeral, has the same meaning. Outside of literary texts, it is however more common to specify "two" with the numeral.


Ordinals, collectives, and multiplicatives are simply used as declinable adjectives, but collectives and multiplicatives are always singular (optionally dual for ''daniamūh'' and ''lādani''). e.g. ''hælinaikah kita'' "second house", ''tītyamūh lejīn'' "all eight singers", ''lāpāmvi yąloe'' "triple meal/a meal three times as large". Bare multiplicatives may carry either the meaning of "repeated X times" or "X times as large", but the latter is most commonly specified with a comparison (''en'') or by context.<br/>
====Use of fractionary numbers====
Collectives are often used with the meaning of "all X of..." - e.g. ''tītyamūh lejīn dilu liju lilejlayivėnilь'' "all eight singers wanted to sing the same song" -, with the meaning of "X sets of" with pluralia and singularia tantum, e.g. ''pāmvimūh hærṣūs'' "three pairs of lips" (note that colloquial Chlouvānem increasingly often uses the cardinals here, e.g. ''pāmvi hærṣūs''), and with people and animals in order to say "a group of X", taken as a single entity: there can be subtle differences in meaning, e.g. ''chīka lalāruṇa tugīrannilь'' (with a cardinal) and ''chīkamūh lalāruṇa tugīrannilь'' (with a collective) both mean "seven ''lalāruṇai'' hit", but in the latter sentence the action it is implied to be a coordinate act of all seven animals, while in the former they either hit randomly or the coordination of the action is not specified (or not specification-worthy).
Fractionary numbers (except ''vāl-'' ones) are used to express non-integers just like any other quantity. Simple ones such as 0,6 (½) are the basic fractionary number - in this case ''hælinaivāṭ'' (note that, outside mathematics, ''danyāmita'' is the preferred term for "half", both in metaphorical (''lilyā viṣam danyāmita'' "my other half") and non-metaphorical uses (''alāvi danyāmita'' "half of the bottle")); other examples are 0,3 (¼) ''nęltendvāṭ'' and 0,4 (⅓) ''pāmvendvāṭ''.<br/>
With more complex fractions, the smallest part (negative power of twelve) is stated - the three commonly found are 1/12 (''māmindvāṭ''), 1/144 (''nihælendvāṭ''), and 1/1728 (''tildhaindvāṭ''). For example, 0,82 is ''mbulmāmidani nihælendvāṭ'' and 0,7ᘔ6 is ''chīcænihælamāmimīraṃtulūɂa tildhaindvāṭ''; sometimes, "0, then" (mīram) may be added: ''ajrā mīram mbulmāmidani nihælendvāṭ''.


Distributives are indeclinable adjectives, and have the meaning of "X each": ''pāmvihaicė titė męlīran'' "three pens each are given"; ''lili liliā ñæltah no tulūʔihaicė kolecañi alau ulgutaranilь'' "my sister and I have bought six bottles of kvas each" — note in both sentences the use of singular number in ''titė'' (pencil) and ''alūs'' (gen. ''alau'') "bottle".
With a non-fractionary portion that is not zero, instead of ''mīram'', ''smurā'' (full, integer) is used - e.g. 2,307 is usually said as ''dani smurā pāmvinihælchīka tildhaindvāṭ''.


Fractionary numerals are always used in the noun.<small>GEN</small> numeral construction, and they are invariable in direct, vocative, accusative, and ergative case but decline with ''-vaḍa'' in all of the others (in fact, etymologically they derive from worn down forms of ordinal + ''vaḍa'', meaning Xth part, e.g. ''hælinaikah vaḍa'' (the second part) ''hælinaivāṭ''). Unlike ordinals, the noun is always in the genitive case. Examples: ''marti hælinaivāṭ'' "half of the city" ; ''alāvi yårṣendvāṭ'' "one fourth of the bottle" ; ''bhæli tulūʔendvaḍe'' "in one sixth of the country".
====Declensions of cardinal numbers====
Some cardinal numbers are declined for case, but this is usually only done in formal Chlouvānem. In informal Chlouvānem, either only ''emibe'' is declined, or are all numerals up to ''vælden'', plus ''nihæla''. Compounds of these are usually not declined. The words ''tildhā'', ''(lalla)raicē'', and ''(lalla)taiskaucis'' are always declined, but they are fully nouns.
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
|-
! rowspan=2 | Case !! rowspan=2 | ''emibe'' !! Dual paradigm !! i-paradigm !! a-paradigm !! en-paradigm
|-
! <small>''dani''</small> !! ''pāmvi'', ''nęlte''</small><ref>''nęlte'' has the stem ''nęlc-'' wherever ''pāmvi'' has ''-vy-'', i.e. accusatives ''pāmvyu, nęlcu''.</ref> !! <small>5 to 10<ref>''chīka'' has the stem ''chīcæ-'' before consonants.</ref></small> !! <small>''vælden'' only</small>
|-
! Direct<br/>Vocative
| '''emibe''' || '''dani''' || '''pāmvi''' || '''šulka''' || '''vælden'''
|-
! Accusative
| emiyu || daneṣa || pāmvyu || šulku || vældu
|-
! Ergative
| emeis || daneya || pāmvyes || šulkes || vældes
|-
! Genitive
| emibī || dañva || pāmvi<ref>''nęlte'' has the form ''nęlci''.</ref> || šulki || vældi
|-
! Translative
| emiban || danaus || pāmvin || šulkan || vældanna
|-
! Exessive
| emibat || danebhan || pāmvit || šulkat || vældanta
|-
! Essive
| emibą || danīgin || pāmvyą || šulką || vældąs
|-
! Dative
| emibå || danaus || pāmvyå || šulkå || vældå
|-
! Ablative
| emiyų || danebhan || pāmvyų || šulkų || vældų
|-
! Locative
| emiye || danīgin || pāmvye || šulke || vælde
|-
! Instrumental
| emīp || danebhan || pāmvip || šulkip || vældampa
|}
 
=== Use of numerals===
'''Cardinal numerals''' may be used in two ways, depending on whether emphasis is given to the number or to the thing counted.
* In the most common use, the counted thing is emphasized: the numeral is put '''before''' the noun and the noun is always '''singular''' (except for "two", see below) plus the appropriate case: e.g. ''emibe yujam'' (one lotus flower); ''dani māra'' (two mango fruits); ''pāmvi haloe'' (three names), ''vælden ñaiṭa'' (eleven stars), and so on.
* If emphasis is given to the number, then the counted thing comes first, and, if it should be in direct, ergative, or accusative case, it is in '''genitive singular''' instead; the semantic direct, ergative, or accusative case is taken by the numeral itself if it is one, two, three, or compounds. Examples: ''yujami emibe'' (one lotus flower), ''māri dani'' (two mango fruits), ''haleni pāmvi'' (three names), ''ñaiṭi vælden'' (eleven stars). In other cases, the noun follows the semantic case (but is always singular anyway), e.g. ''marti pāmvi'' (three cities) but ''marte pāmvye'' (in the three cities).<br/>This form is increasingly less common in everyday use.
* "Two" may be used with either singular or dual number: ''dani māra'' or ''māri dani'' are both as correct as ''dani mārāt'' and ''māreva dani'' - note that the dual number alone, without the numeral, has the same meaning; the dual form alone does not give particular emphasis to the number, while using the numeral, at least in formal styles, already gives more emphasis (intermediate to the two abovementioned forms). Outside of literary texts, it is however more common to specify "two" with the numeral.
 
Note, though, the structure "''nihæle'' + genitive of a noun + a cardinal numeral", used for expressing percentage (dozenally), e.g. ''nihæle laili hælmāmei'' "20% of people".
 
'''Ordinal numerals''' are regular attributive adjective-like words that precede nouns - e.g. ''hælinaika kita'' "second house". They do not decline if are used together with a noun, but they can also be used alone (e.g. ''hælinaika'' "the second one"), in which case they decline for case and number, as if they were ''-eh'' nouns (''-a'' for 1st and 2nd), e.g. ''mojendesām ukulate'' "it has been told to those in ninth position".
 
'''Collective numerals''' (which decline as regular ''-ām'' nouns) are most commonly found with the meaning of "a group consisting of X ...", therefore implying greater cohesiveness than using the cardinal number implies. A common example of the subtle meaning change is between the sentences ''chīka lalāruṇa togāhaite'' (with a cardinal) and ''chīcætām lalāruṇa togāhaite'' (with a collective): both mean "seven ''lalāruṇai'' hit", but in the latter sentence the action is implied to be a coordinate act of all seven animals, while in the former they either hit randomly or the coordination of the action is not specified (or not specification-worthy). This is also the most common meaning with pluralia tantum, as commonly heard with ethnonyms (which are all plural only in Chlouvānem), e.g. ''šulkatām chlǣvānem'' "[a group of] five Chlouvānem people".<br/>
They can also be found, context-dependent, used with the meaning of "all X of..." - in a sentence such as e.g. ''mbulatām lejīn dilu liju lilejlaikate'' "all eight singers wanted to sing the same song" - or with the meaning of "X sets of" with singularia tantum - e.g. ''pāmvyatām hærṣūs'' "three pairs of lips" (but note that colloquial Chlouvānem increasingly often uses the cardinals here, e.g. ''pāmvi hærṣūs'').<br/>
The collective numerals for 0 and 1 (''ajrāṇṭām'' and ''emibutām'' respectively) are not included in the table above because they do not exist in practical use; however, they are sporadically found in poetry and literature, referring to people and with the meaning of "a group where only one/no one is ...", e.g. ''ajrāṇṭām tadhusmausīn'' "a group where no one is honest". Similarly, collectives for ''vāl-'' numbers (e.g. ''vālpāmvyantām'' "a group consisting of 2½ ...") exist, but are virtually unused. ''danyatām'', like ''dani'', may be use together with either a singular or a dual noun.
 
In some cases, the choice between a collective and a cardinal is stylistic. While for example concepts such as "we are..." or "I have ... children" do normally use the collective (e.g. ''tulūɂatām ñæltah jalim'' "we are six sisters/a group of six reciprocal brothers and sisters"; ''lili mæn nęltitām nūrya'' "I have four children"), even if using a cardinal isn't wrong, in a sentence such as "there are X people" both versions are found, with the collective-using sentence (e.g. ''dvārma vælditāmą lilęs virā'' "in the room there are eleven people") being perceived as more formal than the more colloquially heard cardinal-using version (i.e. ''dvārma vældąs lilęs virā'').
 
'''Distributive numerals''' are indeclinable adjective-like words, and have the meaning of "X each": ''pāmvihaicē titē męlyāhai'' "three pens each are given"; ''lili lilyā ñæltah no tulūɂihaicē karjhañī alau ulgutarate'' "my sister and I have bought six bottles of kvas each" — note in both sentences the use of singular number in ''titē'' (pencil) and ''alūs'' (acc. ''alau'') "bottle", just like after cardinal and collective numerals.
 
'''Adverbial numerals''' are adverbs with the meaning of "X times" and '''multiplicative numbers''' are adjective-like words (that can also be used alone) with the meaning of "X times as large"; numbers from 1 to 4 have both forms, while all other ones (except 0) have only the multiplicative one, which is used for both meanings. Examples: ''pāmvirvīm yąloe'' "triple meal/a meal three times as large"; ''āsena māgdani'' "twice a month"; ''āsena mbularvīm'' "eight times a month".<br/>
Zero only has an adverbial form (''māgajrā''), which is however only used in reading multiplications and powers, e.g. 3 * 0 ''māgajrā pāmvi'', 9<sup>0</sup> ''māgajrā demǣ moja''.


==Particles==
'''Fractionary numerals''' are always used in the noun.<small>GEN</small> numeral construction, and they are invariable in direct, vocative, accusative, and ergative case but decline with ''-vaḍa'' in all of the others (in fact, etymologically they derive from worn down forms of ordinal + ''vaḍa'', meaning Xth part, e.g. ''hælinaika vaḍa'' (the second part) ''hælinaivāṭ''). Unlike ordinals, the noun is always in the genitive case. Examples: ''marti hælinaivāṭ'' "half of the city" ; ''alāvi nęltendvāṭ'' "one fourth of the bottle" ; ''babhrāmi tulūɂendvaḍe'' "in one sixth of the country".
The numerous particles in the Chlouvānem language have various uses, including coordinating conjunctions, semantic, and pragmatic particles. Most of them (except a few conjunctions) follow the word they modify. Here they are listed in Latin alphabetical order:
* '''dam''' is an interrogative particle, put after the verb: ''dalьtah væl dam?'' "is it a fish?".
* '''e''' translates "like"; it requires essive case with nouns (in formal speech; while bare essive most properly has the meaning "as X" instead of "like X", colloquially it is used both ways) and subjunctive mood with realis verbs (other moods are used for their meaning).
* '''en''' usually requires accusative case and translates to English "than" in comparisons.
* '''eri''' means "even", marking a positive emphasis and used with positive sentences (e.g. ''hūnakumi dældān eri dældire'' "(s)he even speaks Hūnakumi<ref>Language of an ethnic minority (but titular ethnicity) in the diocese of Hūnakañjātia.</ref>")
* '''fras''' marks the antibenefactive argument outside of antibenefactive-trigger voice, or "to avoid X" with a subjunctive mood verb.
* '''ga''' is an adpositive particle, used to join nouns in noun phrases (usually titles; the only exceptions being honorifics), such as ''Līlasuṃghāṇa ga marta'' (Līlasuṃghāṇa city, or "city of Līlasuṃghāṇa") or ''Tāllahāria ga maita'' (Tāllahāria river).
* '''gāri''' means "not even", being the opposite of ''eri'', marking a negative emphasis in negative sentences (e.g. ''chāra chlouvānumi dældān gāri gu dældire ša'' "(s)he doesn't even speak correct Chlouvānem")
* '''golat''' translates "meanwhile" or "on the other hand".
* '''gu(n) — ša''' is a circumfix around verbs used to negate it, e.g. ''gu yuyųlsėnilь ša'' "(s)he doesn't want to eat").
* '''laha''' means "only, just", e.g. ''lārvājuṣui laha flå'' "I'm only going to the temple".
* '''lapi''' means "with"; when used in instrumental sense it requires ergative case, while the comitative sense requires the essive.
* '''leah''' translates "already", with a noun in essive case or a verb in the semantically correct mood.
* '''mbu''' means "or"; placement with nouns is the same as ''no''/''lasь'', and with verbs it's often the same as ''sama''.
* '''mei''' and '''go''' are the Chlouvānem words for "yes" and "no" respectively; their use is however different from English, as they are used according to the polarity of the question: ''mei'' answers "yes" to affirmative questions and "no" to negative questions; ''go'' answers "no" to affirmative questions and "yes" to negative questions.
* '''menni''' translates "because, for". If there's a following main clause, then it's the last word in the subordinate of reason (this use is synonymous to the consequential secondary verbal mood of cause); if it's a lone sentence (an answer), then it is usually at the ''second'' place in the sentence, after the verbal trigger (e.g. ''tami menni yuyųlsėnilь'' "because (s)he wants to eat").
* '''mūji''' translates "almost", "more or less"
* '''mæn''' [[Chlouvānem#Use of the topic|marks the topic]] which otherwise has no role in the sentence (often used inside larger conversations, e.g. ''lili mæn yulte kåmbe'' (mine/as for me (echoing a previous sentence), [it is] in the bright yellow backpack; OR: as for me, [I keep it] in...)).
* '''najinai''' means "maybe"; it stems from the archaic potential form of ''najake'' (to happen). It requires a verb in subjunctive mood.
* '''nali''', when used with a noun in direct case, marks the benefactive argument in any voice except benefactive-trigger. When used with a verb in subjunctive mood, it means "in order to", with a nuance of hope (when compared to the bare subjunctive, which already has that meaning).
* '''nānim''' translates "almost", with a noun in essive case or a verb in the semantically correct mood.
* '''natte''' translates "until", with a noun in translative case (or dative case for places, meaning "as far as")<ref>Compare ''ājvan natte'' "until dawn" and ''līlasuṃghāṇa kahėrimaila ga keikui natte'' "as far as Līlasuṃghāṇa Kahėrimaila Station".</ref> or a verb in the subjunctive.
* '''ni''' translates "but" as a coordinating conjunction.
* '''no''' translates English "and" when between nouns and when denoting a complete listing; for incomplete listings (e.g. "X and Y and so on") the particle '''lasь''' is used. Both follow the noun they refer to, and in listings with more than two nouns they follow every noun except the first. They can also translate "and" between verbs, but ''sama'' is preferred between sentences, especially with different subjects (e.g. ''yąlunilь molunilь no'' "I eat and drink", either ''mėlitu yąlunilь kolecañu molunilь no'' or ''mėlitu yąlunilь sama kolecañu molunilь'' "I eat curry and drink kvas", but most often ''mėlitu yąlunilь sama liliā ñæltah kolecañu molėnilь'' "I eat curry and my sister drinks kvas". Note that ''mėlitu yąlunilь liliā ñæltah kolecañu molėnilь no'' is still correct, but mostly found in literary or very formal language).
* '''pa''' translates "on, of, about; concerning, on the subject of", and requires a noun direct case or a verb in subjunctive mood.
* '''sama''' translates "and" as a coordinating conjunction between clauses. If the following word starts with a vowel, it is shortened to '''sam''''.
* '''tī''' translates "because", "for", and it is always in the second clause of a sentence: ''dadrāṃniliå tī daudiau'' "I have done it because I wanted to".
* '''tora''' translates "also", "too", usually before the verb (e.g. ''tora uyųlaṃniliå'' "I've eaten that too"); note that "also" as a conjunction between two sentences is usually translated with ''nanū'' (more).
** '''tora gu''' is a particle-adjective locution translating "not even", and is put before the noun it refers to;
** '''tora no''', after the noun, translates "even" - e.g. ''tami tora no dadrāniliå'' "even he has done it it").
* '''tælū''' means "again".
* '''væse''' translates "while", "meanwhile", with an essive (or, depending on meaning, exessive or translative) noun or a verb of the semantically correct mood.


===Adjectival-adverbial particles===
===Basic maths===
Adjectival-adverbial particles are those particles that have are semantically adjectives or adverbs identifying quantity, but - like particles - usually follow the noun or the verb they refer to instead of preceding it.
* 1 + 2 = 3
* '''glidemæh''' translates "only" or "alone".
: emibe ''širē'' dani pāmvyå ''lunade'' (1.<small>DIR</small>. more. 2.<small>DIR</small>. 3-<small>DAT</small>. go.<small>MONODIR-IND.PRES-3DU.EXTERIOR-AGENTIVE</small>) — rule: A<sup>DIR</sup> ''širē'' B<sup>DIR</sup> (''širē'' ...) C<sup>DAT</sup> ''lunade'' (two addends) / ''lunāhai'' (3+ addends)
* '''maifu''' translates "enough".
* 3 - 2 = 1
* '''udvī''' translates "without"; it requires a noun in essive case or a verb in subjunctive mood.
: pāmvi ''isan'' dani emibå ''lunade'' (3.<small>DIR</small>. minus. 2.<small>DIR</small>. 1-<small>DAT</small> go.<small>MONODIR-IND.PRES-3DU.EXTERIOR-AGENTIVE</small>) — rule: A<sup>DIR</sup> ''isan'' B<sup>DIR</sup> (''isan'' ...) C<sup>DAT</sup> ''lunade'' (two addends) / ''lunāhai'' (3+ addends)
* 3 * 2 = 6
: ''māgdani'' pāmvi tulūɂå ''liven'' (2.<small>ADV.MULTIP</small>. 3.<small>DIR</small>. 6-<small>DAT</small>. go.<small>MONODIR-IND.PRES-3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENTIVE</small>) — rule: <small>MULTIPLICATIVE.(ADV)-</small>B A<sup>DIR</sup> C<sup>DAT</sup> ''liven''
* 6 : 2 = 3
: ''hælinaivadęs'' tulūɂa pāmvyå ''liven'' (2.<small>FRACTION-ESS</small>. 6.<small>DIR</small> 3-<small>DAT</small>. go.<small>MONODIR-IND.PRES-3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENTIVE</small>) — rule: <small>FRACTIONARY-</small>B<sup>ESS</sup> A<sup>DIR</sup> C<sup>DAT</sup> ''liven''
* 6<sup>2</sup> = 30 (36<sub>10</sub>)
: ''māgdani demǣ'' tulūɂa pāmvimāmei ''liven'' (2.<small>ADV.MULTIP</small>. <small>REFL.GEN-LOC</small>. 6.<small>DIR</small>. 30<sub>12</sub>. go.<small>MONODIR-IND.PRES-3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENTIVE</small>) — rule: <small>MULTIPLICATIVE.(ADV)-</small>B ''demǣ'' A<sup>DIR</sup> C<sup>DAT</sup> ''liven''


===Paired particles===
===Reified numerals===
The paired particles in Chlouvānem are:
Reified numerals, or numerals used as nouns, have a special form, which is actually the numeral with the common noun-forming suffix ''-as'' added (with regular saṃdhi). These numerals are used most notably for:
* '''gu''' X '''tora gu''' Y '''no''' — translating "neither X nor Y"; e.g. ''gu jādāh tora gu lañekaica no drayivėniliå'' "neither Jādāh nor Lañekaica did it".
* In order to refer to the digits themselves (''danyas'' "the digit 2");
* X '''jusęe''' Y '''mbu''' — translating "either X or Y". ''jusęe'' is a worn-down form of ''jususęe'', adverb form of ''jususas'', present participle of ''gyake'' (to be). e.g. ''jādāh jusęe lañekaica mbu drayivėniliå'' "either Jādāh or Lañekaica did it".
* Things named with numbers (''tulūɂās'' "[tram/bus/etc] number 6");
* X '''jusęe''' Y '''tora no''' — translating "both X and Y"; e.g. ''jādāh jusęe lañekaica tora no drayivėniliå'' "both Jādāh and Lañekaica did it".
* <small>''(in the plural)''</small> Year dozens (''vælknihælē'' "the 60<sub>12</sub>s = the 3860<sub>12</sub>s);
* <small>''(in the plural)''</small> Age ranges by the dozen (''hælmāmeyē'' "20<sub>12</sub>ies" = the age range from the start of one's 20<sub>12</sub>th year to the end of one's 2Ɛth);
* School marks - note that there's no uniform system in the Inquisition (''nęltayas'' "a grade 4" (passing grade in the most widespread system for non-higher education in the Inquisition, ranging from 1 (''emibayas''), worst, to 7 (''chīkās''), best));
* A group of X people - a reification of collective numerals (''pāmvyas'' "a trio").
 
Note that there are some terms which use numerals as roots but aren't considered reified numbers (also because of their rather inconsistent meanings); the most common examples include ''danyāmita'' (half) and ''māmyāmita'' (dozen).
 
===Units of Measurement===
Chlouvānem units of measurement (''lęlgīs'', pl. ''lęlgais'') are divided in popular units (''leilausirena lęlgais'') and scientific units (''tarlausirena lęlgais''). Scientific units, while understood, are rarely found outside of scientific contexts if corresponding popular units exist, while popular units are found in daily usage. Popular units follow however a measurement standard introduced in the year 36Ɛ7 <small>(6187<sub>10</sub>)</small> and updated several times in the following two centuries, in order to give a single understood measure for all units whose names and definitions varied across the many countries of the Chlouvānem cultural space.<br/>It is also to be noted that Calemerian scientific units have internationally unified definitions for their base units but are substantially different between the Western and the Eastern world as Western countries use them with a decimal system, while the Eastern countries (the Inquisition, most of the former Kaiṣamā, and Greater Skyrdagor) use them with a duodecimal system.
 
====Length====
The ''tyuta'', ''nakūrum'', and ''garaṇa'' are known but rarely used; the ''vālpāmvyās'' is rarely written as a separate measure, but isn't uncommon in speech.
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
|-
! Short !! Name !! Meaning/name origin !! Equivalent to !! Metric system (approx.)
|-
! lūj
| lūjla <small>(ABL)</small> || <small>Point, tip</small> || ⅛ tyu || ~3.09639 mm
|-
! tyu
| tyuta || <small>Short (dialectal)</small> || ⅓ ka || ~2.47711 cm
|-
! ka
| katis || <small>Finger</small> || ⅓ mā || ~7.43133 cm
|-
! mā
| '''mākoba''' || <small>Span</small> || ''(base unit)'' || 22.294 cm
|-
|-
! pā
| pājya || <small>Leg</small> || 4 mā || 89.176 cm
|-
! vāl
| vālpāmvyās<br/>vālpāmvya pājya || <small>Two and a half legs</small> || 2+½ pā || 2.2294 m
|-
! nak
| nakūrum || <small>Rod</small> || 8 pā || 7.13408 m
|-
! cān
| cāṃtrūh || <small>Section (A. Yodhvaši)</small> || 140 (192<sub>10</sub>) pā || 171.21792 m
|-
! vai
| vaiṣrya || <small>Plough</small> || 8 cān<br/>ᘔ80 <small>(1536<sub>10</sub>)</small> pā || 1369.7434 m — 1.36974 km
|-
! gar
| garaṇa || <small>Hour</small> || 34 <small>(40<sub>10</sub>)</small> cān || 6848.72 m — 6.84872 km
|}
 
<!-- ====Area====
The ''våṇṭa'' may or may not be written as a separate measure. A measure of 1 ''jāṇa'' and 700 ''dvāmāryai'' may be written as ''1 jā.700 (dvā)'' (most commonly) or as ''1 jā.1.100 (dvā)''.
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
|-
! Short !! Name !! Meaning/name origin !! Equivalent to !! Metric system (approx.)
|-
! sǣ
| sǣca || <small>Small, Piece (in A.Namaikehi)</small> || 1 nī * 1 nī || 51.95 cm<sup>2</sup>
|-
! dar
| daryā || <small>unknown; name first used in the Near East</small> || 60 <small>(72<sub>10</sub>)</small> sǣ || 3,740.4 cm<sup>2</sup>
|-
! re
| relya || <small>Carpet</small> || 3 dar || ~1.12212 m<sup>2</sup>
|-
! dvā
| dvāmārya || <small>ultimately from ''dvārma'' (room)</small> || 4 re || ~4.48848 m<sup>2</sup>
|-
! vå
| våṇṭa || <small>probably from a Tamukāyi word meaning "fence(d)"</small> || 600 <small>(864<sub>10</sub>)</small> dvā — ½ jā || ~3,878.0467 m<sup>2</sup>
|-
! jā
| jāṇa || <small>Field</small> || 1,000 <small>(1,728<sub>10</sub>)</small> do — 2 vå || ~7,756.0934 m<sup>2</sup>
|-
! e
| ekram || <small>Expanse (in A.Namaikehi)</small> || 100 <small>(144<sub>10</sub>)</small> jā || ~1.1168 km<sup>2</sup>
|}
 
====Weight (and mass)====
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
|-
! Short !! Name !! Meaning/name origin !! Equivalent to !! Metric system (approx.)
|-
! vaj
| vaji || <small>dimin. from ''vaḍa'' (part)</small> || 1/100 <small>(1/144<sub>10</sub>)</small> dū || ~51.79398 mg
|-
! dū
| dūdha || <small>Seed</small> || ⅙ lit || ~7.45833 g
|-
! lit
| litveh || <small>Cut (in A.Namaikehi)</small> || ¼ aut || 44.75 g
|-
! aut
| '''auṭikā''' || <small>probably an augmentative from PLB *wutərus<ref>cf. ''ūtarṇ-'' "heavy" and ''ūṭrus'' "load"</ref></small> || ''(base unit)'' || 179 g
|-
! tū
| tulūɂendā || <small>ultimately from ''tulūɂendes'' (sixth)</small> || 6 aut || 1,074 g
|-
! pau
| paurā || <small>Rock (dialectal)</small> || 70 <small>(84<sub>10</sub>)</small> aut || 12.53 kg
|-
! māp
| māmipaurā || <small>''māmei'' (twelve) + ''paurā''</small> || 10 <small>(12<sub>10</sub>)</small> pau || 150.36 kg
|-
! lap
| lallapaurā || <small>''lalla'' (high, further) + ''paurā''</small> || 10 <small>(12<sub>10</sub>)</small> māp || 1,804.32 kg
|}
 
====Volume====
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
|-
! Short !! Name !! Meaning/name origin !! Equivalent to !! Metric system (approx.)
|-
! src
| ṣærcañīh || <small>dimin. from ''ṣarus'' (spoon)</small> || ½ ṣar || ~5.78704 mL
|-
! ṣar
| ṣarus || <small>Spoon</small> || ⅓ cel || ~11.57407 mL
|-
! cel
| celya || <small>Small glass</small> || ⅙ lun || ~34.72222 mL
|-
! lun
| luneyāvi || <small>from ''lunai'' (tea)</small> || ⅓ val || ~0.20833 L
|-
! val
| '''valdhēna''' || <small>Flagon</small> || ''(base unit)''  || 0.625 L
|-
! al
| alūs || <small>Bottle</small> || 2+ ⅓ val || ~1.45833 L
|-
! då
| dåṣṭis || <small>Bucket</small> || 8 al || ~11.66666 L
|-
! raš
| rašah || <small>Barrel</small> || 16 <small>(18<sub>10</sub>)</small> då || ~210 L
|}
 
There are also two further units for dry measures only:
* the ''purṣa'' ("pot", '''pur'''), equivalent to 1+½ val (~0.9375 L);
* the ''ręnah'' ("jar, urn", '''rę'''), equivalent to 6 pur (~5.625 L).
 
The ''egimbladuldāvi'' (egd) is a unit used for measuring engine displacement: 1 egd equals ⅙ val, that is ~0.10416667 L (~104.16667 cc). -->
 
====Temperature====
Temperature measuring in the Chlouvānem world uses the ''Jahārāṭha'' scale (shortened '''ºj'''; named after scientist Ṣastirāvi Jahārāṭha ''Nukthalin''), which is fixed with a zero degree at water freezing temperature at sea level. 100 ºj is the rough boiling temperature of water, but, being a duodecimal scale, it is 100<sub>12</sub> (144<sub>10</sub>), thus 1 ºj equals 25/36 of a degree Celsius, or 1 ºC = 1.44 ºj.<br/>The median body temperature of a Calemerian human (which is slightly lower than for terrestrial humans) is of 41 ºj <small>(49<sub>10</sub>)</small>, thus  ~34.0278 ºC.
 
====Time====
→ ''See also: [[Chlouvānem/Calendar_and_time#The_Chlouvānem_calendar|Chlouvānem Calendar and time § the Chlouvānem calendar]]
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
|-
! English !! Chlouvānem !! Equivalent to !! rough Earthly approximation
|-
! Year
| heirah || 418 Calemerian days || 609.6 Earth days
|-
! Day
| lairē || 28<sub>12</sub> (32<sub>10</sub>) hours || ~35 hours
|-
! Hour
| garaṇa || 3 hælmāmyai<br/>60<sub>12</sub> (72<sub>10</sub>) railai || ~65 min ~37 sec
|-
! <small>''group of "minutes"''</small>
| hælmāmya || 20<sub>12</sub> (24<sub>10</sub>) railai || ~21 min ~52 sec
|-
! "Minute"
| raila || ''(base unit)''  || ~54.6805 sec
|-
! "Second"
| namišoe || 1/40<sub>12</sub> (1/48<sub>10</sub>) raila  || ~1.8986 sec
|-
! <small>1/12 of a "second"</small>
| (namišeni) māmendvāṭ || 1/10<sub>12</sub> (1/12<sub>10</sub>) namišoe || ~0.1582 sec
|-
! <small>1/144 of a "second"</small>
| (namišeni) nihælendvāṭ || 1/100<sub>12</sub> (1/144<sub>10</sub>) namišoe || ~0.0131 sec
|-
! <small>1/1728 of a "second"</small>
| (namišeni) tildhaindvāṭ || 1/1000<sub>12</sub> (1/1728<sub>10</sub>) namišoe || ~1.0987 ms
|}
 
====Other units====
{| class="redtable lightredbg"
|-
! !! Chlouvānem !! Symbol !! rough Earthly approximation
|-
! frequency
| lūnaji || lnj || ~0.526704 Hz
|-
! voltage
| chulgān || chg || 1 V
|}
 
==Particles (''remīk'')==
Traditional Chlouvānem grammar only recognizes a single part of speech called "particles" (''remīn'', literally "helper(s)") which includes conjunctions, postpositions, and interjections. However, these three are recognized as subsets of particles - here translated as "conjunctive particles" (''natemālāhai remīn''), "accompanying particles", i.e. postpositions (''ūtimāhai remīn''), and "exclamatory particles" (''pigdilanah nali remīn'').
 
Many Chlouvānem particles are grammaticalized usages of other words, some of them no longer being used in their original meaning in contemporary use (e.g. ''varve'').
 
===Conjunctive particles===
Conjunctive particles may not stand syntactically alone and, with a few exceptions, don't require any particular case of a noun. Most of them function, or are also used, as conjunctions between sentences.
 
* '''jahān''' — anyway (conjunction or second position adverb)
* '''lai''' — inclusive or
* '''las''' — and (in incomplete listings, cf. ''no'' and ''sama''); it follows the noun it refers to, and in listings with more than two nouns it follows every noun except for the first. Not used to conjoin sentences.
* '''lenta''' — "together (with)", adverbial or postpositive, requiring genitive case in the latter usage. When pospositive, it is more emphatic than ''lā''. Adverbially, ''gimmālsiṭ'' is more common.
* '''mailiven''' — so, thus, therefore (grammaticalized use of <small>go_forward.UNIDIR.PRES.IND.EXP.3SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR.</small>)
* '''mbu''' — exclusive or
* '''mešē''' — given that (grammaticalized use of <small>see.PRES.IND-EXP-3SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR.</small>)
* '''najelai''' — maybe. Originally the archaic potential form of ''najalle'' (to happen). Sentence-final, requires a verb in the subjunctive mood, e.g. ''yahatite najelai'' "maybe I'll read it".
* '''nānim''' — almost; if used with nouns, requires essive case.
* '''ni''' — but (in second position)
* '''no''' — and (in complete listings, cf. ''las''); same placement as ''las''. Also used to conjoin sentences, but ''sama'' is preferred, especially when there are different subjects (triggered arguments).
* '''nyąu''' — because, for, as (cf. ''tī''); ''amyąu'' in the Classical era, i.e. the ablative of the former demonstrative ''ami''.
:: Used sentence-finally: ''aganą lā įstyāk nyąu yųlake pañcekte'' "as (s)he was hungry, (s)he started eating." In lone sentences, e.g. answers, ''tī'' is preferred: ''aganą lā tī įstyāk'' "because (s)he was hungry."
* '''paṣe''' — furthermore
* '''pū''' — if (and '''pūmbu''' "whether") - see [[Chlouvānem/Syntax#Conditional_sentences|Chlouvānem syntax § Conditional sentences]]
* '''sama''' ('''sam''' before vowels) — and (between sentences only, cf. ''las'' and ''no'')
* '''širē''' — also, too (only between sentences, cf. ''tan''). A different use of the adverb meaning "more".
* '''tadye''' — despite that (between sentences), cf. ''tatta''.
* '''tan''' — also, too; used adverbially and between sentences (where, however, ''širē'' is more common).
* '''tatta''' — despite, even though; requires a noun in the essive case or a subjunctive verb (e.g. ''gu talunīs ša tatta dadrā'' "even though you didn't come, it has been done."). Colloquially, it is also used anaphorically, instead of ''tadye''; however, it is considered bad style in formal language.
* '''varve''' — instead of; requires genitive case or subjunctive mood. Originally the locative singular of ''varva'' "form", no longer used in contemporary Chlouvānem.
** '''samvarve''' — on the other hand, whereas
* '''vivāmi''' — "too much", adverbial or postpositive, requiring genitive case in the latter usage.
* '''væse''' — while, in the meantime; "during (the)" with nouns. Requires a verb in the subjunctive mood or a noun in the essive (or, meaning-dependant, exessive or translative) case.
 
===Accompanying particles (i.e. postpositions)===
These particles can never stand alone, do not conjoin sentences, and nearly always require a particular noun case.
 
* '''bīs''' — between; from ... until, in expressions of time. Comes after both nouns in essive case: ''šurājęs nyūramyęs bīs'' "between [[Contionary:šurājah|Šurājah]] and [[Contionary:nyūramyah|Nyūramyah]]".
* '''bisikita''' — except for; requires subjunctive mood or essive case. Grammaticalized usage of <small>put_aside-EXP-IND.PERF.3.PATIENT.EXTERIOR</small>. (e.g. ''nītedarāhai lailąs bisikita nalunya upulsma'' "entrance is forbidden, except for involved people" → "authorized personnel only")
* '''dam''' — interrogative particle in polar questions, put after the verb (e.g. ''daltah vi dam?'' "is it a fish?")
* '''e''' — like. Requires essive case with nouns and subjunctive mood with verbs.
* '''ga''' — adpositive particle, used to join nouns in noun phrases (usually titles or proper names, but not honorifics), e.g. ''Līlasuṃghāṇa ga marta'' "Līlasuṃghāṇa city" or ''Tāllahārya ga maita'' "Tāllahārya river".
*: Mostly in poetry (for metrical reasons), or Archaic and Early Classical Chlouvānem prose (e.g. in the Lileṃsasarum, or many Yunyalīlti holy books), ''ga'' is used to conjoin attributive verbs to nouns, e.g. ''lei imiša ga švas'' "the animal seen by me". Already in parts of the Lileṃsasarum the decading usage of the particle in this sense is to be noted, as often it is only used to conjoin exterior verbs to nouns, but not interior ones.
* '''gu(n) ~ ša''' — negative circumposition used around verbs, e.g. ''gu yuyųlsegde ša'' "(s)he does not want to eat". The first element is ''gun'' before vowels; the ''ša'' element is omitted if the verb is attributive.
* '''lā''' — with (comitative); requires essive case (e.g. ''lilyą ñæltęs lā'' "with my sister"). The Archaic Chlouvānem form was ''lapi''.
* '''lut''' — used with expressions of time: means "ago" if used with ablative case (''nęlcų heirų lut'' "four years ago"), "for/since" if with essive case (''nęlcą heiręs lut'' "for four years").
* '''mei''' and '''go''' — "yes" and "no", used according to the polarity of the question; i.e. ''mei'' denotes the statement is true ("yes" to affirmative questions, "no" to negative questions), while ''go'' denotes the statement is false ("no" to affirmative questions, "yes" to negative questions).
* '''mæn''' — [[Chlouvānem/Syntax#Use of the topic|marks a topic which otherwise has no role in the sentence]].
* '''nali''' — benefactive marker, used with a noun in direct case; marks the benefited argument when the verb is not in benefactive-trigger voice. If used with a subjunctive verb, means "in order to", with a nuance of hope (the bare subjunctive already carries the "in order to" meaning).
* '''nin''' — after, with ablative or subjunctive (''nęlcų heirų nin'' "after four years")
* '''pa''' — on, of, concerning, on the subject of, about. Requires a direct case noun (e.g. ''vāṇatarlā pa naviṣya'' "book about botany") or a subjunctive mood verb (e.g. ''šūñjulā drētte pa nīdhāḍirdya'' "the two of us are talking about what (s)he did down there").
* '''ras''' — antibenefactive marker, used with a noun in direct case; marks the anti-benefited argument when the verb is not in antibenefactive-trigger voice. If used with a subjunctive verb, means "to avoid X".
* '''sām''' — different meanings depending on case:
:: ablative, in expressions of time: "in ... time" (at the end of a certain period), or "by": ''nęlcų heirų sām'' "in four years' time, four years for now"; ''šurājų sām'' "by [[Contionary:šurājah|Šurājah]]";
:: translative (rarely essive), in expressions of time: "in/for/until" (within, during a certain period): ''nęltin heiran sām'' "for the coming four years" (or ''nęlcą heiręs sām''); ''ājvan sām'' "until dawn";
:: dative case, with places: "until, as far as": ''līlasuṃghāṇa ṣrāvamaila ga keikom sām'' "as far as Līlasuṃghāṇa Ṣrāvamaila Station")
:: subjunctive verb: "until": ''primęlirī sām'' "until he/she/it comes back".
* '''šut''' — before, with ablative or subjunctive (''nęlcų heirų šut'' "four years before").
* '''vādį''' — without, with essive or subjunctive. Unlike English, it cannot be used anaphorically.
 
===Correlative particles===
Chlouvānem does not have correlative conjunctions as English does, because they are translated in different ways:
* English "both... and..." is most commonly translated as ''X Y no tan'' ("X, and also Y"), e.g. ''jādāh lañekaica no tan nanau draikate'' "both Jādāh and Lañekaica did that".
*: Alternatively, the forms ''X Y no peiṃsiṭ'' ("X, and the same for Y") or ''X ..., Y peiṃsiṭ'' ("X ..., and Y the same") are also widespread, e.g. ''jādāh lañekaica no peiṃsiṭ nanau draikate''; ''nāneh lei uyųla, māra peiṃsiṭ'' "I have eaten both the bread and the mango".
* English "neither... nor..." is translated by the same structures as "both... and...", but negative. In the most common usage, ''tan'' is omitted:
*: ''jādāh lañekaica no (tan) nanau gu draikate ša'' "neither Jādāh nor Lañekaica did that"; ''nāneh lei gun uyųla ša, māra peiṃsiṭ'' "I have eaten neither the bread nor the mango".
* "either... or..." is easily translated by the exclusive or (''mbu''). It is commonly only used after the second term, but it can be put after every term for emphasis:
*: ''jādāh (mbu) lañekaica mbu nanau dṛkte'' – either Jādah or Lañekaica did it. (note the singular verb)


===Emphatic particles===
===Emphatic particles===
A few particles are used (usually sentence-finally) in order to convey particular feelings of the speaker about the statement:
A few particles are used (usually sentence-finally) in order to convey particular feelings of the speaker about the statement:
* '''å''' expresses either surprise (at the beginning of a sentence) or that the fact is considered annoying (at the end), e.g. ''å viṣęe dadrānilь'' "wow, (s)he's done it again!" / ''viṣęe dadrānilь å'' "oh no, (s)he's done it again!"
* '''anā''' is an introductory particle (e.g. "so")
* '''å''' expresses either surprise (at the beginning of a sentence) or that the fact is considered annoying (at the end), e.g. ''å vikṣiṭ dadrāte'' "wow, (s)he's done it again!" / ''vikṣiṭ dadrā å'' "oh no, (s)he's done it again!"
* '''dā''' gives the sentence, especially a command or a proposition, an informal tone - cf. German "mal" or Italian "un po'", e.g. ''najire nanau mešute dā'' "I'll just see what happens"; ''peithos dā'' "just calm down and take a walk around here."
* '''e''' is a basic declarative particle when used word-finally, and is often used as an introduction (much like "you know, ...") or as a generic filler.
* '''e''' is a basic declarative particle when used word-finally, and is often used as an introduction (much like "you know, ...") or as a generic filler.
* '''nane''' is a tag question, e.g. ''camiyūs vali dam nane?'' "you're from Cami, aren't you?"
* '''eri''' means "even", marking a positive emphasis (e.g. ''hūnakumi dhāḍan eri dhāḍire'' "(s)he even speaks Hūnakumi<ref>Language of an ethnic minority (but titular ethnicity) in the diocese of Hūnakañjaiṭa.</ref>")
* '''noihā''' is a tag question much like ''nane'', but is used when the speaker is in doubt and/or expects a contradictory answer, e.g. ''flære draunilьet dam noihā?'' "did I do it yesterday, or...?"
* '''gāri''' means "not even", being the opposite of ''eri'', marking a negative emphasis (e.g. ''hulābdān chlǣvānumi dhāḍan gāri dhāḍire'' "(s)he doesn't even speak correct Chlouvānem")
* '''sāṭ''' expresses the speaker's doubt about the honesty of the expressed action, e.g. ''tamie tamiu draukæ sāṭ'' "(s)he did it for me, but I don't believe that's what (s)he really wanted" or "as if (s)he really did it for me!"
* '''nā''', a generic filler (cf. "I mean"), often combined with ''e''. e.g. ''nā (e) nenēt nāṭ tarliru!'' "I mean, I already know this!"
* '''tau''' emphasizes that the fact expressed is considered obvious, and is fairly colloquial, e.g. ''lārvājuṣe mos tau'' "huh, I was at the temple, nothing else"; ''kitui vasau tau'' "I drove home [what else could I do?]"
* '''nane''' is a tag question, e.g. ''camiyūs vi dam nane?'' "you're from Cami, aren't you?"
* '''tva''' puts strong emphasis on a declarative sentence; it is fairly colloquial and not polite, and thus avoided in formal speech, e.g. ''nenėyu daudiunilь tati ukulaṃnilь tva!'' "damn, I said I want that, shut up!"
* '''nimā''' is an introductory particle, same as ''anā''.
* '''naihā''' is a tag question much like ''nane'', but is used when the speaker is in doubt and/or expects a contradictory answer, e.g. ''lære draute dam naihā?'' "did I do it yesterday, or...?"
* '''pos''' is a filler with a meaning similar to ''tau'', but it is more properly translated as emphasizing that the speaker considers the statement as a general truth or a widely accepted thing, e.g. ''ālīce jeldegde pos'' "yeah, everybody knows (s)he acts that way/does that kind of things."
* '''sāṭ''' expresses the speaker's doubt about the honesty of the expressed action, e.g. ''tamye tamyu draukæ sāṭ'' "(s)he did it for me, but I don't believe that's what (s)he really wanted" or "as if (s)he really did it for me!"
* '''tau''' emphasizes that the fact expressed is considered obvious, and is fairly colloquial, e.g. ''lārvājuṣe ēk tau'' "huh, I was at the temple, nothing else"; ''kitui vasau tau'' "I drove home [what else could I do?]"
* '''tva''' puts strong emphasis on a declarative sentence; it is fairly colloquial and not polite, and thus avoided in formal speech, e.g. ''nenēyu daudyute tati ukulaṃte tva!'' "damn, I said I want that, shut up!"


==Derivational morphology - Vāmbeithauseh maivāndarāmita==
==Derivational morphology (''vāmbeithausire maivāndarāmita'')==
Chlouvānem has an extensive system of derivational morphology, with many possibilities of deriving words from verbal roots and even from other nouns.
Chlouvānem has an extensive system of derivational morphology, with many possibilities of deriving words from verbal roots and even from other nouns.
===Compounds===
Chlouvānem, like Sanskrit, has four main types of compound words (''tadmaiva'', pl. ''tadmaivai''), called in Chlouvānem grammar ''emibądanīs'' (dvandva), ''ṭvādaradhausire tadmaiva'' (avyayībhāva), ''nīdhvakādhūs'' (tatpuruṣa), and ''kaudhvakādhūs'' (bahuvrīhi).
====Dvandva (''emibądanīs'')====
The first type of compounds is ''emibądanīs'' type (also called ''no ga tadmaiva''), corresponding to dvandva compounds. In ''emibądanais'', all words in the compound are taken with the concrete idea they represent. As hinted to by the alternative name, these compounds effectively substitute an "X Y no" (X and Y), compressing it into a single word.
: ''tēneh ukyā no'' "a branch and a trunk" → ''tēnayukyāt'' "branch and trunk"
Dvandva compounds are formed by removing the direct case ''-s'' or ''-h'' marker from the word, lengthening all resulting final vowels (i.e. for all words not ending in ''-oe, -ai, -m'', or ''-n''), and joining with saṃdhi the second word; the second word is then inflected in the dual (if the word semantically refers to two things) or in the plural (if it refers to three or more things - see the next example).
: ''tēneh nūlyai no'' "a branch and leaves" → ''tēnēnūlyai'' "branch(es) and leaves"
Note that, if the dvandva is plural, there is no indication of how many elements of each component are present:
: ''lalāruṇāt voltām no'' "two lalāruṇai (<small>DU</small>) and a sheep (<small>SG</small>)" → ''lalāruṇāvoltāk'' "lalāruṇai and sheep" (<small>PL</small>)
: ''lalāruṇai voltām no'' "lalāruṇai (<small>PL</small>) and a sheep (<small>SG</small>)" → ''lalāruṇāvoltāk'' "lalāruṇai and sheep" (<small>PL</small>)
: ''lalāruṇa voltāk no'' "a lalāruṇa (<small>SG</small>) and sheep (<small>PL</small>)" → ''lalāruṇāvoltāk'' "lalāruṇai and sheep" (<small>PL</small>)
The identification of how many individual lalāruṇai and sheep is lost in the compound, however, we know from the plural number that there must be at least three animals; otherwise, the dvandva would be dual:
: ''lalāruṇa voltām no'' "a lalāruṇa (<small>SG</small>) and a sheep (<small>SG</small>)" → ''lalāruṇāvoltīvā'' "lalāruṇai and sheep" (<small>DU</small>)
Dvandva made of three or more elements can, obviously, only be plural:
: ''lalāruṇa voltām no jorai no'' "a lalāruṇa, a sheep, and a goat" → ''lalāruṇāvoltāñjorāye'' "lalārunai, sheep, and goats"
In the most formal registers of Chlouvānem, it is not uncommon to find dvandva compounds made of several elements:
: ''lācāh kraṣṭāmita no lillāmita no demigretas no lelyēmita no'' "love, fidelity, devotion, sacrifice, and family" → ''lācākraṣṭāmitālillāmitādemigretālelyēmitai'' "love, fidelity, devotion, sacrifice, and family"


===Nouns===
====Avyayībhāva (''ṭvādaradhausire tadmaiva'')====
Avyayībhāva compounds, in Chlouvānem ''ṭvādaradhausirāhe tadmaivai'' ("adverbial compounds"), are not as productive as the other types and, in fact, except for a few words they're mostly limited to Archaic and Classical Chlouvānem; despite being based on the latter, modern Chlouvānem does not use them productively (but see ''nīpenai'' below).<br/>These compounds generally have a first element which is a particle (or a verbal prefix), and the second element is a noun which is either left uninflected in the direct singular or, more commonly, in the two Archaic Chlouvānem adverbializing cases: the instrumental plural or the locative singular.
: ''sam + jildas'' "after + act" → *sañjildas → ''sañjilde'' "consequently"
: ''naš(e) + sṝva'' "full, complete + extent" → *nakṣṝva → ''nakṣṝve'' "as much as possible"
: ''væse + vāyam'' "while + image, form" → ''væsvāyam'' or ''væsvāyaṃrīka'' "thus, therefore"
: ''paṣ(e) + vāyam'' "beyond + image, form" → ''paṣvāyam'' "in addition, furthermore"
: ''maibu + jallas'' "enough + condition" → *maibujallas → ''maibujalle'' "as needed"
: ''nī'' + ''penai'' "within + net" → ''nīpenai'' "online" (generally considered the only modern Chlouvānem avyayībhāva)
 
A particular kind of avyayībhāva is the ''-ṣati'' class, whose particularity derives from having a first element which is a declinable word (a possessive determiner); however, they're still adverbs and therefore uninflected:
: ''lilyā ṣati'' "my way" → ''lilyāṣati'' "from my point of view; in my opinion; my way"
: ''sāmyā ṣati'' "your way" → ''sāmyāṣati'' "from your point of view; in your opinion; your way"
 
====Tatpuruṣa (''nīdhvakādhūs'')====
Tatpuruṣa compounds (''nīdhvakādhūs'' "with meaning inside", pl. ''nīdhvakādhaus'') are likely the most common overall in Chlouvānem, and are the preferred way of crafting new words. These are endocentric compounds, the last element, the head of the compound, is modified by the previous element(s), which can be of any part of speech. Usually, the tatpuruṣa replaces genitive "X of Y", agentive "X which does Y", benefactive "X for Y", locative "X in Y", instrumental "X with Y", or sometimes copular structures "X which is (also) Y" (corresponding to Sanskrit karmadhāraya compounds) or "X made of Y".<br/>
The determining elements are generally uninflected.
: ''vāṇumi tarlā'' "study of plants" → ''vāṇatarlā'' "botany"
: ''vāṇatarlom kaminairīveyē lila'' "a person studying botany" (semantic agent) → ''vāṇatarlālila'' "botanist"
: ''mordhē cūlla'' "carriage that flies" → ''mordhacūlla'' "airplane"
: ''aṣṭre nali hatsunā'' "brush for teeth" → ''aṣṭṛhatsunā'' "toothbrush"
: ''nanāye līlta'' "path in the jungle" → ''nanailīlta'' "jungle path"
: ''nijogāp konanah'' "shooting with bow" → ''nijogākonanah'' "archery"
: ''munnęs ḍūṇā'' "a telephone which is a computer" → ''munnaḍūṇā'' "smartphone"
: ''javilenīs mayābi'' "wine made from apples" → ''javilmayābi'' "cider"
 
====Bahuvrīhi (''kaudhvakādhūs'')====
Bahuvrīhi compounds (''kaudhvakādhūs'' "with meaning outside", pl. ''kaudhvakādhaus'') are also quite common Chlouvānem words; they are exocentric compounds where none of the elements is the head of the compound, or, all elements are qualifiers. They replace structures like "[someone/something] with X which is/are Y" or "[sm/st] whose X is/are Y"; it could even be generalized to "[sm/st] whose [tatpuruṣa compound]":
: ''murkire dhānęs lā lila'' "person with black hands" → ''murkadhāna'' "Inquisitor"
: ''yųlgis nali javyęs lā dvārma'' "room with fire for food" → ''yųljavyāh'' "kitchen"<ref>Synchronically, this analysis is correct; however, this word was likely first crafted as a tatpuruṣa, i.e. "a fire for food" (''yųlgis nali javyāh''), before kitchens were rooms.</ref>
 
===Noun-forming morphemes===
'''-a''' (unstressed) or '''-ā''' (stressed) is a common derivative to make basic words from verbal roots. It does not have any fixed meaning, though it's always pretty close to the root. Nouns with the unstressed suffix and an ablautable vowel usually belong to the ablauting declension. '''ṛ''' in a root is always strengthened to middle-grade.<br/>
'''-a''' (unstressed) or '''-ā''' (stressed) is a common derivative to make basic words from verbal roots. It does not have any fixed meaning, though it's always pretty close to the root. Nouns with the unstressed suffix and an ablautable vowel usually belong to the ablauting declension. '''ṛ''' in a root is always strengthened to middle-grade.<br/>
* ''dṛ'' (to do, to make) → ''dara'' (activity)<br/>
* ''dṛ'' (to do, to make) → ''dara'' (activity)<br/>
* ''lil'' (to live) → ''lila'' (person; living thing)<br/>
* ''lil'' (to live) → ''lila'' (person; living thing)<br/>
* ''tṛl'' (to know) → ''tarlā'' (science)
* ''tṛl'' (to know) → ''tarlā'' (science)


'''-as''' is another common derivative, without fixed meaning, but usually denoting objects or things done by acting. It is used to derive positions from positional verbs.<br/>
'''-as''' is another common derivative, without fixed meaning, but usually denoting objects or things done by acting. It is used to derive positions from positional verbs.<br/>
* ''tug'' (to beat) → ''tugas'' (beat)<br/>
* ''tug'' (to beat) → ''tugas'' (beat)<br/>
* ''jlitiā (jlitim-)''  (be to the right of) → ''jlitimas'' (right)<br/>
* ''māhatyā (māhatim-)''  (be to the right of) → ''māhatimas'' (right)<br/>
* ''āntiā (āntim-)'' (be above, be on) → ''āntimas'' (part above)
* ''āntyā (āntim-)'' (be above, be on) → ''āntimas'' (part above)


'''-ūm''' is another derivative without fixed meaning, overlapping with ''-as''.<br/>
'''-ūm''' is another derivative without fixed meaning, overlapping with ''-as''.
* ''lgut'' (to buy) → ''lgutūm'' (something bought)<br/>
* ''lgut'' (to buy) → ''lgutūm'' (something bought)
* ''peith'' (to go, walk (multidirectional)) → ''peithūm'' (walk)<br/>
* ''peith'' (to go, walk (multidirectional)) → ''peithūm'' (walk)
* ''yālv'' (to be sweet (taste)) → ''yālvūm'' (sweet taste)
* ''yālv'' (to be sweet (taste)) → ''yālvūm'' (sweet taste)


'''-laukas''' is a singulative suffix, denoting either a single thing of a collective noun, or a single constituent of a broader act. Unlike the previous ones, it is most commonly applied to other nouns.<br/>
'''-(u)kāram''' is a singulative suffix, denoting either a single thing of a collective noun, or a single constituent of a broader act. Unlike the previous ones, it is most commonly applied to other nouns.<br/>In modern coinings, it is also used to denote a division of something.
* ''flun'' (to go, walk (monodirectional)) → ''fluṃlaukas'' (step)<br/>
* ''lun'' (to go, walk (monodirectional)) → ''lulkāram'' (step)
* ''lil'' (to live) (or ''liloe'' (life)) → ''lillaukas'' (moment, instant)<br/>
* ''lil'' (to live) (or ''liloe'' (life)) → ''lilukāram'' (moment, instant)
* ''daša'' (rain) → ''dašilaukas'' (raindrop)
* ''daša'' (rain) → ''dašukāram'' (raindrop)
* ''araṣa'' (atom) → ''araṣkāram'' (subatomic particle)


'''-anah''', with middle-grade ablaut if possible, denotes an act or process, or something closely related to that.<br/>
'''-anah''', with middle-grade ablaut if possible, denotes an act or process, or something closely related to that.<br/>
* ''dig'' (to pour) → ''deganah'' ((act of) pouring)<br/>
* ''dig'' (to pour) → ''deganah'' ((act of) pouring)<br/>
* ''miš'' (to see) → ''mešanah'' (sight)<br/>
* ''miš'' (to see) → ''mešanah'' (sight)<br/>
* ''lgut'' (to buy) → ''lgotanah'' (shopping)
* ''lgut'' (to buy) → ''lgotanah'' (shopping)


'''-yāva''' with lengthening denotes a quality.<br/>
'''-na''' ('''-ra''' after ''t'' or ''d''; '''-iyāna''' after ''Cy'', '''-uvāna''' after ''Cv'') with lengthening denotes a quality.<br/>
* ''māl'' (to keep together) → ''mālyāva'' (union)<br/>
* ''māl'' (to keep together) → ''mālna'' (union)<br/>
* ''hælvė'' (fruit) → ''šaulvyāva'' (fertility) (morphemically //hьaulvyava//)<br/>
* ''hælvē'' (fruit) → ''šaulviyāna'' (fertility) (morphemically //hyaulviyāna//)<br/>
* ''blut'' (to clean) → ''blūtyāva'' (cleanliness)
* ''åbdv'' (to swell, blow up) → ''åbduvāna'' (swollenness, bloatiness)
* Lengthening is absent if the word is derived from an adjective (e.g. ''chlærausis'' (easy) → ''chlærausyāva'' (easiness)) and in a few exceptions (e.g. ''lalla'' (high) → ''lalliyāva'' (highness, superiority)). ''taugyāva'' (life) has ''au'' because it's derived from ''taugikā'' (heart) and not the bare root ''tug'' (to beat).
* ''blut'' (to clean) → ''blūtra'' (cleanliness)
* Inverse-ablaut roots have the reduced vowel as a prefix, much like in causative verbs (e.g. ''vald'' (to (be) open) → ''uvaldyāva'' (opening, state of being open)).
* Lengthening is absent if the word is derived from an ''-aus-'' adjectival verb (e.g. ''chlæraus-'' ((to be) easy) → ''chlærausna'' (easiness)) and in a few exceptions.
* Inverse-ablaut roots have the reduced vowel as a prefix (e.g. ''vald'' (to (be) open) → ''uvaldra'' (opening, state of being open)).


'''-išam''' has the same meaning as ''-yāva'', but it's rarer.<br/>
'''-išam''' has the same meaning as ''-na'', but it's rarer.<br/>
* ''yųlniltas'' (edible) → ''yųlniltešam'' (edibility)<br/>
* ''yųlniltas'' (edible) → ''yųlniltešam'' (edibility)
*  ''yālv'' (to be sweet (taste)) → ''yālvišam'' (sweetness)<br/>
* ''yālv'' (to be sweet (taste)) → ''yālvišam'' (sweetness)
* ''ñailūh'' (ice) → ''ñailuišam'' (coldness)
* ''ñailūh'' (ice) → ''ñailūvišam'' (coldness)
* ''nevy'' (to model, to give a form) → ''nevīšam'' (plastic) (This word underwent a meaning shift from "modellability" to a common material with that quality, replacing the derived form ''nevīšandhūs'' previously used. "Modellability" is ''nyaviyāna'' in contemporary Chlouvānem.)


'''-āmita''', often with high-grade ablaut, is another suffix forming quality nouns, but it is often more abstract, being translatable with suffixes like English ''-ism''.<br/>
'''-āmita''' (''-yāmita'' when used with nouns with thematic ''e'' or ''i''), often with high-grade ablaut, is another suffix forming quality nouns, but it is often more abstract, being translatable with suffixes like English ''-ism''.<br/>
* ''çuliė'' (friend (female)) → ''çuliāmita'' (friendship)<br/>
* ''lalteh'' (friend (female)) → ''laltyāmita'' (friendship)<br/>
*  ''ėmīla'' (tiger) → ''ėmīlāmita'' (nobility (quality); most important people in society<ref>Chlouvānem society lacked a true noble class; this term applies to the most influential people in society. Tigers are considered among the noblest animals.</ref>)<br/>
* ''ēmīla'' (tiger) → ''ēmīlāmita'' (nobility (quality); most important people in society<ref>Chlouvānem society lacked a true noble class; this term applies to the most influential people in society. Tigers are considered among the noblest animals.</ref>)<br/>
*  ''ñæltah'' (sister (for a male)) → ''ñæltāmita'' (brotherhood)
* ''ñæltah'' (sister (male's)) → ''ñæltāmita'' (brotherhood)


'''-endān''' (''-indān'' after voiced stops, and ''-innān'' after '''d'''), with middle-grade ablaut, has various generic and sometimes unpredictable meanings.<br/>
'''-tsām''' ('''-utsām''' after ''ñ, š'', and voiced stops except ''d(h)''), with middle-grade ablaut, has various generic and sometimes unpredictable meanings, though typically instrumental.
*  ''māl'' (to keep together) → ''mālendān'' (number)<br/>
* ''māl'' (to keep together) → ''māltsām'' (number)
*  ''lij'' (to sing) → ''lejindān'' (choir)<br/>
* ''lij'' (to sing) → ''lejutsām'' (choir)
*  ''dæld'' (to speak) → ''dældinnān'' (voice)
* ''dhāḍ'' (to speak) → ''dhāḍutsām'' (voice)
* ''kul'' (to say) → ''kultsām'' (word) (irregular lack of middle-grade ablaut)


'''-rṣūs''' (''-ṛṣūs'' after a consonant) denotes a tool, namely something used in doing an action.<br/>
'''-rṣūs''' (''-ṛṣūs'' after a consonant) denotes a tool, namely something used in doing an action.
* ''yaud'' (to catch) → ''yaudṛṣūs'' (trap)<br/>
* ''yaud-'' (to catch) → ''yaudṛṣūs'' (trap)
* ''miš'' (to see) → ''meširṣūs'' (eye <small>''(literary, rare)''</small>)<ref>Middle-grade ablaut is specific to this root.</ref><br/>
* ''miš-'' (to see) → ''meširṣūs'' (eye <small>''(literary, rare)''</small>)<ref>Middle-grade ablaut is specific to this root.</ref>
* ''hær'' (to kiss) → ''hærṣūs'' (lips (pair of))<br/>
* ''nail-'' (to kiss) → ''nailṛṣūs'' (lips (pair of))


'''-gis''' denotes something used ''for'' doing an action, not always synonymous with ''-rṣūs''. ''-t-gis'' becomes ''-ñjis''.<br/>
'''-gis''' denotes something used ''for'' doing an action, not always synonymous with ''-rṣūs''. ''-t-gis'' becomes ''-ñjis''.
*  ''mešīn'' (eye) → ''mešīlgis'' (glasses (pair of))<br/>
* ''mešīn'' (eye) → ''mešīlgis'' (glasses (pair of))
*  ''tug'' (to beat) → ''tulgis'' (drumstick)<br/>
* ''tug-'' (to beat) → ''tulgis'' (drumstick)
*  ''lgut'' (to buy) → ''lguñjis'' (money, currency)
* ''lgut-'' (to buy) → ''lguñjis'' (money, currency)


'''-oe''' (with middle-grade ablaut) often denotes a result, but has lots of various meanings.<br/>
'''-oe''' (with middle-grade ablaut) often denotes a result, but has lots of various meanings.
*  ''hal'' (to call) → ''haloe'' (name, noun)<br/>
* ''hal-'' (to call) → ''haloe'' (name, noun)
*  ''peith'' (to go, walk (multidirectional)) → ''peithoe'' (development; the way something is carried out)<br/>
* ''mbiṇḍh-'' (to go, walk (multidirectional)) → ''mbiṇḍhoe'' (development; the way something is carried out)
* ''yųl'' (to eat) → ''yąloe'' (meal)
* ''yųl-'' (to eat) → ''yąloe'' (meal)


'''-īn''' plus middle grade-ablaut denotes a doer (roughly equivalent to English ''-er''); usually it is a person, but not always.<br/>
'''-īn''' plus middle grade-ablaut denotes a doer (roughly equivalent to English ''-er''); usually it is a person, but not always.
* ''bhi'' (to take care of; to care for) → ''bhayīn'' (someone who takes care; guardian)<br/>
* ''bhi-'' (to take care of; to care for) → ''bhayīn'' (someone who takes care; guardian)
* ''tug'' (to beat) → ''togīn'' (heart)<br/>
* ''tug-'' (to beat) → ''togīn'' (heart)
*  ''lgut'' (to buy) → ''lgotīn'' (buyer)
* ''lgut-'' (to buy) → ''lgotīn'' (buyer)


'''-āvi''' denotes something derived from X. It is also used in forming matronymics.<br/>
'''-āršis''' is a mostly non-productive agentive suffix like ''-īn'', surviving in a few ancient forms as well as some colloquial pejoratives:
*  ''lameṣa'' (coconut palm) → ''laṃṣāvi'' (coconut)<br/>
* ''lęk-'' (to measure) → ''lękāršis'' (surveyor, inspector)
*  ''mešanah'' (sight) → ''mešanąvi'' (knowledge)<br/>
* ''dhīl-'' (to be idle) → ''dhīlāršis'' (lazy ass (pejor.))
* ''yųl'' (to eat) → ''yųlāvi'' (strength <small>''(literary, rare)''</small>)
* ''ēreša'' (teardrop) → ''ērešāršis'' (crybaby (pejor.))


'''-āmis''', with lengthening, means "made of X".<br/>
'''-āvi''' denotes something derived from X. It is also used in forming matronymics.
* ''tāmira'' (rock, stone) → ''tāmirāmis'' (stone tool)<br/>
* ''lameṣa'' (coconut palm) → ''laṃṣāvi'' (coconut)
*  ''tarlā'' (knowledge, science) → ''tārlāmis'' (wisdom)<br/>
* ''mešanah'' (sight) ''mešanąvi'' (knowledge)
*  ''lil'' (to live) → ''līlāmis'' (a blissful place)
* ''yųl-'' (to eat) → ''yųlāvi'' (strength <small>''(literary, rare)''</small>)
* Words ending in a final long vowel (plus either ''h'', ''s'', or ''m'') do not lengthen any vowel in a previous syllable (e.g. ''ñariāh'' (mountain) → ''ñariāmis'' (mountainous area)).
* It is also used with surnames of writers, usually as a plurale tantum, in order to derive words meaning "the works of...", e.g. ''yukahināryāvi'' "the works of Lileikhurāvi Yukahināri ''Mæmihūmya''".


'''-ikā''' has various meanings, often somewhat abstract, intensive, or related to highly valued things/roles.<br/>
'''-āmis''', with lengthening, means "made of X".
*  ''daša'' (rain) → ''dāšikā'' (monsoon) (irregular lengthening)<br/>
* ''tāmira'' (rock, stone) → ''tāmirāmis'' (stone tool)
*  ''hær'' (to kiss) → ''hærikā'' (love <small>''(literary, rare)''</small>)<br/>
* ''tarlā'' (knowledge, science) → ''tārlāmis'' (wisdom)
''lalāruṇa'' (giant domestic lizard) → ''lalārauṇikā'' (knight mounting a ''lalāruṇa'')
* ''lil-'' (to live) → ''līlāmis'' (a blissful place)
* Words ending in a final long vowel (plus either ''h'', ''s'', or ''m'') do not lengthen any vowel in a previous syllable (e.g. ''ñaryāh'' (mountain) → ''ñaryāmis'' (mountainous area)).


'''-dhūs''' means "having X".<br/>
'''-ūneh''' ('''-īneh''' after stems in -Cy-, '''-ēneh''' for nouns in ''-ē''), with middle grade ablaut (rarely strong grade), has various meanings, often somewhat abstract, intensive, or related to highly valued things/roles.
*  ''dara'' (activity) → ''daradhūs'' (verb)<br/>
* ''daša'' (rain) → ''dašūneh'' (monsoon)
*  ''šaṇṭrās'' (field, soil) → ''šaṇṭrādhūs'' (countryside)<br/>
* ''nail-'' (to kiss) → ''nailūneh'' (love <small>''(literary, rare)''</small>)
*  ''hælvė'' (fruit) → ''hælvidhūs'' (fruiting tree; <small>literary:</small> pregnant woman)
* ''yaiva'' (all) + ''lairē'' (day) → ''yaivlairēṇeh'' (everyday life)
* ''lalāruṇa'' (giant domestic lizard) → ''lalārauṇūneh'' (knight mounting a ''lalāruṇa'')


'''-bān''' and '''-ūrah''' are two roughly equivalent suffixes used for locations. The first one is generally used after vowels, the second after consonants, but it's no strict rule.<br/>
'''-dhūs''' means "having X".
* ''hælvė'' (fruit) → ''hælvėbān'' (orchard)<br/>
* ''dara'' (activity) → ''daradhūs'' (verb)
*  ''lil'' (to live) → ''lilūrah'' (world)<br/>
* ''šaṇṭrās'' (field, soil) → ''šaṇṭrādhūs'' (countryside)
* ''peith'' (to go, to walk (multidirectional)) → ''peithūrah'' (passage)
* ''hælvē'' (fruit) → ''hælvidhūs'' (fruiting tree; <small>literary:</small> pregnant woman)


'''-(l)āṇa''' forms a true collective noun:<br/>
'''-bān''' and '''-ūrah''' are two roughly equivalent suffixes used for locations. The first one is generally used after vowels, the second after consonants, but it's no strict rule.
* ''hælvē'' (fruit) → ''hælvēbān'' (orchard)
* ''lil'' (to live) → ''lilūrah'' (world)
* ''peith'' (to go, to walk (multidirectional)) → ''peithūrah'' (passage)
 
'''-(l)āṇa''' forms a true collective noun:
* ''lalteh'' (friend (female)) → ''laltelāṇa'' (group of friends)
* ''lalteh'' (friend (female)) → ''laltelāṇa'' (group of friends)
* ''jīma'' (character, symbol, letter) → ''jīmalāṇa'' (writing system)
* ''jīma'' (character, symbol, letter) → ''jīmalāṇa'' (writing system)
* ''maiva'' (word) → ''maivalāṇa'' (lexicon)
* ''maiva'' (word) → ''maivalāṇa'' (lexicon)


'''-(l)ænah''' denotes a tree or a plant having a certain fruit<ref>As for all living things, being Calémere a different planet, the given translation is the one of the closest equivalent on Earth.</ref>.<br/>
'''-(l)ænah''' denotes a tree or a plant having a certain fruit<ref>As for all living things, being Calémere a different planet, the given translation is the one of the closest equivalent on Earth.</ref>.
*  ''haiçah'' (pineapple) → ''haiçænah'' (pineapple tree)<br/>
*  ''haisah'' (pineapple) → ''haisænah'' (pineapple tree)
*  ''maʔika'' (uncooked rice) → ''maʔikænah'' (rice plant)<br/>
*  ''maɂika'' (uncooked rice) → ''maɂikænah'' (rice plant)
*  ''šikālas'' (prickly pear) → ''šikālænah'' (prickly pear cactus)
*  ''šikālas'' (prickly pear) → ''šikālænah'' (prickly pear cactus)


'''-yus''' (''-yūs'' if there are only short syllables) is used with toponyms and is one of the most common ways to form denonymal nouns. As many of the nouns these words are derived from are proper nouns and of non-Chlouvānem origin, there are often irregular formations, e.g. using only a part of the original word.<br/>
'''-yūs''' is used with toponyms and is one of the most common ways to form demonyms. As many of the nouns these words are derived from are proper nouns and of non-Chlouvānem origin, there are often irregular formations, e.g. using only a part of the original word.
* ''Līlasuṃghāṇa'' → ''līlasuṃghāṇyus''<br/>
* ''Līlasuṃghāṇa'' → ''līlasuṃghāṇyūs''
* ''Cami'' → ''camiyūs''<br/>
* ''Cami'' → ''camiyūs''
* ''Galiākina'' → ''Galiākyus''
* ''Ajāɂilbādhi'' → ''ajāɂilbādhyūs''


===Verbs===
'''-mana''' ('''-ana''' after ''CC'' clusters) is often found with the meaning of "that has to be X"; usually, a synonymous word may be formed by ''-s'' derivation from a necessitative stem, but some ''-mana'' words have their own specialized meaning:
* ''ṭvur-'' (to believe) → ''ṭvurmaṇa'' (miracle)
* ''miš-'' (to see) → ''mišmana'' (attraction) (also ''memikṣūs'')
* ''tṛl-'' (to know, understand) → ''tṛlmana'' (rule) (not synonymous with ''tartṛlsūs'', meaning "needed knowledge, prerequisite")
 
'''-yai''' (often with lengthening) forms nouns with the meaning of "pertaining to", generally applied to nouns denoting inanimate (but usually concrete) concepts. Such nouns are found in literature with an anaphorical use.<br/>It is commonly found in Chlouvānem surnames. In chemistry, it denotes binary compounds, usually with a dvandva stem.
* ''vīhatam'' (farm) → ''vīhātyai'' (farmer; farm's)
* ''svāṣṭa'' (armor) → ''svāṣṭyai'' (armored knight)
* ''bilumbida'' (sodium) + ''talyelīm'' (chlorine) → ''bilumbītalyelīyai'' (sodium chloride)
 
'''-ceh''', '''-cænah''', and '''-cañīh''' (all often with palatalization of the last consonant) are three different (but with roughly the same meaning) diminutive-forming suffixes; some of them have developed distinct meanings. They can also be compounded, as in '''-cæñ-cañīh''':
* ''nūrya'' (child) → ''nūricænah'' (little child)
* ''ēmīla'' (tiger) → ''ēmīlcañīh'' (cat)
* ''pǣka'' (taste)  → ''pǣcicænah'' (hors d'œuvre, entrée)
 
Similarly, '''-rarā''' (a likely Laiputaši borrowing) is used as an augmentative, but is only found in informal styles.
* ''dårṣa'' (cool, nice) → ''dårṣararā'' (fantastic)
* ''jāmṝṣa'' (dam) → ''jāmṝṣararā'' (a huge dam)
* ''alūs'' (bottle) → ''alūrarā'' (a big bottle)
 
===Verb-forming morphemes===
Denominal verbs, in Chlouvānem, are not formed with derivational suffixes; a "light verb" is attached to the semantic root instead; the semantic root remains invariable but the light verb is conjugated (as a prefixed one). The light verb used are especially ''dṛke'' (to do, make), but also ''jilde'' (to do an action), ''jānake'' (to feel (physical)), and ''gyake'' (to be). Some examples:
Denominal verbs, in Chlouvānem, are not formed with derivational suffixes; a "light verb" is attached to the semantic root instead; the semantic root remains invariable but the light verb is conjugated (as a prefixed one). The light verb used are especially ''dṛke'' (to do, make), but also ''jilde'' (to do an action), ''jānake'' (to feel (physical)), and ''gyake'' (to be). Some examples:
* ''āmaya'' (collection) → ''āmayadṛke'' (to collect)
* ''āmaya'' (collection) → ''āmayadṛke'' (to collect)
Line 1,631: Line 1,790:
* ''ñailūh'' (ice) → ''tæñailūgyake'' (to freeze) (note the ''tæ-'' dynamic prefix).
* ''ñailūh'' (ice) → ''tæñailūgyake'' (to freeze) (note the ''tæ-'' dynamic prefix).


The other basic derived formation is the frequentative verb, formed with reduplication (with one coda consonant and basic vowel) with diachronic lengthening and '''-ve(y)-''' (''-vi(y)-'' in the past tense<ref>Ex.: ''dadarveyuça'' "I repetitively do" vs. ''dadarviyauça'' "I repetitively did"</ref>).<br/>Due to the common use of this form in modern Chlouvānem, some grammarians consider it as an inflectional category instead of a derivation. Note though that this does not apply for motion verbs, as the multidirectional ones are already understood to be frequentative.
The other basic derived formation is the frequentative verb, formed with reduplication (with a long vowel) and '''-ve(y)-''' (''-vi(y)-'' in the past tense<ref>Ex.: ''dṝdaveyute'' "I repetitively do" vs. ''dṝdaviyaute'' "I repetitively did"</ref>). ''-ṛ'' reduplicates as ''ṝ'', but becomes ''a'' in the root.<br/>Due to the common use of this form in modern Chlouvānem, some grammarians consider it as an inflectional category instead of a derivation. Note though that for motion verbs only multidirectional ones have a frequentative form (with iterative meaning); the multidirectionals already act as frequentative forms of the monodirectionals.
* ''dṛ-'' (to do) → ''dadarve-'' (to repetitively do)
* ''dṛ-'' (to do) → ''dṝdave-'' (to repetitively do)
* ''na-gya-'' (to happen) → ''nagijave-'' (to keep happening; to regularly happen, to occur)<ref>The verb "to happen" does not exist as an iterative.</ref>
* ''na-jaly-'' (to happen) → ''najājlive-'' (to keep happening; to regularly happen, to occur)<ref>The verb "to happen" does not exist as an iterative.</ref> (''jaly-'' reduplicates as ''jā-jli-'', with the ''i'' from the root ''y'').
* ''-gya-'' (to be) + various prefixes → ''bīgijave-'' (to cease to be); ''galagijave-'' (to remain in one place; to visit; to keep being)
* ''-jaly-'' (to be) + various prefixes → ''bījājlive-'' (to cease to be); ''galajājlive-'' (to remain in one place; to visit; to keep being)
* ''tvorg-'' (to fear) → ''tvartveirgve-'' (to fear over and over again)
* ''tvorg-'' (to fear) → ''totvargve-'' (to fear over and over again) (''tvo-'' reduplicates as ''to-'' instead of ''tva-'').
* ''låvy-'' (to slip) → ''laulavive-'' (to slip around here and there) (''-å-'' reduplicates as ''-au-'' and becomes ''a'' in the root).
Note that ''nairīveke'' conjugates as a frequentative verb, but is not frequentative and does not have frequentative forms.<br/>
Frequentative perfect stems have the ablauted vowel in the reduplication and a long one in the root (cf. ''miš-'', bare frequentative ''mīmišve-'', perfect frequentative ''memīšve-''); both vowels are long for non-ablauted stems (cf. ''nāmv-'', ''nānamve-'', ''nānāmve-'').<br/>
Inverse ablauting roots have similar rules: the bare frequentative uses the reduplication of the nonreduced root and the reduced vowel in the root itself (''vald-'' → va-uld-ve- → ''voldve-''); the frequentative perfect is like the normal frequentative of other verbs, with the long vowel in the reduplication only (''vald-'' → ''vāvaldve-'').


===Adjectives===
In many cases, frequentatives are used with an iterative meaning; the latter, if needed for disambiguation, may be specified by the particle ''dīdān''.
Adjectives are formed from either nouns or verbs by using the following suffixes: All terms are given here in citation form (dragon singular)


'''-ūkas''' is the most common adjective-forming suffix, denoting something strictly related to an object or a verb. Often they are interchangeable with the genitive form of the noun they derived from:
====Adjectival verbs====
* ''avyāṣa'' (time) → ''avyāṣūkas'' (temporal)
Adjectival verbs, however, do have some ways to be derived from other parts of speech.
* ''chlærūm'' (light) → ''chlærūkas'' (of the light)
* ''daša'' (rain) → ''dašūkas'' (rainy, concerning rain)


'''-ausis''' (rarely '''-usis''') forms adjectives related to a quality that is applied to some object, but more abstractly related than those formed with ''-ūkas-''; sometimes they are only figurative:
'''-ūk-ke''' is the most common adjectival verb-forming suffix, denoting something strictly related to an object or a verb. Note that they are all thematic verbs, even if their infinitive is contracted (Archaic Chl. ''-ūkake'' → Classical and Modern ''-ūkke''). Often they are interchangeable with the genitive form of the noun they derived from:
* ''chlærūm'' (light) → ''chlærausis'' (easy)
* ''avyāṣa'' (time) → ''avyāṣūkke'' ([to be] temporal)
* ''pāṇi'' (side) → ''pāṇyausis'' (peripheral, less important)
* ''chlærūm'' (light) → ''chlærūkke'' (of the light)
* ''namęlь'' (to make an effort, to apply oneself, to work harder) → ''namęliausis'' (Stakhanovite)
* ''daša'' (rain) → ''dašūkke'' (rainy, concerning rain)

'''-uy-a-ke''' is a rarer variant of ''-ūk-ke'', most commonly found for qualities related to people, but not exclusively (see third example):
* ''jāyim'' (girl) ''jāyimuyake'' (girly, girlish)
* ''saṃhāram'' (boy) → ''saṃhāruyake'' (boyish)
* ''irūtākalam'' (atom) → ''irūtāruyake'' (atomic) (the ''-r'' is etymological from Ancient Kūṣṛmāṭhi)


'''-niltas''' translates English ''-able'', and the circumfix '''uṣ- -niltas''' translates to "un- -able" or, sometimes, "difficult to X". The rare '''ñæi- -niltas''' translates as "easy to X".<br/>The ''uṣ-'' prefix has the allomorphs ''ū-'' (before voiced stops), ''-'' (before ''c'' and ''ch''), and ''u-'' (before ''l''+consonant); ''uṣ-'' plus any sibilant becomes ''ukṣ-''.
'''-aus-a-ke''' (rarely '''-us-a-ke''') forms adjectival verbs related to a quality that is applied to some object, but more abstractly related than those formed with ''-ūkke''; sometimes they are only figurative:
* ''tṛl'' (to know, understand) → ''tṛlniltas'' (understandable) ''uṣṭṛlniltas'' (uncomprehensible; difficult to understand) / ''ñæitṛlniltas'' (easy to understand)
* ''chlærūm'' (light) → ''chlærausake'' (easy)
* ''yųl'' (to eat) → ''yųlniltas'' (edible) → ''uṣyųlniltas'' (unedible)
* ''pāṇi'' (side) → ''pāṇyausake'' (peripheral, less important)
* ''lgut'' (to buy) → ''lgutniltas'' (buyable) → ''ulgutniltas'' (not buyable)
* ''namęlь'' (to make an effort, to apply oneself, to work harder) ''namęliausake'' (Stakhanovite)
* Nouns ending in ''-ā'' typically only add '''-sь-''' (''-si-ke''):
** ''laikā'' (innocence) → ''laikāsike'' (innocent)


'''-ṣenis''' translates "having X as a quality", usually added to nouns, or "X-like" in some cases; it may be synonymous with the ''-dhūs'' derivative. ''u-'' and ''i-'' stems (thus ''-uh'', ''-ih'', ''-us''...) lengthen that vowel before the suffix.
'''-nilt-a-ke''' translates English ''-able'', and the circumfix '''uṣ- -niltake''' translates to "un- -able" or, sometimes, "difficult to X". The rare '''ñǣ- -niltake''' translates as "easy to X".<br/>The ''uṣ-'' prefix has the allomorphs ''ū-'' (before voiced stops), ''-'' (before ''c'' and ''ch''), and ''u-'' (before ''l''+consonant); ''uṣ-'' plus any sibilant becomes ''ukṣ-''.
* ''rahėlah'' (health) → ''rahėlṣenis'' (healthy)
* ''tṛl'' (to know, understand) → ''tṛlniltake'' (understandable) → ''uṣṭṛlniltake'' (uncomprehensible; difficult to understand) / ''ñǣtṛlniltake'' (easy to understand)
* ''nakṣuma'' (music) → ''nakṣuṃṣenis'' (having a musical talent)
* ''yųl'' (to eat) → ''yųlniltake'' (edible) → ''uṣyųlniltake'' (unedible)
* ''meimairuh'' (emerald) → ''meimairūṣenis'' (emeraldine, emerald-like)
* ''lgut'' (to buy) → ''lgutniltake'' (buyable) → ''ulgutniltake'' (not buyable)


The suffixes '''-apus'''/'''-epus''' or '''-ækṣasis'''/'''-īkṣasis''' are sometimes considered, as far as the grammar of everyday Chlouvānem is concerned, ways to derive adjectives from other adjectives. [[Chlouvānem#Comparatives_and_superlatives|As seen in the section about adjectives,]] these are actually the endings of synthetic comparatives and superlatives, which are obsolete in modern Chlouvānem except from the most formal registers.<br/>
'''-ṣeni-ke''' (morph. ''seny-ke'', all root verbs) translates "having X as a quality", usually added to nouns, or "X-like" in some cases; it may be synonymous with the ''-dhūs'' derivative. ''u-'' and ''i-'' stems (thus ''-uh'', ''-ih'', ''-us''...) lengthen that vowel before the suffix.
Their classification as derivational suffixes is sometimes made starting from a few forms which have got an additional meaning (often with notable semantic shifts, and usually starting from a single use later generalized) apart from the "more/most X", and they're nowadays used with that meaning (with the comparative being made analytically with ''nanū'').
* ''rahēlah'' (health) → ''rahēlṣenike'' (healthy)
* ''kāmilas'' (blue) ''kāmilapus'' (healthy) ("blue" is used also in the sense of English "green" as "environmental-friendly"; the semantic shift here has its origin in place descriptions, with "bluer" places being less urbanized and less polluted ones; later the "healthy" meaning was generalized)
* ''nakṣuma'' (music) → ''nakṣuṃṣenike'' (having a musical talent)
* ''tāmirūkas'' (rocky) ''tāmirūkapus'' (difficult)
* ''migmairuh'' (emerald) → ''migmairūṣenike'' (emeraldine, emerald-like)
* ''huliāyausis'' (glowing in the dark; visible as the moon) ''huliāyausīkṣasis'' (recognizable, easy to recognize)
 
====Compound verbs====
Chlouvānem uses compound verbs as its main method of deriving verbs from nouns. Such "verbs" are actually a nominal root which does not decline followed by a conjugating verb. The verb used influences the meaning that the compound will have:
* ''dṛke'' (to do) is probably the most commonly used, and may have a meaning of using something (denoted by the nominal root) to treat something else (cf. ''bikṣurdṛke'' "to deodorize" < ''bikṣurga'' "deodorant"), of moving or acting like the nominal root (''yināṃdṛke'' "to protect" < ''yinām'' "protection"), or of simply having or creating something (''āmayadṛke'' "to collect" < ''āmaya'' "collection").
* ''kitte'' (to put) is used for a meaning of addition of the nominal root or its characteristics to something (cf. ''nāmṛkitte'' "to add salt" < ''nāṃra'' "salt).
* ''męlike'' (to give) is sometimes used with the same meaning as ''kitte'' (cf. ''junyāmęlike'' "to plant flowers" < ''junyā'' "flower").
* ''jilde'' (to act) is used for subjects "emitting" or "giving off" something (cf. ''lāhajilde'' "to judge" < ''lāham'' "judgement"), also for subjects possessing (''dhokajilde'' "to mean" < ''dhokam'' "meaning") or undergoing something (''lañšijilde'' "to marry" < ''lañši'' (arch.) braid, wedding), and also for weather phenomena<ref>Rain, specifically, is more commonly used as the subject of the verb ''buñjñake'', meaning "to run" for water (in Chl. rain runs just like a river does).</ref> (''dašajilde'' "to rain" < ''daša'' "rain").
* ''gyake'' (to be) is used, like in one meaning of ''dṛke'', for moving or acting like the nominal root. Typically, it is more for states than actions (the prototypical and most common example is ''pṛšcāṃgyake'' "to be pleasing" < ''pṛšcām'' "something pleasing"<ref>The word ''pṛšcām'' alone is almost never used in contemporary Chlouvānem.</ref>).
* ''jānake'' (to feel) has a meaning partially overlapping with ''jalle'' (and ''dṛke''), particularly marking the "feeling" of a (usually uncontrollable) condition (''jålkhajānake'' "to be cold" < ''jålkha'' "cold").
* ''milke'' (to take) has a varied range of meaning: getting or gathering something (''vīrādhmilke'' "to adopt" < ''vīrādhen'' "orphan";  ''mailьlut(a)milke'' "to take advantage" < ''mailьluta'' "advantage"), also the opposite, taking something away (cf. ''rantamilke'' "to peel (fruits)" < ''rantas'' "peel"), and also overlapping partially with ''kitte'' and ''męlike'' in marking the addition of something or, more, properly, the act of bringing something (''prātamilke'' "to get windy; (''figur.'') to accelerate" < ''prātas'' "wind" - cf. ''prātajilde'' "to be windy").
* ''bismilke'' (to take away) and ''bīdṛke'' (to destroy) are used, more commonly than ''milke'', for the meaning of removing or taking something away: (''ssūbismilke'' "to calm down" < ''ssūgis'' "something that worries"; ''lilembīdṛke'' "(''euphem.'') to kill" < ''liloe'' "life").
 
Sometimes, the most meaningful element of a compound verb is not otherwise found as a standalone word in Chlouvānem, as in ''pṛšcāṃjalle'' (to like), or ''hārlājmęlike'' (to prefer).


===Prefixes===
===Prefixes===
Line 1,674: Line 1,852:
* ''ān- 〜 yana-'' - on, above
* ''ān- 〜 yana-'' - on, above
* ''šu- 〜 šer-'' - under, below
* ''šu- 〜 šer-'' - under, below
* ''khl- 〜 kelь-'' - between
* ''ṭvā- 〜 ṭus-'' - between
* ''gin- 〜 ją-'' - among
* ''gin- 〜 ją-'' - among
* ''nī- 〜 ani-'' - within/from within inside
* ''nī- 〜 ani-'' - within/from within inside
* ''ū(b)- 〜 yom-'' - close to
* ''ū(b)- 〜 yom-'' - close to
* ''bis- 〜 bara-'' - far, away
* ''bis- 〜 bara-'' - far, away
* ''tad- 〜 tasi-'' - attached to; against
* ''tad-'' <small>(''tata-'' before '''l''')</small> ''〜 tasi-'' - attached to; against
* ''įs- 〜 hos-'' - hanging
* ''įs- 〜 įṣu-'' - hanging
* ''na(ñ)- 〜 neni-'' - inside
* ''na(ñ)- 〜 nani-'' - inside
* ''kau- 〜 kuvi-'' - outside
* ''kau- 〜 kuvi-'' - outside
* ''viṣ- 〜 vyeṣa-'' - opposite; somewhere else
* ''viṣ- 〜 vyeṣa-'' - opposite; somewhere else
* ''kami- 〜 kįla-'' - around
* ''kami- 〜 kara-'' - around
* ''prь- 〜 paro-'' - behind
* ''pri- 〜 prā-'' - behind
* ''mai- 〜 mīram-'' - in front of
* ''mai- 〜 mīram-'' - in front of
* ''vai- 〜 vea-'' - in a corner; bordering; at the limit
* ''vai- 〜 -'' - in a corner; bordering; at the limit
* ''ėle- 〜 ora-'' - next to; along; on the side of
* ''sāṭ- 〜 ṣlū-'' - next to; along; on the side of
* ''lā(d)- 〜 lo(d)-'' - in the center of
* ''lā(d)- 〜 lo(d)-'' - in the center of
* ''vyā- 〜 veši-'' - left
* ''vyā- 〜 veši-'' - left
* ''māha- 〜 mege-'' - right
* ''māha- 〜 mege-'' - right
* ''pid-'' - facing (positional only)
* ''pid-'' - facing (positional only)
* ''nilь-'' - towards the center; inwards; convergent movement
* ''nal-'' - towards the center; inwards; convergent movement
* ''vād-'' - away from the center; outwards; divergent movement
* ''vād-'' - away from the center; outwards; divergent movement


Line 1,709: Line 1,887:
* ''yā-'' - too much
* ''yā-'' - too much
* ''iva-'' - completely, also intensive
* ''iva-'' - completely, also intensive
* ''nare-'' - applicative (''nar-'' before another prefix)
* ''nare-'' - applicative (''nar-'' before another prefix, cf. the common form ''narta-'' for "to reach"-verbs)
* ''min-'' - transitivizer of intransitive verbs
* ''min-'' - transitivizer of intransitive verbs


====Other prefixes====
====Other prefixes====
* ''o-'' - before, pre-, proto-, preceding (''os-'' before vowels)
* ''o-'' - before, pre-, proto-, preceding (''os-'' before vowels)
* ''tailь-'' - multi-, pluri-
* ''tail-'' - multi-, pluri-
* ''lail-'' or ''tūt-'' (alternative forms ''laili-'' and ''tūtu-'') - one, mono-, uni-, homo-
* ''emib(u)-'' or ''tūt(u)-'' - one, mono-, uni-, homo-
* ''lani-'' - same, fellow
* ''lani-'' - same, fellow
* ''vre-'' - bad
* ''vre-'' - bad
Line 1,721: Line 1,899:


===Specific terms===
===Specific terms===
Derivational terms considered "specific" are those mostly found in certain jargons. Some of these are applied directly to an Ancient Kūṣṛmāthi root instead of a Chlouvānem one:
Derivational terms considered "specific" are those mostly found in certain jargons. Some of these are applied directly to a Lällshag root instead of a Chlouvānem one:
 
Used in politics and/or the arts:
* '''-nātra''' has two main meanings: ''-ism'' (as in a doctrine) in a political sense, and ''-esque'' in the arts, cf. ''yaivcārṇātra'' "communism" (< ''yaiva'' "all", ''cār-'' "to have"), or ''lānūṣurṇātra'' "in the style of writer Naryejūramāvi Lānūṣurah ''Mæmihomah''".
** '''-nātryūs''' (← ''-nātra-yūs'') is the term for a person that follows such a doctrine or style, cf. ''yaivcārṇātryūs'' "communist"; ''lānūṣurṇātryūs'' "someone whose writing is Lānūṣuraësque".
** Note that ''lija'' and ''lejīn'' (lit. "song" and "singer") were formerly alternatives to these. They notably remain in ''nāɂahilūṃlija'' "politico-religious doctrine inspired by Great Inquisitor Kælahīmāvi Nāɂahilūma ''Martayinām''; Yunyalīlti religious extremism" and ''nāɂahilūṃlejīn'', as well as in ''arāmilija'' "pacifism".
 
Used for medical terminology:
* '''-gulas''' usually translates "-philia" or "-mania", particularly in medical contexts, e.g. ''ryukagulas'' "masochism" from ''ryuka'' "pain".
** '''-gulašålyē''' is the related term for someone who has that (thus "-philiac" or "-maniac"), e.g. ''ryukagulašålyē'' "masochist".
* '''-rauga''' is a generic term used in medicine for names of illnesses or conditions affecting health, e.g. ''gåtnirauga'' "obesity" from ''gåtnake'' "to vomit"; ''skañcrauga'' "insomnia" from ''skañcake'' (to be awake at night).
** '''-raugotis''' is the term for someone affected by a ''-rauga'', e.g. ''skañcraugotis'' "insomniac".
* '''-ītsun''' is a rarer alternative to ''-ræṣka'', e.g. ''vrayobulītsun'' "asplenia" (''vre-'' (bad) + ''obula'' (spleen)), or ''lagukītsun'' "paralysis" (the latter with the root of Lällshag ''gahoke'' (still)).
** '''-ītsunis''' is the corresponding term for affected organisms, e.g. ''vrayobulītsunis'' "aspleniac", ''lagukītsunis'' "paralyzed".
* '''-måkṣan''' is used for inflammatory diseases, cf. "-itis", like ''ṇīṭmåkṣan'' (dermatitis) or ''āḍhyāsnūlimåkṣan'' (meningitis).


* '''-gaṇūh''' usually translates "-philia" or "-mania", particularly in medical contexts, e.g. ''ryukagaṇūh'' "masochism" from ''ryuka'' "pain".
====Compounding====
** '''-gaṇūvima''' is the related term for someone who has that (thus "-philiac" or "-maniac"), e.g. ''ryukagaṇūvima'' "masochist".
* '''tarlā''' (knowledge) is used as the head element of compounds, with a meaning like ''-logy'' in English. Sometimes the meaning is only abstracted (see second example) or has changed with time (see third example):
* '''-rauga''' is a generic term used in medicine for names of illnesses or conditions affecting health, e.g. ''tukoṃrauga'' "obesity" from A.Kūṣṛmāthi ''tukkom'' "fat"; ''vrayegårlauga'' "dysphagia" (note dissimilation of -rr-) from ''vre-'' (bad) and ''egåram'' (stomach).
** ''babhrām'' (land) → ''babhrātarlā'' (geography)
** '''-raugotis''' is the term for someone affected by a ''rauga'', e.g. ''tukoṃraugotis'' "obese", ''vrayegårlaugotis'' "dysphagic".
** ''smoḍ-'' (to count, to enumerate) ''smoṇḍarlā'' (mathematics)
** ''ladragyalah'' (inn) → ''ladragyaltarlā'' (economics)


===Compounding===
==See also==
* [[Chlouvānem/Syntax|Chlouvānem syntax]]
* [[Chlouvānem/Positional and motion verbs|Chlouvānem positional and motion verbs]]
* [[Chlouvānem/Exterior and interior verbs|Chlouvānem exterior and interior verbs]]


== Notes ==
== Notes ==


[[Category:Chlouvānem]]
[[Category:Chlouvānem]]

Latest revision as of 13:12, 2 September 2021

Chlouvānem is a highly inflected language with a synthetic morphology. Five parts of speech are traditionally distinguished: nouns, verbs, pronouns, numerals, and particles. Throughout the page there will be references to the topics treated in the pages on Chlouvānem syntax, positional and motion verbs, and exterior and interior verbs.


Nouns (halenī)

See Lahob languages § Morphology for diachronical tables and comparisons with sister languages.
See also Chlouvānem syntax § Noun phrase for discussion of case usage.

The Chlouvānem noun (haloe, pl. halenī) is highly inflected - it declines for:


  • Three numbers:
Singular (emibausire smoḍūm)
Dual (danyausire smoḍūm)
Plural (tailyausire smoḍūm)
  • Twelve cases:

Direct (daradhūkire dirūnnevya)
Vocative (halausire dirūnnevya)

Accusative (dṛṣokire dirūnnevya)
Ergative (darinūkire dirūnnevya)
Genitive (cārūkire dirūnnevya)

Translative (najamarcūkire dirūnnevya)

Exessive (nanijamarcūkire dirūnnevya)
Essive (jalausire dirūnnevya)
Dative (męlyausire dirūnnevya)
Ablative (tųlunūkire dirūnnevya)
Locative (yuñcūkire dirūnnevya)
Instrumental (drausire dirūnnevya)

There are a few nouns which lack number; a few are singularia tantum and lack a plural (e.g. hærūm lips), other ones are plural only - most notably these include all ethnicities (e.g. chlǣvānem, which is also an irregular plural). The singular is made by using the genitive form attributed to lila (person), e.g. chlǣvānumi lila (a Chlouvānem).

Chlouvānem does not have grammatical gender, and there are only a few natural gender terms. There are thirteen different noun declensions, but most of them only have few small differences. Chlouvānem declensions are predictable from the ending of the direct case noun, and they're categorized depending on their endings as s-, m-, or h-nouns[1]: inside these broad categories, different declensions are distinguished by the thematic vowel of the suffix: a, u, or i for s- and m-nouns, and a, e, u, i for h-nouns.

S-nouns - Sasą lā halenī

There are some traits which are common to all nominal declensions: the vocative is only distinct in the singular; in the dual there is also no distinction between translative and dative, essive and locative, and between exessive, ablative, and instrumental. In the plural, the exessive and ablative also share the same form, as do the essive plural and the ergative dual.

1-s (-as, -ās)
Case Singular Dual Plural
Direct prātas
"wind"
prātāt prāte
Vocative prātau
Accusative prātu prātāṣa prataih
Ergative prātei prātāya prātān
Genitive prāti prāteva prātumi
Translative prātan prātaus prātāmān
Exessive prātat prātābhan prātenīs
Essive prātą prātigin prātāya
Dative prātom prātaus prātasām
Ablative prātų prātābhan prātenīs
Locative prāte prātigin prātilīm
Instrumental prātap prātābhan prātenīka

2-s (-us, -ūs)
Case Singular Dual Plural
Direct haɂrus
"squid"
haɂrūt haɂraus
Vocative haɂru
Accusative haɂravu haɂrūṣa haɂravih
Ergative haɂrave haɂrūya haɂrūn
Genitive haɂravi haɂragva haɂrǣmi
Translative haɂrun haɂrugus haɂromān
Exessive haɂrut haɂrobhan haɂruṇīs1
Essive haɂrą haɂrugin haɂrūya
Dative haɂravom haɂrugus haɂrusām
Ablative haɂrų haɂrobhan haɂruṇīs1
Locative haɂrave haɂrugin haɂrulīm
Instrumental haɂrup haɂrobhan haɂruṇīka1

3-s (-is, -īs)
Case Singular Dual Plural
Direct ḍhogis
"monument"
ḍhogīt ḍhogais
Vocative ḍhogi
Accusative ḍhogayu ḍhogīṣa ḍhogaih
Ergative ḍhogaye ḍhogīya ḍhogīn
Genitive ḍhogayi ḍhogajña ḍhogyumi
Translative ḍhogin ḍhogigus ḍhogemān
Exessive ḍhogit ḍhogebhan ḍhogenīs
Essive ḍhogę ḍhogigin ḍhogīya
Dative ḍhogayom ḍhogigus ḍhogisām
Ablative ḍhogyų ḍhogebhan ḍhogenīs
Locative ḍhogaye ḍhogigin ḍhogilīm
Instrumental ḍhogip ḍhogebhan ḍhoginīka

Table notes:

  1. The ending is -unīs/-unīka; the n shift is a case of regular saṃdhi.

Also note that modern borrowings ending in [s] typically add a further case ending, e.g. Skyrdagor valtasz (nunatak) becomes Chlouvānem valtasas (same meaning), declining as valtasau, valtasu, valtasei...

M-nouns - Mamą lā halenī

1-m (-am, -ām)
Case Singular Dual Plural
Direct yujam
"lotus"
yujivā yujāk
Vocative yujā
Accusative yujamu yujmes yujmaih
Ergative yujmæ yujmyan yujamūn
Genitive yujami yujmeva yujaṃrān
Translative yujaman yujmį yujamān
Exessive yujamat yujabhan yujmenīs
Essive yujmą yujmenne yujmyan
Dative yujamom yujmį yujaṃsām
Ablative yujamų yujabhan yujmenīs
Locative yujaṃrye yujmenne yujmilīm
Instrumental yujamap yujabhan yujaṃrīka

2-m (-um, -ūm)
Case Singular Dual Plural
Direct tūlum
"worm"
tūlvivā tūlūk
Vocative tūlve
Accusative tūlumu tūlves tūluyih
Ergative tūluga tūlvyan tūlumūn
Genitive tūlumi tūlveva tūluṃrān
Translative tūluman tūlvį tūlumān
Exessive tūlumat tūlubhan tūlvenīs
Essive tūlų tūlunne tūlvyan
Dative tūlumom tūlvį tūluṃsām
Ablative tūlumų tūlubhan tūlvenīs
Locative tūluṃrye tūlunne tūlulīm
Instrumental tūlumap tūlubhan tūluṃrīka

3-m (-im, -īm)
Case Singular Dual Plural
Direct jāyim
"girl"
jāyīvā jāyīk
Vocative jāyī
Accusative jāyimu jājñes1 jāyīh
Ergative jājña1 jāyiyan jāyimūn
Genitive jāyimi jājñeva1 jāyiṃran
Translative jāyiman jāyį jāyimān
Exessive jāyimat jāyibhan jājñenīs1
Essive jāyį jāyinne jāyiyan
Dative jāyimom jāyį jāyiṃsam
Ablative jāyimų jāyibhan jājñenīs1
Locative jāyiṃrye jāyinne jāyilīm
Instrumental jāyimap jāyibhan jāyiṃrīka

{ Table notes:

  1. Such forms with -jñ- are underlyingly -y-y- (e.g. jāy-y-esjājñes).

H-nouns - Hahą lā halenī

1-h (-a, -ā, (-ah, -āh), -o1)
Case Singular Dual Plural
Direct māra
"mango"
mārāt mārai
Vocative māre
Accusative māru mārāṣa māraih
Ergative mārei mārāra mārān
Genitive māri2 māreva mārumi
Translative māran mārarį māremān
Exessive mārat mārabhan mārenīs
Essive māręs māranne mārāra
Dative mārom mārarį māresām
Ablative mārų mārabhan mārenīs
Locative māre māranne mārelīm
Instrumental mārap mārabhan mārenīka

2-h (-ē, -eh, -ǣh3)
Case Singular Dual Plural
Direct javileh
"apple"
javilyāt javilyai
Vocative javilei
Accusative javilyu javilēṣa javileih
Ergative javilei javilyāra javilyān
Genitive javili javileva4 javilyumi
Translative javilen javilerį javilemān
Exessive javilet javilebhan javilenīs
Essive javilęs javilenne javilyāra
Dative javilyom javilerį javilesām
Ablative javilyų javilebhan javilenīs
Locative javilye javilenne javilelīm
Instrumental javilep javilebhan javilenīka

3-h (-uh, -ūh, -u5)
Case Singular Dual Plural
Direct ñaɂuh
"fruit skin"
ñaɂūt ñaɂūvi
Vocative ñaɂū
Accusative ñaɂunu ñaɂūṣa ñaɂuyih
Ergative ñaɂuyei ñaɂura ñaɂun
Genitive ñaɂuyi ñaɂuva ñaɂūmi
Translative ñaɂun ñaɂurį ñaɂumān
Exessive ñaɂut ñaɂubhan ñaɂunīs
Essive ñaɂųs ñaɂunne ñaɂura
Dative ñaɂuvom ñaɂurį ñaɂusām
Ablative ñaɂuvų ñaɂubhan ñaɂunīs
Locative ñaɂuve ñaɂunne ñaɂulīm
Instrumental ñaɂup ñaɂubhan ñaɂunīka

4-m (-ih, -īh, -i6)
Case Singular Dual Plural
Direct ghārṭih
"arrow"
ghārṭīt ghārṭeyi
Vocative ghārṭī
Accusative ghārṭyu ghārṭīṣa ghārṭeyih
Ergative ghārṭyei ghārṭira ghārṭin
Genitive ghārṭīyi ghārṭiva ghārṭyumi
Translative ghārṭin ghārṭirį ghārṭimān
Exessive ghārṭit ghārṭibhan ghārṭinīs
Essive ghārṭįs ghārṭinne ghārṭira
Dative ghārṭyom ghārṭirį ghārṭisām
Ablative ghārṭyų ghārṭibhan ghārṭinīs
Locative ghārṭye ghārṭinne ghārṭilīm
Instrumental ghārṭip ghārṭibhan ghārṭinīka

1-h (h-paradigm)
Case Singular Dual Plural
Direct raiṇah
"(piece of) cloth"
raiṇāt raiṇai
Vocative raiṇe
Accusative raiṇu raiṇāṣa raiṇaih
Ergative raiṇei raiṇāra raiṇān
Genitive raiṇi2 raiṇeva raiṇumi
Translative raiṇan raiṇarį raiṇamān
Exessive raiṇat raiṇabhan raiṇenīs
Essive raiṇęs raiṇanne raiṇāra
Dative raiṇom raiṇarį raiṇasām
Ablative raiṇų raiṇabhan raiṇanīs
Locative raiṇe raiṇanne raiṇalīm
Instrumental raiṇap raiṇabhan raiṇanīka

The h-paradigm used by nouns in -ah and -āh is substantially identical to the regular 1-h one, except for the exessive, dative, ablative, locative, and instrumental plural which have -a- instead of -e- as a linking vowel and, for some nouns, the genitive singular (see table note 2).

Table notes:

  1. -o nouns are mostly toponyms of Toyubeshian origins; they decline like -a nouns, with their ending being treated as *-a-u, with the -a part of the stem; e.g. Paramito, locative Paramitai (underlying form Paramit-a-e).
  2. -ya, and -yā nouns form the genitive singular in -ei (e.g. lalyā "night" → lalei). Nouns in -yah, and -yāh, however, have the regular ending (e.g. yamyah "fog" → yamyi).
  3. All -ǣh nouns are of Lällshag origin, and are mostly toponyms (like Laikunanǣh), with some exceptions like the two lunar days kælyaunænǣh and yeicapænǣh. Note that such nouns have their genitive singular in -ǣyi and not in .
  4. In older texts -eiva (e.g. javileiva), today only used in literature for an archaïzing effect or to mark a character speaking with a Northern Plain pronunciation (where this form survives in the spoken language).
  5. Mostly regional Western words of Dabuke origin.
  6. Non-productive with borrowings, but common in native words.

Special declensions

Ablaut declension
Case Singular Dual Plural
Direct lila
"person"
lilāt lelyē
Vocative
Accusative lilu lilāṣa lelyu
Ergative lilei lilāra lelyei
Genitive leli lileva laili
Translative lilan lilarį lelyan
Exessive lilat lilabhan lelyat
Essive liląs lilanne lailąs
Dative lilom lilarį lelyom
Ablative lilų lilabhan lelyų
Locative lile lilanne laile
Instrumental lilap lilabhan lelyap

-oe declension
Case Singular Dual Plural
Direct haloe
"name"
halenāt halenī
Vocative
Accusative halenu halenāṣa halenaih
Ergative halenei halenāya halenān
Genitive haleni halemva haloemi
Translative halenan halenaus haloemān
Exessive halenat haloebhan haloenīs
Essive halen haloegin halenāya
Dative halenom halenaus haloesām
Ablative halenų haloebhan haloenīs
Locative halenye haloegin halenilīm
Instrumental halenap haloebhan haloenīka

-ai declension
Case Singular Dual Plural
Direct lunai
"tea"
lunaiva lunāye
Vocative
Accusative lunāyu lunāyes lunāyaih
Ergative lunǣ lunāyēn lunāyūn
Genitive lunāyi lunaiva lunāyān
Translative lunain lunāyį lunaimān
Exessive lunait lunaibhan lunǣnīs
Essive lunąis lunainne lunāyēn
Dative lunāyom lunāyį lunaisām
Ablative lunāyų lunaibhan lunǣnīs
Locative lunāye lunainne lunailīm
Instrumental lunaip lunaibhan lunainīka

The ablaut declension is in the singular (except for the vocative and essive) and dual the same as the 1-h one, including the -ei rule for the genitive singular (e.g. rinya "ceiling", gen.sg. renei), except for the fact that the genitive singular has a middle-grade vowel. The plural has mostly the same endings as the singular but with middle-grade vowels in most forms (genitive, essive, and locative have a higher-grade one). -y- is inserted between the stem and the ending, but not for nouns ending in -ya (rinyarenyē).
The vowel that undergoes ablaut is usually the penultimate (e.g. plušamila "Office of the Inquisition", plural plušamelyē), but in some cases it's the first (e.g. kimeda (a type of panther), plural kemedyē).

Hypocoristic forms of male names, which end in -em and are only used in the singular, are declined following a mix of the 1-m and 1-h patterns. In fact, they follow the 1-m pattern (the -am paradigm) except for the ergative (in -emei instead of *-(e)mæ) and the essive (in -ęs instead of *-(e)mą). For example the hypocoristicon Kælem has ergative Kælemei and essive Kælęs.

Singularia and pluralia tantum

Pluralia tantum in Chlouvānem include the following words or categories of words:

  1. many collective nouns:

    pārāk "hair", kāraṇḍhai "guts", yūgure "limbs", agṇyaucai "sons and daughters", vailašaus "cutlery", šūlyakāše "dishes"
  2. things that are heterogeneous in form but considered as a single entity:
    katanai "clutter", dūḍhvai "banquet, buffet", vārṇaigīk (a type of sandals made from straw rope), ḍheṃlatiryai "streaming"[2], ltælime "magic", ṣrūḍhais "savings", dāyārṣe "resin", ḍåtvāk "fat", tadmāltsāk "controller"
  3. certain actions and processes that involve multiple people:
    vāgdilanai "elections", viṣlonai "protest, riot", jāṃrice "traffic jam", grembātatālunai "hide-and-seek" (sometimes also found as dual)
  4. nouns denoting certain time spans, festivals, or holidays:
    saṃlallai "afternoon", Bhaivyāvāṣaryai (the most important Yunyalīlti festivity), Kūlħanarai (a winter festival of Kenengyry origin)
  5. a few illnesses and health conditions or disorders:
    nirganai "urticaria", nañvai "autism", paṣadårbhai "influenza"
  6. some locations, including large delimited areas as well as many toponyms:
    aryai "square", cahåtaibāk "tropics"
    Rīkalīnai, Mūnnakṣalte
  7. all ethnonyms:
    chlǣvānem "Chlouvānem", ṣurṭāgyai "Skyrdegan(s)", bronyai "Bronic(s)", sairghīṭyai "Cerian(s)", nivrahīrai "Nivarese"

A few nouns do not have a singular, but can have a dual and a plural form. Their citation form is usually the dual:

maihadhūt "parents", grembātatālunāt "hide-and-seek" (most commonly a plurale tantum)

Counted among pluralia tantums are certain words which are not defective in number, but whose plural forms have an additional meaning alongside the one of the singular form, like in the following examples:

hamvyenī "nursery" (hamvyoe "cradle"), įsmirte "playground" (įsmirtas "swing"), nacai "clothes" (naca "cloth"), garaṇai "clock, watch" (garaṇa "hour), lairusī "galaxy" (lairē "sky, air"), ilēneyi "universe" (ilēni "space, invisible sky").

Unlike ethnonyms, nouns formed with the suffix -yūs, generally identifying a person from a certain city (e.g. līlasuṃghāṇyūs, ajāɂilbādhyūs) – but note yacvānyūs "Westerner" – are not pluralia tantum and have regularly-formed plurals (in -yaus).

Some words are singularia tantum:

  1. many collective nouns:
    nūlastām "money", maula "breasts [pair of]", mæchlišam "leafy greens" (and particular types, e.g. mæcichā "spinach), bågras "legumes" (and particular types, e.g. dīlla "peas", mahīra "lentils"), lāsīm "cereals", båltis "free time"
  2. feelings and sensations:
    lācāh "romantic love", læchlyoe "fun", ǣlna "sadness"
  3. nouns denoting certain uncountable things:
    paɂeh "dust", kanai "spices", nāmvāvi "powder, dust made from crushing something", ḍolam "ice", narmis "ash"
  4. certain illnesses and health conditions:
    badarauga "blue plague", kloppa "cough" (cf. pluralizable kloppukāram "a single instance of coughing"), nadirṣas "runny nose"
  5. proper nouns referring to certain concepts:
    yunya, lillamurḍhyā, mulipenai "the Eastern Bloc's 'Internet'", tulbaiganim "the Eastern Bloc's 'Olympics'"
    individual sports, such as tēyakaitsūh, ḍaṣaras, lairhiṃħa, yalkhaitah
    cardinal points, pūrjayuñca "North", nalejñuñca "East"..., including relative ones such as smrāṇyuñca "upstream" or memājñuñca "downstream"
    musical genres, such as laneika, mūṃjas, kerachomā, tūnisus
    specialistic terminology made with suffixes and related to sciences (-tarlā, -nātra), diseases (-ræṣka, -yūtam, -ītsun, -gulas), and political/philosophical currents (-nātra, -lija)
  6. Most toponyms:
    Murkadhānāvi "the Inquisition", Kaiṣamā, Ṣurṭāgah "Skyrdagor", Sairghīṭa "Ceria", Kuyugvajitava "Kŭyŭgwažtov"

Irregular plurals

A few Chlouvānem nouns have irregular plurals:

  • The word chlǣvānem itself is plural-only (like all ethnonyms) and irregular; direct and vocative are in -em, but all other cases decline as a standard plural 1h noun (e.g. accusative chlǣvānānu, ergative chlǣvānān, genitive chlǣvānumi);
  • hulineh "woman" has the suppletive plural hulūne "women", which is declined as a regular 1s declension noun.
  • maila “water” does not have a dual form outside of colloquial use (where mailāt is used with the meaning of “two glasses of water”) and has the irregular plural mailusī, declined as the plural of an -oe noun, with -us- instead of -en- or -oe- throughout the declension (but note genitive mailūsmi and not mailusmi). This plural form is actually common, used when talking about bodies of water in an area, water layers, glasses of water, and a few minor idiomatic uses (e.g. taili mailusilīm hilælulke, lit. “to arrive by crossing many waters”, meaning “to have had much experience”).
    The -usī semantic plural is also used for the word damītah when used for "petals" (damītusī; the meaning of "nails" has the regular plural damītai), and lairē (lairusī, which does not mean "skies" or "days" but "galaxy").
  • Nouns with non-standard final endings (except chlǣvānem) are declined by unpacking the vowel through regular saṃdhi and applying the resulting declension to the newfound root, with regular saṃdhi. The most common such nouns are gos "ford, crossing of a small river" (ga-us; gen.sg. ge (ga-i), pl. gaus (ga-aus)) and khaim "goose" (khā-im; pl. khaik (khā-īk)).
  • švas "animal (including humans)" pluralizes as švai, as if it were a h-noun; all cases except for direct and vocative are however regular.

Irregular vocatives

Five very common words have common, irregular, vocative forms:

  • ñæltah "(male's) sister" — ñæli or ñæl
  • glūkam "(female's) brother" — galū
  • meinā "mother" — or
  • bunā "father" — or
  • udhyāras "Comrade" — udhyā (rarely udhyār)

Use of the plural

Chlouvānem sometimes uses the singular in contexts where English uses the plural:

  • Nouns are always singular after numerals (except, optionally, dani (two), which they can also be dual after), sora (some), grāṇa (any), gu (no), guviṣam (no other), taili (many, much), širē (more), kaili (most), and ṣubha (few, little).
    • After yaiva, the difference in the noun's number expresses a distinction much like the one between English "every" and "all": yaiva kita "every house", yaiva kitai "all houses".
  • When referring to existence or availability of something, that something is always singular, e.g. dvārma širēmįs virā "there are chairs in the room". It may be plural if topicalized, but the overall meaning of the sentence changes - e.g. širēmeyi mæn dvārma virā "the chairs are in the room".
  • When referring to a single person, dhāna (hand), mešīn (eye), and minnūlya (ear), and often also junai (foot) (more rarely for pājya (leg) and molnya (arm)) are typically singular and not dual - e.g. nanau mešīp mešute "I see it with my eyes" (lit. "with my eye"). In fact, they might be translated as "a person's hands/eyes/ears", given that dual forms are often used to mean e.g. "both hands of two people" and the plural ones for e.g. "many people's hands".
  • junyoe (indoor slippers), rapūda ((thick) shoes), mæska (boots), and all types of shoes are also used in the singular to refer to a pair of them. The main exception is varṇaigīk (straw rope sandals), which is a plurale tantum.

Duals and plurals of given names have the meaning of an associative plural, i.e. Kālomījñai "Kālomīyeh and people in/of her group".

Verbs (daradhaus)

Main article: Chlouvānem verbs

The Chlouvānem verb (daradhūs, pl. daradhaus) is the most inflected part of speech; its most basic forms are fusional, but many more specific formations are more agglutinative due to their origin from old Proto-Lahob particles or participles.

Pronouns (hailihalenī)

The system of personal pronouns of modern Standard Chlouvānem is quite complex due to the honorific system. In modern Chlouvānem, the category of "pronouns" isn't actually syntactically differentiated from other nouns (except for being used anaphorically), and only some of them - the inherited pronouns from Proto-Lahob and Archaic Chlouvānem - follow a declension different from the one of nouns.

The main reason for the complexity of the pronominal system is that there are many possible variants for each person, depending on the formality of the context, the two-way rank difference between speaker and listener, or the three-way rank difference between the speaker, the listener, and the addressee. Some particular forms are also chosen depending on gender.

The fact that there is no syntactical difference between the morphological pronouns and those that are nouns also means that every word used pronominally, including given names, requires that person's verbal concord, i.e. a given name used as a second-person pronoun will be used in concordance with a second-person verb. In the following list, words not marked as being inflected according to pronominal declension are inflected as nouns. However, yamei and lāma are honorific adpositions which do not decline; the title or given name used with them declines instead.

List of personal pronouns and pronoun-equivalents

First person singular (I, me)

  • lili (pronominal declension): the morphological inherited pronoun and the most neutral. It is overall the most used, especially in the non-direct cases, but there are alternatives for very informal, childish, slang, and humble speech.
  • emmā: the humble speech word for "person", sometimes used in humble speech.
  • demi (pronominal declension): literally "oneself", the reflexive pronoun; used in informal speech but conveying a sense of distance.
  • Given name: used in childish speech and in certain slang forms, considered rude or uneducated otherwise.
  • lilyā hulineh: literally "my woman", informal or semi-formal, implies superiority.
  • paralonį emmā: literally "the person [humble] who is a disciple" or "I, [your] disciple". Used almost exclusively in writing, by students or pupils when talking to their professors or teachers.
  • lilyā jāyim (in Archaic Chlouvānem only); literally "my girl", implying humbleness. Notably used by the Chlamiṣvatrā to refer to herself throughout the Holy Books.

Second person singular (You)

  • Given name plus lāma: the general polite form. lāma can be replaced by an appropriate title.
  • yamei + given name + lāma: similar to the above, but more polite, typically used for people of much higher rank or public officials.
  • yamei + title: very polite, alternative to the above two.
  • Appropriate honorific formula: the most polite usage, usually progressively reduced to (yamei) given name + lāma or yamei + title during the course of a conversation[3].
  • Given name + tanta: same politeness as lāma, used respectfully towards lower-ranked people, for example workers and colleague with less experience, soldiers of lower rank, employees, apprentices, and (from seventh class onwards) by teachers towards their students.
  • Given name alone: used in semi-formal speech between (equal ranked) colleagues and friends with a moderate degree of acquaintance. Can be or is rude otherwise. Note that it is considered especially rude to use the given name (or any other form of the personal name) towards older family members, or family members of the same generation who are not siblings (e.g. brothers/sisters-in-law, unless they're close friends).
  • Informal name: used in informal speech among friends, siblings (and possibly cousins[4]), partners, and all family members of a younger generation.
  • Kinship term alone: used for older family members or non-siblings (excluding cousins) of the same generation.
  • sāmi (pronominal declension): the morphological pronoun used in informal speech. Often replaced by the given name or by the hypocoristic form.
  • nami (pronominal declension): the morphological pronoun of formal speech towards higher ranked people. Often used (and even more often in non-core forms such as the genitive namyā), but it is also common to use the given name + lāma formula instead.
  • tami (pronominal declension): morphological pronoun of formal speech towards equal ranked people. Often used alternatively to the given name (with or without lāma), even in the same conversation.
  • rami (pronominal declension): morphological formal pronoun for lower ranked people; same usage pattern as tami.
  • udhyāras: translatable as "Comrade" and introduced during the Kaiṣamā era, it is a formal second-person pronoun used for people in situations transcending social rank. It is particularly used among political activists, volunteers in any organization, or in cooperative activities distinct from one's usual work. It is also the preferred option when one has no information about the addressed person, or as a general second person pronoun not referring to any particular person.
  • ṣari: quite old-fashioned (but still actively used by older people), used by guests towards homeowners (or innkeepers) and by soldiers towards their superiors.
  • ūttuka (mostly historical except for the Northeast): similar to ṣari but mostly used by servants towards their superiors or landowners; rapidly disappeared because of the Kaiṣamā era reforms except for the Northeast, where it was used in most contexts ṣari was elsewhere.
  • blikā; an endearing term for "girl", used by sisters among themselves.
  • lorkhās; male counterpart to blikā.
  • Informal name + cuca: endearing form used in informal speech by parents towards their children.
  • nūrya, literally "kid, child": used in formal instances by parents towards their children.

The following pronouns are mostly used for specific people, and only as reductions of other formulae:

  • aveṣyotariri nami: literally "You excellent one"; extremely formal locution for non-religious superiors several ranks ahead.
  • gopūrṭham: used for public/religious and military officials.
  • gopūrṭhami brausa: used for the highest ranked Inquisitors, bishops, head monks, and the Baptist.
  • yobrausa: same as gopūrṭhami brausa.
  • lalla yobrausa: used for the Great Inquisitor.

With second-person pronouns, the possessives used are in nearly every case those of the corresponding morphological pronouns; however, in very informal speech, it is not uncommon to use the genitive of the informal name or of pronoun-equivalents such as blikā or lorkhās.

Third person singular

Chlouvānem does not have any morphological third person pronoun; the demonstratives are used instead for non-human referents. For human referents, however, it is considered extremely rude to address them using a demonstratives. The choice of pronoun in the third person is especially complex because not just the relative rank of speaker and listener should be kept in mind, but also the rank of the addressee relative to both the speaker and the listener.

All titles listed in the section "Honorific titles" may be freely used with and without names. Furthermore, it is common in not excessively formal speech to use nāḍima (honorific word for "mother") for all female older relatives - of previous generations, not older siblings - of the interlocutor and similarly tamvāram (honorific for "father") for male older relatives.

udhyāras, equivalent to "Comrade", is in contemporary Chlouvānem the least controversial third person pronoun, at least the only one that is never considered rude to use. However, depending on the situation, other pronouns may be more appropriate.

Reference table

The following table is meant as a non-exhaustive reference for the most common ways used to refer to third person human referents in different situations, excluding titles:

If... Speaker is higher than Listener Speaker is equal to Listener Speaker is lower than Listener
3SG is higher than... both Speaker and Listener yamei (name) lāma
yamei (name) suntam/sintam
(yamei) (name) suntam/sintam(/lāma) yamei (name) suntam/sintam
Listener,
but lower than or equal to Speaker
udhyāras
yamei lātiṃṣin
(name) lāma
/ /
Speaker,
but lower than or equal to Listener
/ / yamei (name) lāma
3SG is equal to... Listener udhyāras
yamei (name) tanta
(name) lāma
/ yamei (name) suntam/sintam
both Speaker and Listener / udhyāras
lātiṃṣin
(name) lāma
yamei (name) tanta
/
Speaker udhyāras
lātiṃṣin
(name) lāma
/ yamei (name) lāma
udhyāras
lātiṃṣin
3SG is lower than... Listener udhyāras
(name) tanta
/ /
both Speaker and Listener / udhyāras
(name) tanta
/
Speaker / / (name) lāma
udhyāras

Dual pronouns

Plural pronouns

Other personal pronouns

Pronominal declension

The pronominal declension has two variants: one used for the first person pronouns and another for the 2nd person ones. First person pronouns are the most archaic: they have a single-phoneme stem in all cases bar the direct, and a different stem in the direct case (lili, derived from the original pronoun *li, in the singular, and suppletive amūt and amūvi in the dual and plural respectively).
The second person pronouns are a Pre-Chlouvānem innovation, from the original short stem attached to the demonstrative ami, and therefore they follow that word's declension. However, the original short stems are kept as alternative, shorter forms, for the accusative, ergative, and dative cases. Second-person plural pronouns exist, but are virtually unused outside of Archaic Chlouvānem.

All ergative singular forms in -ei have literary variants in -eis (cf. emeis, ergative of emibe "one").

Direct Accusative Ergative Genitive Translative Exessive Essive Dative Ablative Locative Instrumental
Singular 1st person lili lei lyai
lilyā
lan lat lįs lum ląu lēn lāni
2nd person Informal sāmi sāmyū
sāmī
sei
sāmī sāmīn sāmīt sāmįs sāmūm
som
sāmų sāmǣ sāmūni
Form. sup. nami namyū
namī
nei
namī namīn namīt namįs namūm
num
namų namǣ namūni
Form. equal tami tamyū
tamī
tei
tamī tamīn tamīt tamįs tamūm
tum
tamų tamǣ tamūni
Form. inf. rami ramyū
ramī
nei
ramī ramīn ramīt ramįs ramūm
rum
ramų ramǣ ramūṇi
Reflexive pronoun demi jei jai
demyā
jen jet jįs jum jąu jēn jāni
Dual 1st person amūt lūṣa lūra lūva lūh lūbhan lūnne lūh lūbhan lūnne lūbhan
2nd person Informal sāmīt sāmīṣa
seṣa
sāmīra
sera
sāmīva sāmirį sāmibhan sāminne sāmirį
seh
sāmibhan sāminne sāmibhan
Form. sup. namīt namīṣa
nīṣa
namīra
nira
namīva namirį namibhan naminne namirį
nih
namibhan naminne namibhan
Form. equal tamīt tamīṣa
tīṣa
tamīra
tira
tamīva tamirį tamibhan taminne tamirį
tih
tamibhan taminne tamibhan
Form. inf. ramīt ramīṣa
rīṣa
ramīra
rira
ramīva ramirį ramibhan raminne ramirį
rih
ramibhan raminne ramibhan
Plural 1st person amūvi laih lān lumi lemān lenīs lāra lisām lenīs lelīm lenīka

Honorific titles

→ See also: Chlouvānem names § Using names

Chlouvānem uses many honorific titles, which are always used in non-familiar speech. The "honorific" adjective yamei is often added to many of them - especially lāma - and is mandatory in other ones.

  • lāma - used after the noun, it is the most common honorific title; almost every time someone is being addressed, lāma is used - the only exceptions being when it is already known another honorific should be used, or in familiar situations. It usually follows the given name alone (e.g. Namihūlša lāma); if the matronymic is added (sometimes done in order to disambiguate), then lāma comes between matronymic and noun (e.g. Līṭhaljāyimāvi lāma Namihūlša). All three names matronymic, surname, and given name together with lāma (e.g. Līṭhaljāyimāvi Kaleñchokah Namihūlša lāma) are only used in very formal addressing from a list of nouns; should matronymic+noun be not enough to distinguish two people, simply surname+noun is used.
  • tanta - used for people in a lower position, e.g. used towards one's employees or (usually from seventh class onwards) by teachers and professors towards their students. Also used by militars towards lower-ranked soldiers.
  • suntam (regionally also sintam) - used for people in a higher position in certain situations, most commonly towards older and more experienced colleagues (but not teachers or professors, nor work bosses if they're roughly the same age as the speaker).
  • lallāmaha - an extremely formal honorific, used for public authorities and all Inquisitors. Most often used together with yamei. Inquisitors may also be referred to as lallāmaha + matronymic + yamei + given name + murkadhāna (lāma)
  • jūlin - less formal than lāma, used for people who work in one's home but are not part of the family.
  • tallam - less formal than lāma, used by men for unmarried women whom they know somewhat well. Currently less frequently used than it was up to about 10 years ago.
  • jāmilšīreh - used in military contexts towards higher-ranked people, or by common people towards military commanders in service.
  • udhyā(ras) - neutral but respectful title of address, often used when generally speaking and without knowing who the listener is. Sometimes used, when in a plural sense, in the form yamei dāvudhyāre. In its neutralness relative to rank, it can be compared with the Soviet-era use of товарищ. It is also how high-ranked Inquisitors and most monks address the general public.
    Note that udhyāras is the direct form, udhyā the irregular vocative.
  • pūrivāla - an impersonal term of address used in written language, towards unfamiliar people never met personally. Often used as yamei [name] pūrivāla.
  • cuca is not strictly an honorific, as it pertains to more colloquial forms of speech, but it works the same way. It has a diminutive and endearing meaning, not unlike Japanese -chan. In formal speech, it is often used towards and when speaking about children.
Occupations commonly used as titles
  • camitorai — head of a company (usually as [matronymic] yamei [name] camitorai lāma)
  • kauchlærīn (voc.: kauchlærī) — professor (in universities, seminaries, institutions, and work schools)
  • tatnāmęlīn (voc.: tatnāmęlī) — teacher (in first and basic schools)
Official titles

Where not noted, the formula is [matronymic] yamei [name] [title] lāma.

  • brausamailenya — Baptist — rendered as aveṣyotārire lallāmaha [matronymic] yamei [surname + given name] brausamailenia lāma.
  • camimurkadhāna — Great Inquisitor — rendered as širē aveṣyotārire lallāmaha [matronymic] yamei [surname + given name] camimurkadhāna lāma.
  • camitorai — president (of diocesan parliaments or executives or of foreign countries). Rendered as aveṣyotārire [matronymic (if Chlouvānem)] yamei [name] camitorai lāma.
  • plušamelīs (voc.: plušamelī) — Prefect (head of an Office (plušamila) of the Inquisition). Rendered as aveṣyotārire [matronymic] yamei [name] plušamelī(s) lāma.
  • gatvā — leader/head/president/mayor — preceded by the genitive of the respective administration (ṣramāṇa "province", lalka "circuit", hālgāra "district", marta "city"…).
  • hurdagīn — Head Monk (head of a monastery) — rendered as kaili brausire yamei [name] hurdagīn lāma (+ monastery name-GEN)[5]
  • rākṣaṇa — Bishop (head of a diocese) — rendered as aveṣyotārire [matronymic] yamei [(surname +) name] rākṣaṇa lāma (+ diocese name-GEN).
  • lallaplušamelīs (voc.: lallaplušamelī) — High Prefect (head of the Table of Offices (flušamaili eṇāh, the executive branch of the Inquisition). Usually rendered as taili aveṣyotārire [matronymic] yamei [name] lallaplušamelī(s) lāma.
  • lallamurkadhāna — High Inquisitor (one of the 612 members of the Inquisitorial Conclave (murkadhānumi lanedāmeh, the legislative branch of the Inquisition). Usually rendered as aveṣyotārire [matronymic] yamei [name] lallamurkadhāna lāma.
  • ñæltryam — monk.
  • nīrvakṣari (voc.: nīrvakṣarī) — Eparch (head of an Eparchy).

Note that the full titles are used generally at the first mention only. For example, Martayināvi yamei murkadhāna Læhimausa lāma becomes afterwards either yamei murkadhāna or yamei Læhimausa lāma. With the Great Inquisitor, this does not usually get shorter than širē aveṣyotārire yamei lallāmaha ([Her] Respectable Most Excellent Highness) or širē aveṣyotārire lallāmaha camimurkadhāna ([Her] Most Excellent Highness, the Great Inquisitor).

Correlatives

Chlouvānem has a fairly regular system of correlatives, distinguishing ten types (proximal, medial, distal, interrogative, negative, assertive existential, elective existential, universal, positive alternative, and negative alternative) in eleven categories (attributive, thing, person, time, place, destination, origin, way, reason, quality, quantity).

Category ↓ / Type → Proximal Medial Distal Interrogative Negative Ass. exist. Elect. exist. Universal Positive altern. Negative altern.
Attributive nenē
(and others; see below)
this (one)
nunū
(and others; see below)
that (one) (near you)
nanā
(and others; see below)
that (one) (over there)
yanū?
what?, which (one) ?
gu
no
sora
some
grāṇa
any
yaiva
every(thing)
viṣam
another, other
guviṣam
no other
Thing gomi
nothing
sorami
something
grāṇami
anything
viṣāmi
something else
guviṣāmi
nothing else
Person ·evita
this one
·utvita
that one (near you)
·ātvita
that one (over there)
yavita?
who?
guvita
no one
soraita
someone
grāmvita
anyone
yaivita
everyone
viṣvita
someone else
guviṣvita
no one else
Time emiya
now
utiya
then
ātiya
then (remote)
yamiya?
when?
gumiya
never
soramiya
sometime, somewhen
grāmiya
anytime, whenever
yaivmiya
always, everytime
viṣmiya
sometime else
guviṣmiya
never else
Place ·ejulā
here
·uñjulā
there
·āñjulā
over there
yajulā?
where?
gujulā
nowhere
sorajulā
somewhere
grāñjulā
anywhere
yavijulā
everywhere
viñjulā
elsewhere
guviñjulā
nowhere else
Destination ·ejulyom
hither
·uñjulyom
thither
·āñjulyom
thither (remote)
yajulyom?
whither?
gujulyom
nowhither
sorajulyom
somewhither
grāñjulyom
anywhither
yavijulyom
everywhither
viñjulyom
elsewhither
guviñjulyom
nowhither else
Source ·ejulų
hence
·uñjulų
thence
·āñjulų
thence (remote)
yajulų?
whence?
gujulų
nowhence
sorajulų
somewhence
grāñjulų
anywhence
yavijulų
everywhence
viñjulų
elsewhence
guviñjulų
nowhence else
Manner elīce
thus, hereby
ūlīce
thereby
ālīce
thereby; that other way
yalīce?
how?
gulīce
no way
soralīce
somehow
grāṃlīce
anyhow
yaivlīce
everyway
viṣlīce
otherwise
guviṣlīce
no other way
Reason emena
herefore
utmena
therefore
ātmena
therefore; for that other reason
yamenat?
why?
gumena
for no reason
soramena
somewhy
grāmena
whyever, for any reason
yaivmena
for every reason
viṣmena
for another reason
guviṣmena
for no other reason
Quality esmā
this kind
utsmā
that kind
ātsmā
that other kind
yasmāt?
which kind?
gusmā
no kind
sorasmā
some kind
grāṇismā
any kind
yavismā
every kind
viṣasmā
another kind
guviṣasmā
no other kind
Quantity enūḍa
this much
utnūḍa
that much
ātnūḍa
that much (remote)
yanūḍat?
how much?
gunūḍa
none
soraṇūḍa
some of it
grāṇūḍa
any much
yaivnūḍa
all of it
viṣṇūḍa
another quantity
guviṣṇūḍa
no other quantity

Note that in common speach ālīce and ūlīce as well as ātmena and utmena are basically interchangeable. The QUALITY correlatives may take an essive argument, e.g. lajlęs grāṇismā "any kind of chair".
THING and PERSON correlatives decline for case and, in the case of evita, utvita, and ātvita, also for number (1h declension: evita, acc. sg. evitu, dir. pl. evitai, dat. pl. evitesām…). QUALITY and QUANTITY correlatives also decline for case.

Not to be confused with their literal English translations are yaivemibe (or yaiva emibe) "each, every" (literally "everyone") - which is most often attributive only in Chlouvānem - and especially sora emibe, literally "someone", which has a completely different meaning: sora emibe denotes "some single subjects, considered as single entities, hence inherently plural and taking plural verbs: sora emibe draikate "some single subjects did it" ≠ soraita dṛkte "someone did it".

Negatives, elective existentials, universals, and positive alternatives for thing and person correlatives may also take dual number:

gomīt~guvitāt "neither";
grāṇamīt~grāmvitāt "either";
yaivāt~yaivitāt "both";
viṣāmāt~viṣvitāt "the other one".

Further correlatives not included in the above table:

yambā? (whose?)
smāmi (such a...) (archaic, literary)

Positional demonstratives

Chlouvānem has a large number of demonstratives, as they are integrated with the system of positional verbs, combining a general proximal-medial-distal distinction with positional prefixes, further localizing them in space. Only a subset of 10 out of the 24 positional prefixes are used to build demonstratives; the ones with a ∅- prefix correspond to most of the unused ones, and may be translated as "this/that one in front/ahead/in the middle" when a disambiguation from another one is needed. The same ten prefixes (except for įs-) are also used together with the PERSON series (with the same logic), and with the PLACE, DESTINATION, and SOURCE correlatives, which act as adverbial anaphoras of positional and motion verbs. This results in forms like kamyejulā "here, around" or māhāñjulyom "thither (remote), rightwards".

Prefix ↓ / Type → Proximal Medial Distal
∅- (ahead) nenē
this one ahead
nunū
that one (near you) ahead
nanā
that one ahead
ān- (above) āninē
this one above
ānnū
that one (near you) above
ānnā
that one above
šu- (below) šunē
this one below
šūnū
that one (near you) below
šonā
that one below
įs- (hanging) įsinē
this one hanging
įsunū
that one (near you) hanging
įsanā
that one hanging
na(ñ)- (inside) najinē
this one inside
najunū
that one (near you) inside
najanā
that one inside
kau- (outside) kaunē
this one outside
kaunū
that one (near you) outside
kaunā
that one outside
kami- (around) kaminē
this one around
kamyunū
that one (near you) around
kamyanā
that one around
pri- (behind) prinē
this one behind
prinū
that one (near you) behind
prinā
that one behind
vai- (beside; in the corner)
(sāṭ- for the main meaning)
vainē
this one beside
vayunū
that one (near you) beside
vayanā
that one beside
vyā- (left) vyāɂinē
this one to the left
vyāɂunū
that one (near you) to the left
vyāɂanā
that one to the left
māha- (right) māhenē
this one to the right
māhonū
that one (near you) to the right
māhānā
that one to the right

The įs- forms may also be used for things lying on people's hands.

The forms for the PERSON, PLACE, DESTINATION, and SOURCE series are mostly formed through regular saṃdhi (with the partial exception of the na(ñ)- and vyā- prefixes):

Prefix ↓ / Base → ·evita
·ejulā
·ejulyom
·ejulų
·utvita
·uñjulā
·uñjulyom
·uñjulų
·ātvita
·āñjulā
·āñjulyom
·āñjulų
∅- (ahead) evita utvita ātvita
ān- (above) ānevita ānutvita ānātvita
šu- (below) švevita šūtvita švātvita
na(ñ)- (inside) naivita notvita nātvita
kau- (outside) kāvevita kāvutvita kāvātvita
kami- (around) kamyevitai kamyutvitai kamyātvitai
pri- (behind) pryevita pryutvita pryātvita
vai- (beside, in the corner) vāyevita vāyutvita vāyātvita
vyā- (left) vyāɂevita vyāɂutvita vyāɂātvita
māha- (right) māhaivita māhotvita māhātvita

Note that, in the PERSON series, the kami- forms are only used with a plural meaning, as reflected in the table above.

Declensions of correlatives and possessives

Case ā-paradigm ē-paradigm ū-paradigm t-paradigm
All possessives, nanā and other distals,
yambā?, ami, correlatives in -i[6]
nenē and other proximals nunū, and other medials, yanū? yasmāt? and yanūḍat?
Direct
Vocative
lilyā nenē nunū yasmāt
Accusative lilyau nenyu nunūyu yasmau
Ergative lilye nenye nunūye yasmātei
Genitive lilyai neniai nunūyai yasmai
Translative lilyān nenēn nunūn yasmān
Exessive lilyāt nenēt nunūt yasmātat
Essive lilyą nenę nunų yasmātą
Dative lilyåh nenǣh nunǣh yasmātom
Ablative lilyąu nenēhu nunūvu yasmąu
Locative lilǣ neniǣ nunūvǣ yasmātǣ
Instrumental lileni nenēni nunauni yasmaini


Numerals (māltsāk)

Chlouvānem is one of the few human Calemerian languages - together with all other Lahob languages and a few ones of the southern hemisphere, as well as others like Qualdomelic or vernaculars of the Inquisition which have had considerable Chlouvānem influence - with a pure duodecimal number system.

Numbers (sg māltsām, pl. māltsāk) have six different forms: cardinal, ordinal, collective, distributive, adverbial/multiplicative, and fractionary. 1-4 have separate adverbial multiplicative forms, while all other ones have an invariable form used both as adverbial and 'adjectival' multiplicatives. Cardinals from 1 to Ɛ and their compounds decline for case (see below); collectives, multiplicatives, and fractionaries always decline, while ordinals are only declined if used without an accompanying noun. Distributives do not decline.

Digit12 Base 10 Cardinal Ordinal Collective Distributive Adv./Multiplicative Fractionary
0 0 ajrā (ajrāyende) (ajrehaicē) (māgajrā)
1 1 emibe
emi
lahīla emibhaicē māgemibe (adv.)
emibarvīm
lahīlvāṭ
2 2 dani hælinaika danyatām danihaicē māgdani (adv.)
danirvīm
hælinaivāṭ
3 3 pāmvi pāmvende pāmvyatām pāmvihaicē māmpāmvi (adv.)
pāmvirvīm
pāmvendvāṭ
4 4 nęlte nęltende nęltitām nęltehaicē māgnęlte (adv.)
nęltarvīm
nęltendvāṭ
5 5 šulka šulkende šulkatām šulkhaicē šulkarvīm šulkendvāṭ
6 6 tulūɂa tulūɂende tulūɂatām tulūɂihaicē tulūrvīm tulūɂendvāṭ
7 7 chīka chīcænde chīcætām chīcihaicē chīkarvīm chīcændvāṭ
8 8 mbula mbulende mbulatām mbulhaicē mbularvīm mbulendvāṭ
9 9 moja mojende mojatām mojihaicē mojarvīm mojendvāṭ
10 tålda tåldende tåldatām tåldihaicē tåldarvīm tåldendvāṭ
Ɛ 11 vælden vældinde vælditām vældihaicē vældirvīm vældindvāṭ
10 12 māmei māminde māmintām māmeihaicē māmairvīm māmindvāṭ
11 13 emibumaye emibumayinde emibumaintām emibumaihaicē emibumairvīm emibumayindvāṭ
12 14 danimaye danimayinde danimaintām danimaihaicē danimairvim danimayindvāṭ
13 15 pamihælī pamihælīnde pamihælītām pamihælīhaicē pamihælīrvīm pamihælīndvāṭ
14 16 māminęlte māminęltende māminęltitām māminęltehaicē māminęltarvīm māmiynęltendvāṭ
15 17 māmišulka māmišulkende māmišulkatām māmišulkhaicē māmišulkarvīm māmišulkendvāṭ
16 18 māmivælka māmivælkende māmivælkatām māmivælkihaicē māmivælkarvīm māmivælkendvāṭ
17 19 māmichīka māmichīcænde māmichīcætām māmichīcihaicē māmichīkarvīm māmichīcændvāṭ
18 20 māmimbula māmimbulende māmimbulyatām māmimbulhaicē māmimbularvīm māmimbulendvāṭ
19 21 māmimoja māmimojende māmimojatām māmimojihaicē māmimojarvīm māmimojendvāṭ
1ᘔ 22 māmitålda māmitåldende māmitåldatām māmitåldihaicē māmitåldarvīm māmitåldendvāṭ
23 māmivælden māmivældinde māmivælditām māmivældihaicē māmivældirvīm māmivældindvāṭ
20 24 hælmāmei hælmāminde hælmāmintām hælmāmeihaicē hælmāmairvīm hælmāmindvāṭ

As for the two forms for one, emi is used in disjunctive counting (e.g. count-ins or countdowns) while emibe is used elsewhere. Compounds always have the full form, i.e. forms such as *hælmāmyemi do not exist.
Some compound words, especially technical and scientific ones, use Lällshag morphemes for the quantities from 1 to ᘔ (though from 5 onwards they're rarer): mån- 1, yūn- 2, lyāš- 3, alan- 4, tamb- 5, jiruṇ- or ciruṇ- 6, tulyæn- 7, neim- 8, šid- 9, abar- ᘔ.

Numbers from 2012 above are simply made by compounding teens and units with the appropriate saṃdhi changes, like 2112 (2510) hælmāmyemibe, and then hælmāmidani, hælmāmipāmvi, and so on. Note that other compounds with 6 use -tulūɂa and not -vælka as in 1612.
The other dozens are:

30 (3610) pāmvimāmei
40 (4810) nęltemāmei
50 (6010) šulkmāmei
60 (7210) vælknihæla
70 (8410) māmyāvælka (regionally chīcæmāmei, particularly in the East)
80 (9610) mbulmāmei
90 (10810) mojemāmei
ᘔ0 (12010) tåldimāmei
Ɛ0 (13210) māmimīram
and 100 (14410) nihæla.

The apparent irregularities in the words for 6012, 7012, and Ɛ012 are explained by etymology: vælka is the reflex of PLB *wewənko, which meant “half”, thus vælknihæla is “half hundred” and māmyāvælka is “twelve on half”; māmimīram is literally “twelve [less] from ahead”. 1312 originally meant "one finger/three (pāmvi, the word for three, also meant "finger" in PLB (*pāmwəj) - whence also the Chlouvānem word for "finger", pamuvis (< PLB *pamwəjis)) in the second [dozen]", where the -hælī part is a worn form of hælinaika.

Numbers from 10012 to ƐƐƐ12 are still compounds, e.g. nihælaimibe, nihæladani, and so on. Note that 16012 is most commonly nihæltulūɂa, but the more literary form nihælvælka may still be heard.
The other dozenal hundreds are:

200 (28810) daninihæla
300 (43210) pāmvinihæla
400 (57610) nęltenihæla
500 (72010) šulknihæla
600 (86410) tulūnihæla
700 (100810) chīcænihæla
800 (115210) mbulnihæla
900 (129610) mojanihæla
ᘔ00 (144010) tåldanihæla
Ɛ00 (158410) vældenihæla.

1.000 (172810) is tildhā and numbers above are separate words, without saṃdhi, e.g. 1.001 tildhā emibe, 6.2ᘔ9 (1078510) tulūɂa tildhā daninihælatåldimāmimoja.
Note that 2.00012 may be either one of tildhāt, dani tildhā, or (only emphatically) dani tildhāt.

The other divisions - numbers over ƐƐ.ƐƐƐ12 are based on groups of two digits: the two most commonly used ones in common speech are 1.00.000 (248.83210) - a raicē - and 1.00.00.000 (35.831.80810) - a lallaraicē.

The next two groups have their separate words, but are quantities rarely used in common speech: 1.00.00.00.000 (129) (5.159.780.35210) is a taiskaucis and 1.00.00.00.00.000 (1211) (743.008.370.68810) a lallataiskaucis. The words khorādi (127, i.e. synonym of lallaraicē), yaṣmūn (1211, i.e. lallataiskaucis), iriakas (1213), mairāṇa or lalleriakas (1215), nirāvah (1217), and sṝva or lallanirāvah (1219) were introduced in Classical-era texts, but are almost never used today. However, they form the base for the scientific measurement system's prefixes.

Their non-cardinal forms are all regular, with -ende (-inde after -m or for Ɛ12) for ordinals, -tām for collectives, -haicē for distributives, -rvīm for adverbials/multiplicatives (prefixed māg- for the separate adverbial forms), and -endvāṭ/-indvāṭ for the fractionaries. Compounds of 1-2 retain all irregular suppletive forms, e.g. hælmāmilahīla 2112st (2510th); hælmāmihælinaika 2212nd (2610th).

Finally, there are few other cardinals commonly used in speech: vālhælya 1½, vālpāmvya 2½, vālnęlca 3½, vālšulca 4½, and vāltulūya 5½. The forms vālchīca, vālambulya (or vālumbulya), and vālmojya are used in telling the time only and obsolete otherwise, while other similar forms are sparingly attested in older mathematical texts, but periphrastical constructions such as tulūɂa hælinaivāṭ no (or, sometimes, - vælka no) are more commonly heard and used nowadays. A form that, however, is sometimes found up to the present day is vālhælnihæla, meaning 16012 (21610), i.e. one dozenal hundred and a half.

Use of fractionary numbers

Fractionary numbers (except vāl- ones) are used to express non-integers just like any other quantity. Simple ones such as 0,6 (½) are the basic fractionary number - in this case hælinaivāṭ (note that, outside mathematics, danyāmita is the preferred term for "half", both in metaphorical (lilyā viṣam danyāmita "my other half") and non-metaphorical uses (alāvi danyāmita "half of the bottle")); other examples are 0,3 (¼) nęltendvāṭ and 0,4 (⅓) pāmvendvāṭ.
With more complex fractions, the smallest part (negative power of twelve) is stated - the three commonly found are 1/12 (māmindvāṭ), 1/144 (nihælendvāṭ), and 1/1728 (tildhaindvāṭ). For example, 0,82 is mbulmāmidani nihælendvāṭ and 0,7ᘔ6 is chīcænihælamāmimīraṃtulūɂa tildhaindvāṭ; sometimes, "0, then" (mīram) may be added: ajrā mīram mbulmāmidani nihælendvāṭ.

With a non-fractionary portion that is not zero, instead of mīram, smurā (full, integer) is used - e.g. 2,307 is usually said as dani smurā pāmvinihælchīka tildhaindvāṭ.

Declensions of cardinal numbers

Some cardinal numbers are declined for case, but this is usually only done in formal Chlouvānem. In informal Chlouvānem, either only emibe is declined, or are all numerals up to vælden, plus nihæla. Compounds of these are usually not declined. The words tildhā, (lalla)raicē, and (lalla)taiskaucis are always declined, but they are fully nouns.

Case emibe Dual paradigm i-paradigm a-paradigm en-paradigm
dani pāmvi, nęlte[7] 5 to 10[8] vælden only
Direct
Vocative
emibe dani pāmvi šulka vælden
Accusative emiyu daneṣa pāmvyu šulku vældu
Ergative emeis daneya pāmvyes šulkes vældes
Genitive emibī dañva pāmvi[9] šulki vældi
Translative emiban danaus pāmvin šulkan vældanna
Exessive emibat danebhan pāmvit šulkat vældanta
Essive emibą danīgin pāmvyą šulką vældąs
Dative emibå danaus pāmvyå šulkå vældå
Ablative emiyų danebhan pāmvyų šulkų vældų
Locative emiye danīgin pāmvye šulke vælde
Instrumental emīp danebhan pāmvip šulkip vældampa

Use of numerals

Cardinal numerals may be used in two ways, depending on whether emphasis is given to the number or to the thing counted.

  • In the most common use, the counted thing is emphasized: the numeral is put before the noun and the noun is always singular (except for "two", see below) plus the appropriate case: e.g. emibe yujam (one lotus flower); dani māra (two mango fruits); pāmvi haloe (three names), vælden ñaiṭa (eleven stars), and so on.
  • If emphasis is given to the number, then the counted thing comes first, and, if it should be in direct, ergative, or accusative case, it is in genitive singular instead; the semantic direct, ergative, or accusative case is taken by the numeral itself if it is one, two, three, or compounds. Examples: yujami emibe (one lotus flower), māri dani (two mango fruits), haleni pāmvi (three names), ñaiṭi vælden (eleven stars). In other cases, the noun follows the semantic case (but is always singular anyway), e.g. marti pāmvi (three cities) but marte pāmvye (in the three cities).
    This form is increasingly less common in everyday use.
  • "Two" may be used with either singular or dual number: dani māra or māri dani are both as correct as dani mārāt and māreva dani - note that the dual number alone, without the numeral, has the same meaning; the dual form alone does not give particular emphasis to the number, while using the numeral, at least in formal styles, already gives more emphasis (intermediate to the two abovementioned forms). Outside of literary texts, it is however more common to specify "two" with the numeral.

Note, though, the structure "nihæle + genitive of a noun + a cardinal numeral", used for expressing percentage (dozenally), e.g. nihæle laili hælmāmei "20% of people".

Ordinal numerals are regular attributive adjective-like words that precede nouns - e.g. hælinaika kita "second house". They do not decline if are used together with a noun, but they can also be used alone (e.g. hælinaika "the second one"), in which case they decline for case and number, as if they were -eh nouns (-a for 1st and 2nd), e.g. mojendesām ukulate "it has been told to those in ninth position".

Collective numerals (which decline as regular -ām nouns) are most commonly found with the meaning of "a group consisting of X ...", therefore implying greater cohesiveness than using the cardinal number implies. A common example of the subtle meaning change is between the sentences chīka lalāruṇa togāhaite (with a cardinal) and chīcætām lalāruṇa togāhaite (with a collective): both mean "seven lalāruṇai hit", but in the latter sentence the action is implied to be a coordinate act of all seven animals, while in the former they either hit randomly or the coordination of the action is not specified (or not specification-worthy). This is also the most common meaning with pluralia tantum, as commonly heard with ethnonyms (which are all plural only in Chlouvānem), e.g. šulkatām chlǣvānem "[a group of] five Chlouvānem people".
They can also be found, context-dependent, used with the meaning of "all X of..." - in a sentence such as e.g. mbulatām lejīn dilu liju lilejlaikate "all eight singers wanted to sing the same song" - or with the meaning of "X sets of" with singularia tantum - e.g. pāmvyatām hærṣūs "three pairs of lips" (but note that colloquial Chlouvānem increasingly often uses the cardinals here, e.g. pāmvi hærṣūs).
The collective numerals for 0 and 1 (ajrāṇṭām and emibutām respectively) are not included in the table above because they do not exist in practical use; however, they are sporadically found in poetry and literature, referring to people and with the meaning of "a group where only one/no one is ...", e.g. ajrāṇṭām tadhusmausīn "a group where no one is honest". Similarly, collectives for vāl- numbers (e.g. vālpāmvyantām "a group consisting of 2½ ...") exist, but are virtually unused. danyatām, like dani, may be use together with either a singular or a dual noun.

In some cases, the choice between a collective and a cardinal is stylistic. While for example concepts such as "we are..." or "I have ... children" do normally use the collective (e.g. tulūɂatām ñæltah jalim "we are six sisters/a group of six reciprocal brothers and sisters"; lili mæn nęltitām nūrya "I have four children"), even if using a cardinal isn't wrong, in a sentence such as "there are X people" both versions are found, with the collective-using sentence (e.g. dvārma vælditāmą lilęs virā "in the room there are eleven people") being perceived as more formal than the more colloquially heard cardinal-using version (i.e. dvārma vældąs lilęs virā).

Distributive numerals are indeclinable adjective-like words, and have the meaning of "X each": pāmvihaicē titē męlyāhai "three pens each are given"; lili lilyā ñæltah no tulūɂihaicē karjhañī alau ulgutarate "my sister and I have bought six bottles of kvas each" — note in both sentences the use of singular number in titē (pencil) and alūs (acc. alau) "bottle", just like after cardinal and collective numerals.

Adverbial numerals are adverbs with the meaning of "X times" and multiplicative numbers are adjective-like words (that can also be used alone) with the meaning of "X times as large"; numbers from 1 to 4 have both forms, while all other ones (except 0) have only the multiplicative one, which is used for both meanings. Examples: pāmvirvīm yąloe "triple meal/a meal three times as large"; āsena māgdani "twice a month"; āsena mbularvīm "eight times a month".
Zero only has an adverbial form (māgajrā), which is however only used in reading multiplications and powers, e.g. 3 * 0 māgajrā pāmvi, 90 māgajrā demǣ moja.

Fractionary numerals are always used in the noun.GEN numeral construction, and they are invariable in direct, vocative, accusative, and ergative case but decline with -vaḍa in all of the others (in fact, etymologically they derive from worn down forms of ordinal + vaḍa, meaning Xth part, e.g. hælinaika vaḍa (the second part) → hælinaivāṭ). Unlike ordinals, the noun is always in the genitive case. Examples: marti hælinaivāṭ "half of the city" ; alāvi nęltendvāṭ "one fourth of the bottle" ; babhrāmi tulūɂendvaḍe "in one sixth of the country".

Basic maths

  • 1 + 2 = 3
emibe širē dani pāmvyå lunade (1.DIR. more. 2.DIR. 3-DAT. go.MONODIR-IND.PRES-3DU.EXTERIOR-AGENTIVE) — rule: ADIR širē BDIR (širē ...) CDAT lunade (two addends) / lunāhai (3+ addends)
  • 3 - 2 = 1
pāmvi isan dani emibå lunade (3.DIR. minus. 2.DIR. 1-DAT go.MONODIR-IND.PRES-3DU.EXTERIOR-AGENTIVE) — rule: ADIR isan BDIR (isan ...) CDAT lunade (two addends) / lunāhai (3+ addends)
  • 3 * 2 = 6
māgdani pāmvi tulūɂå liven (2.ADV.MULTIP. 3.DIR. 6-DAT. go.MONODIR-IND.PRES-3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENTIVE) — rule: MULTIPLICATIVE.(ADV)-B ADIR CDAT liven
  • 6 : 2 = 3
hælinaivadęs tulūɂa pāmvyå liven (2.FRACTION-ESS. 6.DIR 3-DAT. go.MONODIR-IND.PRES-3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENTIVE) — rule: FRACTIONARY-BESS ADIR CDAT liven
  • 62 = 30 (3610)
māgdani demǣ tulūɂa pāmvimāmei liven (2.ADV.MULTIP. REFL.GEN-LOC. 6.DIR. 3012. go.MONODIR-IND.PRES-3SG.EXTERIOR-AGENTIVE) — rule: MULTIPLICATIVE.(ADV)-B demǣ ADIR CDAT liven

Reified numerals

Reified numerals, or numerals used as nouns, have a special form, which is actually the numeral with the common noun-forming suffix -as added (with regular saṃdhi). These numerals are used most notably for:

  • In order to refer to the digits themselves (danyas "the digit 2");
  • Things named with numbers (tulūɂās "[tram/bus/etc] number 6");
  • (in the plural) Year dozens (vælknihælē "the 6012s = the 386012s);
  • (in the plural) Age ranges by the dozen (hælmāmeyē "2012ies" = the age range from the start of one's 2012th year to the end of one's 2Ɛth);
  • School marks - note that there's no uniform system in the Inquisition (nęltayas "a grade 4" (passing grade in the most widespread system for non-higher education in the Inquisition, ranging from 1 (emibayas), worst, to 7 (chīkās), best));
  • A group of X people - a reification of collective numerals (pāmvyas "a trio").

Note that there are some terms which use numerals as roots but aren't considered reified numbers (also because of their rather inconsistent meanings); the most common examples include danyāmita (half) and māmyāmita (dozen).

Units of Measurement

Chlouvānem units of measurement (lęlgīs, pl. lęlgais) are divided in popular units (leilausirena lęlgais) and scientific units (tarlausirena lęlgais). Scientific units, while understood, are rarely found outside of scientific contexts if corresponding popular units exist, while popular units are found in daily usage. Popular units follow however a measurement standard introduced in the year 36Ɛ7 (618710) and updated several times in the following two centuries, in order to give a single understood measure for all units whose names and definitions varied across the many countries of the Chlouvānem cultural space.
It is also to be noted that Calemerian scientific units have internationally unified definitions for their base units but are substantially different between the Western and the Eastern world as Western countries use them with a decimal system, while the Eastern countries (the Inquisition, most of the former Kaiṣamā, and Greater Skyrdagor) use them with a duodecimal system.

Length

The tyuta, nakūrum, and garaṇa are known but rarely used; the vālpāmvyās is rarely written as a separate measure, but isn't uncommon in speech.

Short Name Meaning/name origin Equivalent to Metric system (approx.)
lūj lūjla (ABL) Point, tip ⅛ tyu ~3.09639 mm
tyu tyuta Short (dialectal) ⅓ ka ~2.47711 cm
ka katis Finger ⅓ mā ~7.43133 cm
mākoba Span (base unit) 22.294 cm
pājya Leg 4 mā 89.176 cm
vāl vālpāmvyās
vālpāmvya pājya
Two and a half legs 2+½ pā 2.2294 m
nak nakūrum Rod 8 pā 7.13408 m
cān cāṃtrūh Section (A. Yodhvaši) 140 (19210) pā 171.21792 m
vai vaiṣrya Plough 8 cān
ᘔ80 (153610)
1369.7434 m — 1.36974 km
gar garaṇa Hour 34 (4010) cān 6848.72 m — 6.84872 km


Temperature

Temperature measuring in the Chlouvānem world uses the Jahārāṭha scale (shortened ºj; named after scientist Ṣastirāvi Jahārāṭha Nukthalin), which is fixed with a zero degree at water freezing temperature at sea level. 100 ºj is the rough boiling temperature of water, but, being a duodecimal scale, it is 10012 (14410), thus 1 ºj equals 25/36 of a degree Celsius, or 1 ºC = 1.44 ºj.
The median body temperature of a Calemerian human (which is slightly lower than for terrestrial humans) is of 41 ºj (4910), thus ~34.0278 ºC.

Time

See also: Chlouvānem Calendar and time § the Chlouvānem calendar

English Chlouvānem Equivalent to rough Earthly approximation
Year heirah 418 Calemerian days 609.6 Earth days
Day lairē 2812 (3210) hours ~35 hours
Hour garaṇa 3 hælmāmyai
6012 (7210) railai
~65 min ~37 sec
group of "minutes" hælmāmya 2012 (2410) railai ~21 min ~52 sec
"Minute" raila (base unit) ~54.6805 sec
"Second" namišoe 1/4012 (1/4810) raila ~1.8986 sec
1/12 of a "second" (namišeni) māmendvāṭ 1/1012 (1/1210) namišoe ~0.1582 sec
1/144 of a "second" (namišeni) nihælendvāṭ 1/10012 (1/14410) namišoe ~0.0131 sec
1/1728 of a "second" (namišeni) tildhaindvāṭ 1/100012 (1/172810) namišoe ~1.0987 ms

Other units

Chlouvānem Symbol rough Earthly approximation
frequency lūnaji lnj ~0.526704 Hz
voltage chulgān chg 1 V

Particles (remīk)

Traditional Chlouvānem grammar only recognizes a single part of speech called "particles" (remīn, literally "helper(s)") which includes conjunctions, postpositions, and interjections. However, these three are recognized as subsets of particles - here translated as "conjunctive particles" (natemālāhai remīn), "accompanying particles", i.e. postpositions (ūtimāhai remīn), and "exclamatory particles" (pigdilanah nali remīn).

Many Chlouvānem particles are grammaticalized usages of other words, some of them no longer being used in their original meaning in contemporary use (e.g. varve).

Conjunctive particles

Conjunctive particles may not stand syntactically alone and, with a few exceptions, don't require any particular case of a noun. Most of them function, or are also used, as conjunctions between sentences.

  • jahān — anyway (conjunction or second position adverb)
  • lai — inclusive or
  • las — and (in incomplete listings, cf. no and sama); it follows the noun it refers to, and in listings with more than two nouns it follows every noun except for the first. Not used to conjoin sentences.
  • lenta — "together (with)", adverbial or postpositive, requiring genitive case in the latter usage. When pospositive, it is more emphatic than . Adverbially, gimmālsiṭ is more common.
  • mailiven — so, thus, therefore (grammaticalized use of go_forward.UNIDIR.PRES.IND.EXP.3SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR.)
  • mbu — exclusive or
  • mešē — given that (grammaticalized use of see.PRES.IND-EXP-3SG.PATIENT.EXTERIOR.)
  • najelai — maybe. Originally the archaic potential form of najalle (to happen). Sentence-final, requires a verb in the subjunctive mood, e.g. yahatite najelai "maybe I'll read it".
  • nānim — almost; if used with nouns, requires essive case.
  • ni — but (in second position)
  • no — and (in complete listings, cf. las); same placement as las. Also used to conjoin sentences, but sama is preferred, especially when there are different subjects (triggered arguments).
  • nyąu — because, for, as (cf. ); amyąu in the Classical era, i.e. the ablative of the former demonstrative ami.
Used sentence-finally: aganą lā įstyāk nyąu yųlake pañcekte "as (s)he was hungry, (s)he started eating." In lone sentences, e.g. answers, is preferred: aganą lā tī įstyāk "because (s)he was hungry."
  • paṣe — furthermore
  • — if (and pūmbu "whether") - see Chlouvānem syntax § Conditional sentences
  • sama (sam before vowels) — and (between sentences only, cf. las and no)
  • širē — also, too (only between sentences, cf. tan). A different use of the adverb meaning "more".
  • tadye — despite that (between sentences), cf. tatta.
  • tan — also, too; used adverbially and between sentences (where, however, širē is more common).
  • tatta — despite, even though; requires a noun in the essive case or a subjunctive verb (e.g. gu talunīs ša tatta dadrā "even though you didn't come, it has been done."). Colloquially, it is also used anaphorically, instead of tadye; however, it is considered bad style in formal language.
  • varve — instead of; requires genitive case or subjunctive mood. Originally the locative singular of varva "form", no longer used in contemporary Chlouvānem.
    • samvarve — on the other hand, whereas
  • vivāmi — "too much", adverbial or postpositive, requiring genitive case in the latter usage.
  • væse — while, in the meantime; "during (the)" with nouns. Requires a verb in the subjunctive mood or a noun in the essive (or, meaning-dependant, exessive or translative) case.

Accompanying particles (i.e. postpositions)

These particles can never stand alone, do not conjoin sentences, and nearly always require a particular noun case.

  • bīs — between; from ... until, in expressions of time. Comes after both nouns in essive case: šurājęs nyūramyęs bīs "between Šurājah and Nyūramyah".
  • bisikita — except for; requires subjunctive mood or essive case. Grammaticalized usage of put_aside-EXP-IND.PERF.3.PATIENT.EXTERIOR. (e.g. nītedarāhai lailąs bisikita nalunya upulsma "entrance is forbidden, except for involved people" → "authorized personnel only")
  • dam — interrogative particle in polar questions, put after the verb (e.g. daltah vi dam? "is it a fish?")
  • e — like. Requires essive case with nouns and subjunctive mood with verbs.
  • ga — adpositive particle, used to join nouns in noun phrases (usually titles or proper names, but not honorifics), e.g. Līlasuṃghāṇa ga marta "Līlasuṃghāṇa city" or Tāllahārya ga maita "Tāllahārya river".
    Mostly in poetry (for metrical reasons), or Archaic and Early Classical Chlouvānem prose (e.g. in the Lileṃsasarum, or many Yunyalīlti holy books), ga is used to conjoin attributive verbs to nouns, e.g. lei imiša ga švas "the animal seen by me". Already in parts of the Lileṃsasarum the decading usage of the particle in this sense is to be noted, as often it is only used to conjoin exterior verbs to nouns, but not interior ones.
  • gu(n) ~ ša — negative circumposition used around verbs, e.g. gu yuyųlsegde ša "(s)he does not want to eat". The first element is gun before vowels; the ša element is omitted if the verb is attributive.
  • — with (comitative); requires essive case (e.g. lilyą ñæltęs lā "with my sister"). The Archaic Chlouvānem form was lapi.
  • lut — used with expressions of time: means "ago" if used with ablative case (nęlcų heirų lut "four years ago"), "for/since" if with essive case (nęlcą heiręs lut "for four years").
  • mei and go — "yes" and "no", used according to the polarity of the question; i.e. mei denotes the statement is true ("yes" to affirmative questions, "no" to negative questions), while go denotes the statement is false ("no" to affirmative questions, "yes" to negative questions).
  • mænmarks a topic which otherwise has no role in the sentence.
  • nali — benefactive marker, used with a noun in direct case; marks the benefited argument when the verb is not in benefactive-trigger voice. If used with a subjunctive verb, means "in order to", with a nuance of hope (the bare subjunctive already carries the "in order to" meaning).
  • nin — after, with ablative or subjunctive (nęlcų heirų nin "after four years")
  • pa — on, of, concerning, on the subject of, about. Requires a direct case noun (e.g. vāṇatarlā pa naviṣya "book about botany") or a subjunctive mood verb (e.g. šūñjulā drētte pa nīdhāḍirdya "the two of us are talking about what (s)he did down there").
  • ras — antibenefactive marker, used with a noun in direct case; marks the anti-benefited argument when the verb is not in antibenefactive-trigger voice. If used with a subjunctive verb, means "to avoid X".
  • sām — different meanings depending on case:
ablative, in expressions of time: "in ... time" (at the end of a certain period), or "by": nęlcų heirų sām "in four years' time, four years for now"; šurājų sām "by Šurājah";
translative (rarely essive), in expressions of time: "in/for/until" (within, during a certain period): nęltin heiran sām "for the coming four years" (or nęlcą heiręs sām); ājvan sām "until dawn";
dative case, with places: "until, as far as": līlasuṃghāṇa ṣrāvamaila ga keikom sām "as far as Līlasuṃghāṇa Ṣrāvamaila Station")
subjunctive verb: "until": primęlirī sām "until he/she/it comes back".
  • šut — before, with ablative or subjunctive (nęlcų heirų šut "four years before").
  • vādį — without, with essive or subjunctive. Unlike English, it cannot be used anaphorically.

Correlative particles

Chlouvānem does not have correlative conjunctions as English does, because they are translated in different ways:

  • English "both... and..." is most commonly translated as X Y no tan ("X, and also Y"), e.g. jādāh lañekaica no tan nanau draikate "both Jādāh and Lañekaica did that".
    Alternatively, the forms X Y no peiṃsiṭ ("X, and the same for Y") or X ..., Y peiṃsiṭ ("X ..., and Y the same") are also widespread, e.g. jādāh lañekaica no peiṃsiṭ nanau draikate; nāneh lei uyųla, māra peiṃsiṭ "I have eaten both the bread and the mango".
  • English "neither... nor..." is translated by the same structures as "both... and...", but negative. In the most common usage, tan is omitted:
    jādāh lañekaica no (tan) nanau gu draikate ša "neither Jādāh nor Lañekaica did that"; nāneh lei gun uyųla ša, māra peiṃsiṭ "I have eaten neither the bread nor the mango".
  • "either... or..." is easily translated by the exclusive or (mbu). It is commonly only used after the second term, but it can be put after every term for emphasis:
    jādāh (mbu) lañekaica mbu nanau dṛkte – either Jādah or Lañekaica did it. (note the singular verb)

Emphatic particles

A few particles are used (usually sentence-finally) in order to convey particular feelings of the speaker about the statement:

  • anā is an introductory particle (e.g. "so")
  • å expresses either surprise (at the beginning of a sentence) or that the fact is considered annoying (at the end), e.g. å vikṣiṭ dadrāte "wow, (s)he's done it again!" / vikṣiṭ dadrā å "oh no, (s)he's done it again!"
  • gives the sentence, especially a command or a proposition, an informal tone - cf. German "mal" or Italian "un po'", e.g. najire nanau mešute dā "I'll just see what happens"; peithos dā "just calm down and take a walk around here."
  • e is a basic declarative particle when used word-finally, and is often used as an introduction (much like "you know, ...") or as a generic filler.
  • eri means "even", marking a positive emphasis (e.g. hūnakumi dhāḍan eri dhāḍire "(s)he even speaks Hūnakumi[10]")
  • gāri means "not even", being the opposite of eri, marking a negative emphasis (e.g. hulābdān chlǣvānumi dhāḍan gāri dhāḍire "(s)he doesn't even speak correct Chlouvānem")
  • , a generic filler (cf. "I mean"), often combined with e. e.g. nā (e) nenēt nāṭ tarliru! "I mean, I already know this!"
  • nane is a tag question, e.g. camiyūs vi dam nane? "you're from Cami, aren't you?"
  • nimā is an introductory particle, same as anā.
  • naihā is a tag question much like nane, but is used when the speaker is in doubt and/or expects a contradictory answer, e.g. lære draute dam naihā? "did I do it yesterday, or...?"
  • pos is a filler with a meaning similar to tau, but it is more properly translated as emphasizing that the speaker considers the statement as a general truth or a widely accepted thing, e.g. ālīce jeldegde pos "yeah, everybody knows (s)he acts that way/does that kind of things."
  • sāṭ expresses the speaker's doubt about the honesty of the expressed action, e.g. tamye tamyu draukæ sāṭ "(s)he did it for me, but I don't believe that's what (s)he really wanted" or "as if (s)he really did it for me!"
  • tau emphasizes that the fact expressed is considered obvious, and is fairly colloquial, e.g. lārvājuṣe ēk tau "huh, I was at the temple, nothing else"; kitui vasau tau "I drove home [what else could I do?]"
  • tva puts strong emphasis on a declarative sentence; it is fairly colloquial and not polite, and thus avoided in formal speech, e.g. nenēyu daudyute tati ukulaṃte tva! "damn, I said I want that, shut up!"

Derivational morphology (vāmbeithausire maivāndarāmita)

Chlouvānem has an extensive system of derivational morphology, with many possibilities of deriving words from verbal roots and even from other nouns.

Compounds

Chlouvānem, like Sanskrit, has four main types of compound words (tadmaiva, pl. tadmaivai), called in Chlouvānem grammar emibądanīs (dvandva), ṭvādaradhausire tadmaiva (avyayībhāva), nīdhvakādhūs (tatpuruṣa), and kaudhvakādhūs (bahuvrīhi).

Dvandva (emibądanīs)

The first type of compounds is emibądanīs type (also called no ga tadmaiva), corresponding to dvandva compounds. In emibądanais, all words in the compound are taken with the concrete idea they represent. As hinted to by the alternative name, these compounds effectively substitute an "X Y no" (X and Y), compressing it into a single word.

tēneh ukyā no "a branch and a trunk" → tēnayukyāt "branch and trunk"

Dvandva compounds are formed by removing the direct case -s or -h marker from the word, lengthening all resulting final vowels (i.e. for all words not ending in -oe, -ai, -m, or -n), and joining with saṃdhi the second word; the second word is then inflected in the dual (if the word semantically refers to two things) or in the plural (if it refers to three or more things - see the next example).

tēneh nūlyai no "a branch and leaves" → tēnēnūlyai "branch(es) and leaves"

Note that, if the dvandva is plural, there is no indication of how many elements of each component are present:

lalāruṇāt voltām no "two lalāruṇai (DU) and a sheep (SG)" → lalāruṇāvoltāk "lalāruṇai and sheep" (PL)
lalāruṇai voltām no "lalāruṇai (PL) and a sheep (SG)" → lalāruṇāvoltāk "lalāruṇai and sheep" (PL)
lalāruṇa voltāk no "a lalāruṇa (SG) and sheep (PL)" → lalāruṇāvoltāk "lalāruṇai and sheep" (PL)

The identification of how many individual lalāruṇai and sheep is lost in the compound, however, we know from the plural number that there must be at least three animals; otherwise, the dvandva would be dual:

lalāruṇa voltām no "a lalāruṇa (SG) and a sheep (SG)" → lalāruṇāvoltīvā "lalāruṇai and sheep" (DU)

Dvandva made of three or more elements can, obviously, only be plural:

lalāruṇa voltām no jorai no "a lalāruṇa, a sheep, and a goat" → lalāruṇāvoltāñjorāye "lalārunai, sheep, and goats"

In the most formal registers of Chlouvānem, it is not uncommon to find dvandva compounds made of several elements:

lācāh kraṣṭāmita no lillāmita no demigretas no lelyēmita no "love, fidelity, devotion, sacrifice, and family" → lācākraṣṭāmitālillāmitādemigretālelyēmitai "love, fidelity, devotion, sacrifice, and family"

Avyayībhāva (ṭvādaradhausire tadmaiva)

Avyayībhāva compounds, in Chlouvānem ṭvādaradhausirāhe tadmaivai ("adverbial compounds"), are not as productive as the other types and, in fact, except for a few words they're mostly limited to Archaic and Classical Chlouvānem; despite being based on the latter, modern Chlouvānem does not use them productively (but see nīpenai below).
These compounds generally have a first element which is a particle (or a verbal prefix), and the second element is a noun which is either left uninflected in the direct singular or, more commonly, in the two Archaic Chlouvānem adverbializing cases: the instrumental plural or the locative singular.

sam + jildas "after + act" → *sañjildas → sañjilde "consequently"
naš(e) + sṝva "full, complete + extent" → *nakṣṝva → nakṣṝve "as much as possible"
væse + vāyam "while + image, form" → væsvāyam or væsvāyaṃrīka "thus, therefore"
paṣ(e) + vāyam "beyond + image, form" → paṣvāyam "in addition, furthermore"
maibu + jallas "enough + condition" → *maibujallas → maibujalle "as needed"
+ penai "within + net" → nīpenai "online" (generally considered the only modern Chlouvānem avyayībhāva)

A particular kind of avyayībhāva is the -ṣati class, whose particularity derives from having a first element which is a declinable word (a possessive determiner); however, they're still adverbs and therefore uninflected:

lilyā ṣati "my way" → lilyāṣati "from my point of view; in my opinion; my way"
sāmyā ṣati "your way" → sāmyāṣati "from your point of view; in your opinion; your way"

Tatpuruṣa (nīdhvakādhūs)

Tatpuruṣa compounds (nīdhvakādhūs "with meaning inside", pl. nīdhvakādhaus) are likely the most common overall in Chlouvānem, and are the preferred way of crafting new words. These are endocentric compounds, the last element, the head of the compound, is modified by the previous element(s), which can be of any part of speech. Usually, the tatpuruṣa replaces genitive "X of Y", agentive "X which does Y", benefactive "X for Y", locative "X in Y", instrumental "X with Y", or sometimes copular structures "X which is (also) Y" (corresponding to Sanskrit karmadhāraya compounds) or "X made of Y".
The determining elements are generally uninflected.

vāṇumi tarlā "study of plants" → vāṇatarlā "botany"
vāṇatarlom kaminairīveyē lila "a person studying botany" (semantic agent) → vāṇatarlālila "botanist"
mordhē cūlla "carriage that flies" → mordhacūlla "airplane"
aṣṭre nali hatsunā "brush for teeth" → aṣṭṛhatsunā "toothbrush"
nanāye līlta "path in the jungle" → nanailīlta "jungle path"
nijogāp konanah "shooting with bow" → nijogākonanah "archery"
munnęs ḍūṇā "a telephone which is a computer" → munnaḍūṇā "smartphone"
javilenīs mayābi "wine made from apples" → javilmayābi "cider"

Bahuvrīhi (kaudhvakādhūs)

Bahuvrīhi compounds (kaudhvakādhūs "with meaning outside", pl. kaudhvakādhaus) are also quite common Chlouvānem words; they are exocentric compounds where none of the elements is the head of the compound, or, all elements are qualifiers. They replace structures like "[someone/something] with X which is/are Y" or "[sm/st] whose X is/are Y"; it could even be generalized to "[sm/st] whose [tatpuruṣa compound]":

murkire dhānęs lā lila "person with black hands" → murkadhāna "Inquisitor"
yųlgis nali javyęs lā dvārma "room with fire for food" → yųljavyāh "kitchen"[11]

Noun-forming morphemes

-a (unstressed) or (stressed) is a common derivative to make basic words from verbal roots. It does not have any fixed meaning, though it's always pretty close to the root. Nouns with the unstressed suffix and an ablautable vowel usually belong to the ablauting declension. in a root is always strengthened to middle-grade.

  • dṛ (to do, to make) → dara (activity)
  • lil (to live) → lila (person; living thing)
  • tṛl (to know) → tarlā (science)

-as is another common derivative, without fixed meaning, but usually denoting objects or things done by acting. It is used to derive positions from positional verbs.

  • tug (to beat) → tugas (beat)
  • māhatyā (māhatim-) (be to the right of) → māhatimas (right)
  • āntyā (āntim-) (be above, be on) → āntimas (part above)

-ūm is another derivative without fixed meaning, overlapping with -as.

  • lgut (to buy) → lgutūm (something bought)
  • peith (to go, walk (multidirectional)) → peithūm (walk)
  • yālv (to be sweet (taste)) → yālvūm (sweet taste)

-(u)kāram is a singulative suffix, denoting either a single thing of a collective noun, or a single constituent of a broader act. Unlike the previous ones, it is most commonly applied to other nouns.
In modern coinings, it is also used to denote a division of something.

  • lun (to go, walk (monodirectional)) → lulkāram (step)
  • lil (to live) (or liloe (life)) → lilukāram (moment, instant)
  • daša (rain) → dašukāram (raindrop)
  • araṣa (atom) → araṣkāram (subatomic particle)

-anah, with middle-grade ablaut if possible, denotes an act or process, or something closely related to that.

  • dig (to pour) → deganah ((act of) pouring)
  • miš (to see) → mešanah (sight)
  • lgut (to buy) → lgotanah (shopping)

-na (-ra after t or d; -iyāna after Cy, -uvāna after Cv) with lengthening denotes a quality.

  • māl (to keep together) → mālna (union)
  • hælvē (fruit) → šaulviyāna (fertility) (morphemically //hyaulviyāna//)
  • åbdv (to swell, blow up) → åbduvāna (swollenness, bloatiness)
  • blut (to clean) → blūtra (cleanliness)
  • Lengthening is absent if the word is derived from an -aus- adjectival verb (e.g. chlæraus- ((to be) easy) → chlærausna (easiness)) and in a few exceptions.
  • Inverse-ablaut roots have the reduced vowel as a prefix (e.g. vald (to (be) open) → uvaldra (opening, state of being open)).

-išam has the same meaning as -na, but it's rarer.

  • yųlniltas (edible) → yųlniltešam (edibility)
  •  yālv (to be sweet (taste)) → yālvišam (sweetness)
  • ñailūh (ice) → ñailūvišam (coldness)
  • nevy (to model, to give a form) → nevīšam (plastic) (This word underwent a meaning shift from "modellability" to a common material with that quality, replacing the derived form nevīšandhūs previously used. "Modellability" is nyaviyāna in contemporary Chlouvānem.)

-āmita (-yāmita when used with nouns with thematic e or i), often with high-grade ablaut, is another suffix forming quality nouns, but it is often more abstract, being translatable with suffixes like English -ism.

  • lalteh (friend (female)) → laltyāmita (friendship)
  •  ēmīla (tiger) → ēmīlāmita (nobility (quality); most important people in society[12])
  • ñæltah (sister (male's)) → ñæltāmita (brotherhood)

-tsām (-utsām after ñ, š, and voiced stops except d(h)), with middle-grade ablaut, has various generic and sometimes unpredictable meanings, though typically instrumental.

  •  māl (to keep together) → māltsām (number)
  •  lij (to sing) → lejutsām (choir)
  •  dhāḍ (to speak) → dhāḍutsām (voice)
  • kul (to say) → kultsām (word) (irregular lack of middle-grade ablaut)

-rṣūs (-ṛṣūs after a consonant) denotes a tool, namely something used in doing an action.

  • yaud- (to catch) → yaudṛṣūs (trap)
  • miš- (to see) → meširṣūs (eye (literary, rare))[13]
  • nail- (to kiss) → nailṛṣūs (lips (pair of))

-gis denotes something used for doing an action, not always synonymous with -rṣūs. -t-gis becomes -ñjis.

  •  mešīn (eye) → mešīlgis (glasses (pair of))
  •  tug- (to beat) → tulgis (drumstick)
  •  lgut- (to buy) → lguñjis (money, currency)

-oe (with middle-grade ablaut) often denotes a result, but has lots of various meanings.

  •  hal- (to call) → haloe (name, noun)
  •  mbiṇḍh- (to go, walk (multidirectional)) → mbiṇḍhoe (development; the way something is carried out)
  • yųl- (to eat) → yąloe (meal)

-īn plus middle grade-ablaut denotes a doer (roughly equivalent to English -er); usually it is a person, but not always.

  • bhi- (to take care of; to care for) → bhayīn (someone who takes care; guardian)
  • tug- (to beat) → togīn (heart)
  •  lgut- (to buy) → lgotīn (buyer)

-āršis is a mostly non-productive agentive suffix like -īn, surviving in a few ancient forms as well as some colloquial pejoratives:

  • lęk- (to measure) → lękāršis (surveyor, inspector)
  • dhīl- (to be idle) → dhīlāršis (lazy ass (pejor.))
  • ēreša (teardrop) → ērešāršis (crybaby (pejor.))

-āvi denotes something derived from X. It is also used in forming matronymics.

  •  lameṣa (coconut palm) → laṃṣāvi (coconut)
  •  mešanah (sight) → mešanąvi (knowledge)
  • yųl- (to eat) → yųlāvi (strength (literary, rare))
  • It is also used with surnames of writers, usually as a plurale tantum, in order to derive words meaning "the works of...", e.g. yukahināryāvi "the works of Lileikhurāvi Yukahināri Mæmihūmya".

-āmis, with lengthening, means "made of X".

  • tāmira (rock, stone) → tāmirāmis (stone tool)
  •  tarlā (knowledge, science) → tārlāmis (wisdom)
  •  lil- (to live) → līlāmis (a blissful place)
  • Words ending in a final long vowel (plus either h, s, or m) do not lengthen any vowel in a previous syllable (e.g. ñaryāh (mountain) → ñaryāmis (mountainous area)).

-ūneh (-īneh after stems in -Cy-, -ēneh for nouns in ), with middle grade ablaut (rarely strong grade), has various meanings, often somewhat abstract, intensive, or related to highly valued things/roles.

  •  daša (rain) → dašūneh (monsoon)
  •  nail- (to kiss) → nailūneh (love (literary, rare))
  • yaiva (all) + lairē (day) → yaivlairēṇeh (everyday life)
  • lalāruṇa (giant domestic lizard) → lalārauṇūneh (knight mounting a lalāruṇa)

-dhūs means "having X".

  • dara (activity) → daradhūs (verb)
  • šaṇṭrās (field, soil) → šaṇṭrādhūs (countryside)
  • hælvē (fruit) → hælvidhūs (fruiting tree; literary: pregnant woman)

-bān and -ūrah are two roughly equivalent suffixes used for locations. The first one is generally used after vowels, the second after consonants, but it's no strict rule.

  • hælvē (fruit) → hælvēbān (orchard)
  • lil (to live) → lilūrah (world)
  • peith (to go, to walk (multidirectional)) → peithūrah (passage)

-(l)āṇa forms a true collective noun:

  • lalteh (friend (female)) → laltelāṇa (group of friends)
  • jīma (character, symbol, letter) → jīmalāṇa (writing system)
  • maiva (word) → maivalāṇa (lexicon)

-(l)ænah denotes a tree or a plant having a certain fruit[14].

  •  haisah (pineapple) → haisænah (pineapple tree)
  •  maɂika (uncooked rice) → maɂikænah (rice plant)
  • šikālas (prickly pear) → šikālænah (prickly pear cactus)

-yūs is used with toponyms and is one of the most common ways to form demonyms. As many of the nouns these words are derived from are proper nouns and of non-Chlouvānem origin, there are often irregular formations, e.g. using only a part of the original word.

  • Līlasuṃghāṇalīlasuṃghāṇyūs
  • Camicamiyūs
  • Ajāɂilbādhiajāɂilbādhyūs

-mana (-ana after CC clusters) is often found with the meaning of "that has to be X"; usually, a synonymous word may be formed by -s derivation from a necessitative stem, but some -mana words have their own specialized meaning:

  • ṭvur- (to believe) → ṭvurmaṇa (miracle)
  • miš- (to see) → mišmana (attraction) (also memikṣūs)
  • tṛl- (to know, understand) → tṛlmana (rule) (not synonymous with tartṛlsūs, meaning "needed knowledge, prerequisite")

-yai (often with lengthening) forms nouns with the meaning of "pertaining to", generally applied to nouns denoting inanimate (but usually concrete) concepts. Such nouns are found in literature with an anaphorical use.
It is commonly found in Chlouvānem surnames. In chemistry, it denotes binary compounds, usually with a dvandva stem.

  • vīhatam (farm) → vīhātyai (farmer; farm's)
  • svāṣṭa (armor) → svāṣṭyai (armored knight)
  • bilumbida (sodium) + talyelīm (chlorine) → bilumbītalyelīyai (sodium chloride)

-ceh, -cænah, and -cañīh (all often with palatalization of the last consonant) are three different (but with roughly the same meaning) diminutive-forming suffixes; some of them have developed distinct meanings. They can also be compounded, as in -cæñ-cañīh:

  • nūrya (child) → nūricænah (little child)
  • ēmīla (tiger) → ēmīlcañīh (cat)
  • pǣka (taste) → pǣcicænah (hors d'œuvre, entrée)

Similarly, -rarā (a likely Laiputaši borrowing) is used as an augmentative, but is only found in informal styles.

  • dårṣa (cool, nice) → dårṣararā (fantastic)
  • jāmṝṣa (dam) → jāmṝṣararā (a huge dam)
  • alūs (bottle) → alūrarā (a big bottle)

Verb-forming morphemes

Denominal verbs, in Chlouvānem, are not formed with derivational suffixes; a "light verb" is attached to the semantic root instead; the semantic root remains invariable but the light verb is conjugated (as a prefixed one). The light verb used are especially dṛke (to do, make), but also jilde (to do an action), jānake (to feel (physical)), and gyake (to be). Some examples:

  • āmaya (collection) → āmayadṛke (to collect)
  • språma (glue) → språñjilde (to glue)
  • jålkha (cold (sensation)) → jålkhajānake (to be/feel cold)
  • ñailūh (ice) → tæñailūgyake (to freeze) (note the tæ- dynamic prefix).

The other basic derived formation is the frequentative verb, formed with reduplication (with a long vowel) and -ve(y)- (-vi(y)- in the past tense[15]). -ṛ reduplicates as , but becomes a in the root.
Due to the common use of this form in modern Chlouvānem, some grammarians consider it as an inflectional category instead of a derivation. Note though that for motion verbs only multidirectional ones have a frequentative form (with iterative meaning); the multidirectionals already act as frequentative forms of the monodirectionals.

  • dṛ- (to do) → dṝdave- (to repetitively do)
  • na-jaly- (to happen) → najājlive- (to keep happening; to regularly happen, to occur)[16] (jaly- reduplicates as jā-jli-, with the i from the root y).
  • -jaly- (to be) + various prefixes → bījājlive- (to cease to be); galajājlive- (to remain in one place; to visit; to keep being)
  • tvorg- (to fear) → totvargve- (to fear over and over again) (tvo- reduplicates as to- instead of tva-).
  • låvy- (to slip) → laulavive- (to slip around here and there) (-å- reduplicates as -au- and becomes a in the root).

Note that nairīveke conjugates as a frequentative verb, but is not frequentative and does not have frequentative forms.
Frequentative perfect stems have the ablauted vowel in the reduplication and a long one in the root (cf. miš-, bare frequentative mīmišve-, perfect frequentative memīšve-); both vowels are long for non-ablauted stems (cf. nāmv-, nānamve-, nānāmve-).
Inverse ablauting roots have similar rules: the bare frequentative uses the reduplication of the nonreduced root and the reduced vowel in the root itself (vald- → va-uld-ve- → voldve-); the frequentative perfect is like the normal frequentative of other verbs, with the long vowel in the reduplication only (vald-vāvaldve-).

In many cases, frequentatives are used with an iterative meaning; the latter, if needed for disambiguation, may be specified by the particle dīdān.

Adjectival verbs

Adjectival verbs, however, do have some ways to be derived from other parts of speech.

-ūk-ke is the most common adjectival verb-forming suffix, denoting something strictly related to an object or a verb. Note that they are all thematic verbs, even if their infinitive is contracted (Archaic Chl. -ūkake → Classical and Modern -ūkke). Often they are interchangeable with the genitive form of the noun they derived from:

  • avyāṣa (time) → avyāṣūkke ([to be] temporal)
  • chlærūm (light) → chlærūkke (of the light)
  • daša (rain) → dašūkke (rainy, concerning rain)

-uy-a-ke is a rarer variant of -ūk-ke, most commonly found for qualities related to people, but not exclusively (see third example):

  • jāyim (girl) → jāyimuyake (girly, girlish)
  • saṃhāram (boy) → saṃhāruyake (boyish)
  • irūtākalam (atom) → irūtāruyake (atomic) (the -r is etymological from Ancient Kūṣṛmāṭhi)

-aus-a-ke (rarely -us-a-ke) forms adjectival verbs related to a quality that is applied to some object, but more abstractly related than those formed with -ūkke; sometimes they are only figurative:

  • chlærūm (light) → chlærausake (easy)
  • pāṇi (side) → pāṇyausake (peripheral, less important)
  • namęlь (to make an effort, to apply oneself, to work harder) → namęliausake (Stakhanovite)
  • Nouns ending in typically only add -sь- (-si-ke):
    • laikā (innocence) → laikāsike (innocent)

-nilt-a-ke translates English -able, and the circumfix uṣ- -niltake translates to "un- -able" or, sometimes, "difficult to X". The rare ñǣ- -niltake translates as "easy to X".
The uṣ- prefix has the allomorphs ū- (before voiced stops), uš- (before c and ch), and u- (before l+consonant); uṣ- plus any sibilant becomes ukṣ-.

  • tṛl (to know, understand) → tṛlniltake (understandable) → uṣṭṛlniltake (uncomprehensible; difficult to understand) / ñǣtṛlniltake (easy to understand)
  • yųl (to eat) → yųlniltake (edible) → uṣyųlniltake (unedible)
  • lgut (to buy) → lgutniltake (buyable) → ulgutniltake (not buyable)

-ṣeni-ke (morph. seny-ke, all root verbs) translates "having X as a quality", usually added to nouns, or "X-like" in some cases; it may be synonymous with the -dhūs derivative. u- and i- stems (thus -uh, -ih, -us...) lengthen that vowel before the suffix.

  • rahēlah (health) → rahēlṣenike (healthy)
  • nakṣuma (music) → nakṣuṃṣenike (having a musical talent)
  • migmairuh (emerald) → migmairūṣenike (emeraldine, emerald-like)

Compound verbs

Chlouvānem uses compound verbs as its main method of deriving verbs from nouns. Such "verbs" are actually a nominal root which does not decline followed by a conjugating verb. The verb used influences the meaning that the compound will have:

  • dṛke (to do) is probably the most commonly used, and may have a meaning of using something (denoted by the nominal root) to treat something else (cf. bikṣurdṛke "to deodorize" < bikṣurga "deodorant"), of moving or acting like the nominal root (yināṃdṛke "to protect" < yinām "protection"), or of simply having or creating something (āmayadṛke "to collect" < āmaya "collection").
  • kitte (to put) is used for a meaning of addition of the nominal root or its characteristics to something (cf. nāmṛkitte "to add salt" < nāṃra "salt).
  • męlike (to give) is sometimes used with the same meaning as kitte (cf. junyāmęlike "to plant flowers" < junyā "flower").
  • jilde (to act) is used for subjects "emitting" or "giving off" something (cf. lāhajilde "to judge" < lāham "judgement"), also for subjects possessing (dhokajilde "to mean" < dhokam "meaning") or undergoing something (lañšijilde "to marry" < lañši (arch.) braid, wedding), and also for weather phenomena[17] (dašajilde "to rain" < daša "rain").
  • gyake (to be) is used, like in one meaning of dṛke, for moving or acting like the nominal root. Typically, it is more for states than actions (the prototypical and most common example is pṛšcāṃgyake "to be pleasing" < pṛšcām "something pleasing"[18]).
  • jānake (to feel) has a meaning partially overlapping with jalle (and dṛke), particularly marking the "feeling" of a (usually uncontrollable) condition (jålkhajānake "to be cold" < jålkha "cold").
  • milke (to take) has a varied range of meaning: getting or gathering something (vīrādhmilke "to adopt" < vīrādhen "orphan"; mailьlut(a)milke "to take advantage" < mailьluta "advantage"), also the opposite, taking something away (cf. rantamilke "to peel (fruits)" < rantas "peel"), and also overlapping partially with kitte and męlike in marking the addition of something or, more, properly, the act of bringing something (prātamilke "to get windy; (figur.) to accelerate" < prātas "wind" - cf. prātajilde "to be windy").
  • bismilke (to take away) and bīdṛke (to destroy) are used, more commonly than milke, for the meaning of removing or taking something away: (ssūbismilke "to calm down" < ssūgis "something that worries"; lilembīdṛke "(euphem.) to kill" < liloe "life").

Sometimes, the most meaningful element of a compound verb is not otherwise found as a standalone word in Chlouvānem, as in pṛšcāṃjalle (to like), or hārlājmęlike (to prefer).

Prefixes

Prefixes are a major part of Chlouvānem derivational morphology. Most of them are the same as for positional and motion verbs — for their formation and use, see the related section. Most prefixes are used with verbs, and are found with nouns only in derived forms; some of them, however, can be used also or exclusively with nouns and adjectives. Prefixes derive usually from Proto-Lahob, but a few chiefly nominal ones are from Ancient Kūṣṛmāthi words.
Here follows a complete list of all prefixes used in Chlouvānem and their meaning. When two prefixes are divided by a wave dash, the first is lative and the second is ablative; NOM marks meanings of nouns derived with that prefix.

Positional and motional prefixes

  • ta- 〜 tų- - generic direction

  • ān- 〜 yana- - on, above
  • šu- 〜 šer- - under, below
  • ṭvā- 〜 ṭus- - between
  • gin- 〜 ją- - among
  • nī- 〜 ani- - within/from within inside
  • ū(b)- 〜 yom- - close to
  • bis- 〜 bara- - far, away
  • tad- (tata- before l) 〜 tasi- - attached to; against
  • įs- 〜 įṣu- - hanging
  • na(ñ)- 〜 nani- - inside
  • kau- 〜 kuvi- - outside
  • viṣ- 〜 vyeṣa- - opposite; somewhere else
  • kami- 〜 kara- - around
  • pri- 〜 prā- - behind
  • mai- 〜 mīram- - in front of
  • vai- 〜 vǣ- - in a corner; bordering; at the limit
  • sāṭ- 〜 ṣlū- - next to; along; on the side of
  • lā(d)- 〜 lo(d)- - in the center of
  • vyā- 〜 veši- - left
  • māha- 〜 mege- - right
  • pid- - facing (positional only)
  • nal- - towards the center; inwards; convergent movement
  • vād- - away from the center; outwards; divergent movement

Motional prefixes

  • be- 〜 ter- - along the surface
  • gala- 〜 hali- - through, across
  • naš- - completely, until the end; NOM: omni-, pan-, entirely
  • vod- - avoiding
  • paṣ- - ahead, beyond; also NOM: further, again, re-
  • sam- - movement to the following place/person/object in a set; NOM: after, post-

Verbal-only prefixes

  • tæ(m)- - inceptive/inchoative
  • raš- - to do something a bit more than needed (ral- or rar- before voiced consonants)
  • yā- - too much
  • iva- - completely, also intensive
  • nare- - applicative (nar- before another prefix, cf. the common form narta- for "to reach"-verbs)
  • min- - transitivizer of intransitive verbs

Other prefixes

  • o- - before, pre-, proto-, preceding (os- before vowels)
  • tail- - multi-, pluri-
  • emib(u)- or tūt(u)- - one, mono-, uni-, homo-
  • lani- - same, fellow
  • vre- - bad
  • demi- - self-

Specific terms

Derivational terms considered "specific" are those mostly found in certain jargons. Some of these are applied directly to a Lällshag root instead of a Chlouvānem one:

Used in politics and/or the arts:

  • -nātra has two main meanings: -ism (as in a doctrine) in a political sense, and -esque in the arts, cf. yaivcārṇātra "communism" (< yaiva "all", cār- "to have"), or lānūṣurṇātra "in the style of writer Naryejūramāvi Lānūṣurah Mæmihomah".
    • -nātryūs (← -nātra-yūs) is the term for a person that follows such a doctrine or style, cf. yaivcārṇātryūs "communist"; lānūṣurṇātryūs "someone whose writing is Lānūṣuraësque".
    • Note that lija and lejīn (lit. "song" and "singer") were formerly alternatives to these. They notably remain in nāɂahilūṃlija "politico-religious doctrine inspired by Great Inquisitor Kælahīmāvi Nāɂahilūma Martayinām; Yunyalīlti religious extremism" and nāɂahilūṃlejīn, as well as in arāmilija "pacifism".

Used for medical terminology:

  • -gulas usually translates "-philia" or "-mania", particularly in medical contexts, e.g. ryukagulas "masochism" from ryuka "pain".
    • -gulašålyē is the related term for someone who has that (thus "-philiac" or "-maniac"), e.g. ryukagulašålyē "masochist".
  • -rauga is a generic term used in medicine for names of illnesses or conditions affecting health, e.g. gåtnirauga "obesity" from gåtnake "to vomit"; skañcrauga "insomnia" from skañcake (to be awake at night).
    • -raugotis is the term for someone affected by a -rauga, e.g. skañcraugotis "insomniac".
  • -ītsun is a rarer alternative to -ræṣka, e.g. vrayobulītsun "asplenia" (vre- (bad) + obula (spleen)), or lagukītsun "paralysis" (the latter with the root of Lällshag gahoke (still)).
    • -ītsunis is the corresponding term for affected organisms, e.g. vrayobulītsunis "aspleniac", lagukītsunis "paralyzed".
  • -måkṣan is used for inflammatory diseases, cf. "-itis", like ṇīṭmåkṣan (dermatitis) or āḍhyāsnūlimåkṣan (meningitis).

Compounding

  • tarlā (knowledge) is used as the head element of compounds, with a meaning like -logy in English. Sometimes the meaning is only abstracted (see second example) or has changed with time (see third example):
    • babhrām (land) → babhrātarlā (geography)
    • smoḍ- (to count, to enumerate) → smoṇḍarlā (mathematics)
    • ladragyalah (inn) → ladragyaltarlā (economics)

See also

Notes

  1. ^ These are the remnants of a former gender system present in Proto-Lahob, still evident in other Lahob languages; unlike others in the family, Chlouvānem did not become genderless because of losing gender marking on nouns, but because it lost concordance anywhere else.
  2. ^ The word latiryai is the plural of latirē (wave, ray), but this compound does not have a singular form.
  3. ^ This is due to many honorific formulae being quite long - for example, the standard honorific formula when talking to an Inquisitor is (lallāmaha) [matronymic] yamei murkadhāna [given name] lāma.
  4. ^ With cousins, whether the informal or the given name is used depends on how close they are; with first cousins using the informal name is nearly universal, while with farther cousins the given name may be more common.
  5. ^ Many head monks have their own unique titles based on their monastery. For example the head monk of the Vādhaṃšvāti Lake Monastery is not referred as […] hurdagīn lāma vādhaṃšvāti ga gūltayi but as […] laliājuniāmiti jāṇi camilālta lāma, literally "Great Guardian of the Field of the Night Bloom".
  6. ^ e.g. sorami, grāṇami
  7. ^ nęlte has the stem nęlc- wherever pāmvi has -vy-, i.e. accusatives pāmvyu, nęlcu.
  8. ^ chīka has the stem chīcæ- before consonants.
  9. ^ nęlte has the form nęlci.
  10. ^ Language of an ethnic minority (but titular ethnicity) in the diocese of Hūnakañjaiṭa.
  11. ^ Synchronically, this analysis is correct; however, this word was likely first crafted as a tatpuruṣa, i.e. "a fire for food" (yųlgis nali javyāh), before kitchens were rooms.
  12. ^ Chlouvānem society lacked a true noble class; this term applies to the most influential people in society. Tigers are considered among the noblest animals.
  13. ^ Middle-grade ablaut is specific to this root.
  14. ^ As for all living things, being Calémere a different planet, the given translation is the one of the closest equivalent on Earth.
  15. ^ Ex.: dṝdaveyute "I repetitively do" vs. dṝdaviyaute "I repetitively did"
  16. ^ The verb "to happen" does not exist as an iterative.
  17. ^ Rain, specifically, is more commonly used as the subject of the verb buñjñake, meaning "to run" for water (in Chl. rain runs just like a river does).
  18. ^ The word pṛšcām alone is almost never used in contemporary Chlouvānem.