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[[{{PAGENAME}}/Lexicon]]<br/>
<!--[[{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Wordlist]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Swadesh list]]<br/>
[[{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Swadesh list]]<br/>
[[{{PAGENAME}}/Names]]<br/>
[[{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Names]]<br/>
[[{{FULLPAGENAME}}/Sandbox]]<br/>-->
{{list subpages}}


{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|image =  
|image =  
|imagesize =  
|imagesize =  
|setting = [[Verse:Tricin]]
|setting = [[Verse:Tricin|Tricin]]
|creator= [[User:IlL]]
|creator= User:IlL
|name = {{PAGENAME}}
|name = {{SUBPAGENAME}}
|nativename =
|nativename = ye Giètem
|pronunciation=
|pronunciation=
|region = Talma
|state = Talma
|speakers = 100 million L1 speakers (300 million L2 speakers)
|speakers = 100 million L1 speakers (300 million L2 speakers)
|date = fT 1670<sub>dd</sub> (2676)
|date = fT 1670<sub>dd</sub> (2676)
|familycolor=PfK
|familycolor=PfK
|fam1= [[Proto-Quihum|Quihum]]
|fam1= [[Quame languages|Quame]]
|fam2= [[Talmic languages|Talmic]]
|fam2= [[Talmic languages|Talmic]]
|fam3= Thensaric
|fam3= Thensaric
|fam4= Old Eevo
|fam4= Tigolic
|iso3=qtg
|script=Talmic script for {{SUBPAGENAME}}
|notice=IPA
|notice=IPA
}}
}}


'''{{PAGENAME}}''' (''a g:ghâħ h-Anvyru'' /ə ɣaːħ ˈhanvɨɹu/) is a [[Talmic languages|Talmic language]] (in the subbranch of Tigolic, which also includes [[Eevo]]) somewhat inspired by Irish. On the planet of [[Verse:Tricin|Tricin]] ({{PAGENAME}}: ''a Smòch'' /ə smɔːx/), it is an analogue of German in terms of influence and grammar. {{PAGENAME}} is the official language of [[Verse:Tricin/Anvyr|Anvyr]]. {{PAGENAME}} is the second-largest Talmic language in terms of number of speakers. Like most modern Talmic languages, {{PAGENAME}} is a descendant of [[Thensarian]]. It is spoken on the northwest coast of the continent of Etalocin (called ''Eħa'' /ˈɛħə/ in {{PAGENAME}}) on the planet of Clotricin. Thanks in large part to the printing press, Modern {{PAGENAME}} rapidly gained prominence over a larger area in Northern Talma and came to serve as a lingua franca for northern mainland Talma. Today, {{PAGENAME}} still enjoys status as a "cultured" language and is one of the most widely taught foreign languages.
'''{{SUBPAGENAME}}''' (''CHAIT-i-ən''; natively ''Ciètem, ye Giètem'', from Thensarian ''Centimae'') is a [[Talmic languages|Talmic language]] (in the Tigolic subbranch of Talmic, which also includes [[Eevo]]). It's inspired by Mandarin, German, Occitan, Irish, [[Thedish]], and English (particularly Cockney and Philadelphian).


This language began as ''Tíogall'', which was a thought experiment posing the question "What would Irish look like with umlaut instead of palatalization?". For a while it developed as an Irish-German hybrid. At one point I decided to remove all "giblangs" from modern Tricin, or languages with the aesthetics of one natlang (unless the premise was funny, like [[Bhadhagha]] or [[Clofabosin]]). Since Tíogall was basically an Irish with German characteristics, it was abandoned. I still decided that Talmic languages needed somewhat more internal diversity (in particular, a "German" analogue to Eevo's "English"), so I decided to revive this project. Since I don't want a German analogue to be so obviously Hiberno-German, this time I'm eschewing obviously German features in the aesthetic such as front rounded vowels, and I'm trying a somewhat Old English and West Slavic (particularly Czech and Sorbian) aesthetic. Also grammar-wise, while keeping a somewhat Celtic grammar (e.g. mutations, head-initial syntax), I'm playing with decidedly non-Celtic grammatical features such as split-ergativity (which was in my original Tíogall), and a singulative-collective-plurative system, and an imperfective-perfective aspectual distinction.
A close relative (sometimes considered a dialect) is [[Páuluòbeng]]. [[Anbirese]], a more distant relative, is still somewhat mutually intelligible.


==Todo==
==Todo==
*Should have had more dh's
* should be Ăn Yidiș gib?
*Single vs. double negatives: use both, do something weird
*Change orthography
*Vdh > lowered vowels - a source of /ɛ: ɔ:/ in addition to Old Eevo ''ae ao''
* No case, Welsh grammar
*''netzier'' = chain
*''Nian yirastzuòtzìn!'' = I'm innocent!
*''Srüeil'' = a name (from Sréul)
*''Sgüeila'' = Skella
*Single vs. double negatives: use both
**a > ea, e > eo, i > iu in certain conditions - what type of pal'n do these new vowels trigger
***e.g. ''cell'' 'small' > *cĕoll > ''ciel''
**already have eo éu iu íu/iú
*Actually palatalization is NOT as simple as this. y ø a o u vs. i ie vs. ia io iu vs ja jo ju je/ĺa ĺo ĺu ĺe affect consonants differently.
*non-initial -gh might die
*''mièn àvath'' (this-DEF book) = 'this book'
*Revise Thensarian declension based on {{SUBPAGENAME}}
*Have a separate schwa phoneme ''a'' /ə/?
*''-atz'' is cognate to Eevo ''-ahd''
*''-z'' is one plural suffix (often used for nouns ending in vowels; from palatalized lenited -dh)
*''cht'' > ''tz'' à la Wenedyk, final slender ''-t'' > ''-cy''
*sg palatalizes to /ʃ/ {{angbr|sgi}}
*Etymological doublets from Tigol absolute-conjunct verb forms.
*lianger = dream (< ''leṁar'')
*Slender t > ts
a e i o u á é í ó ú ai ei io iu oi ui ae ao aoi ái éi eó éu ia ío íu iú(i) ói oí ua uai úi uí
 
-> a ia i uo u à iè ì uò ù e ie i ü e ü ai ao è ai ei iao iù ì ì ǜ ǜ ù uì ù è
 
Numbers: cìm, tiħer, nèz, dèv, sel, sdàm, ruìz, lèr, bàr, niaur, yàchim, cnè


==Notes==
==Notes==
===Symbols===
===Symbols===
*<sup>i</sup> - i-umlaut
*<sup>L</sup> - lenition/aspiration
*<sup>L</sup> - lenition/aspiration
*<sup>N</sup> - eclipsis
*<sup>N</sup> - eclipsis


==Phonology==
==Phonology==
The following describes {{PAGENAME}} as spoken in Râthanar.
The following describes {{SUBPAGENAME}} as spoken in Sdiemìn.
===Stress===
===Stress===
In native words, primary stress usually falls on the first syllable, except for some inflected prepositions. In loans, stress may not be initial; in that case, vowels before the stressed syllable are ''not'' reduced.
Stress is not phonemic and is weight-sensitive. The rule is: the last long vowel is stressed. If there is no long vowel the last syllable is stressed.


===Consonants===
In most compound words, primary stress falls on the first member and a secondary stress falls on the second member. Place names are sometimes exceptions to the preceding rule: for example, the element ''-vià'' is always stressed.
{{PAGENAME}} has a relatively large consonant inventory.


{| class="greentable lightgreenbg" style="text-align:center;"
===Intonation===
|+ '''{{PAGENAME}} consonants'''
Pitch accent?
|-
====Word level====
!colspan="2"| !! Labial !! Dental/Alveolar !! Postalv. !! Palatal !! Velar !! Uvular !! Pharyngeal !! Glottal
*A stressed short vowel has a high pitch.
|-
*A stressed long vowel or diphthong has a falling pitch but ends in a higher pitch than unstressed vowels.
!colspan="2"|Nasal
*Unstressed vowels have low pitch.
| '''m''' /m/
====Clause level====
| '''n''' /n/
*Pitch drops at the end of a sentence.
|
<!--
| '''ṅ''' /ɲ/
*neutral: level intonation
|colspan="2"| '''ŋ''' /ŋ/ || ||
*questions: rising intonation
|-
*subclauses: dipping intonation
!rowspan="2"|Stop
*exclamations: falling intonation
!<small>fortis</small>
-->
| '''p''' /p/
| '''t''' /t/
|
|
|colspan="2"| '''c''' /k/ || ||
|-
!<small>lenis</small>
| '''b''' /b/
| '''d''' /d/
|  ||
|colspan="2"| '''g''' /g/ || ||
|-
!rowspan="2"|Affricate
!<small>fortis</small>
|
| '''ts''' /ts/
| '''ċ''' /tʃ/
| '''tx''' /tɕ/
| || || ||
|-
!<small>lenis</small>
|
| '''dz''' /dz/
| '''ġ''' /dʒ/
| '''dx''' /dʑ/ || || || ||
|-
!rowspan="2"|Spirant
!<small>unvoiced</small>
| '''f''' /f/
|
| ||
| '''ch''' /x/ || || '''ħ''' /ħ/ ||
|-
!<small>voiced</small>
| '''v''' /v/
| 
| ||
| '''gh''' /ɣ/ || || ||
|-
!colspan="2"|Sibilant
| 
| '''s''' /s/
| '''ṡ, ṡċ''' /ʂ/ || '''x''' /ɕ/ || ||
| || '''h''' /h/
|-
!colspan="2"| Liquid
|
| '''r''' /ɹ/ || '''ṙ''' /r̝/ ||
| || || ||
|-
!colspan="2"| Approximant
| '''ł''' /w/ || ||
| '''j, l''' /j/ ||
|
|
|
|}


;Notes
===Consonants===
*An initial /ʔ/ can be added to null initials (but is not mandatory).
The Anbiric spirantization had taken place: [[Tigol]] t ṫ d ḋ /tʰ dʰ t d/ had become /θ ð tʰ d/ in Old Anbirese, the "common ancestor" or "areolect" in the Anbiric dialect continuum characterized by this shift.
*Voiceless stops are aspirated syllable-initially; voiced stops devoice after voiceless sounds.
* {{PAGENAME}} has a form of Auslautverhärtung: voicing is neutralized for word-final stops but not word-final fricatives.
*/n, t, d/ are usually dental [n̪, t̪, d̪].
*/s/ is laminal alveolar [s].
*/ŋ, k, g/ are usually velar [ŋ, k, g], but are often labialized pharyngealized uvular [qʷ, qʷˁ, ɢʷˁ] next to /ʀ~ʟ/. /kʟ/ becomes an affricate or a trilled affricate [qχ].
*/ŋ, k, g, x, ɣ/ are prevelar before front vowels.
*In dialects and classical singing and drama, '''ł''' /w/ is pronounced as [ɫ] and '''l''' is a separate phoneme /lʲ/.
*After a vowel, /ɣ/ colloquially disappears with compensatory lengthening of the vowel if the vowel is short (unless the /ɣ/ begins a stressed syllable.)


====Fortis and lenis resonants====
{{PAGENAME}} has an aspiration distinction in stops; however, the distinction is neutralized in word-final position.
Certain conservative accents and dialects preserve to varying degrees the Old Eevo distinction between fortis and lenis resonants: /l L n N r R/. In fact, the Tumacaimh dialect has:
*/l/ > /ʁᵝˤ/
*/L/ > /l̪ˠ/
*/n/ > /ð̞̃/
*/N/ > /n/
*/r/ > /ɹ/
*/R/ > /ɾ/


====Mutations====
*'''c g ch gh''' /k g x ɣ/
 
*'''ci/cü gi/gü chi/chü/sgi/sgü''' /tʃ dʒ ʃ/
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg " style=" text-align: center;"
*'''tz dz s z''' /ts dz s z/
|-
*'''t d th dh''' /t d ħ ɣ/
|+ '''Consonant mutations'''
*'''p b f v''' /p b f w/
|-
*'''pь bь fь vь''' /pj bj fj vj/
!|Grapheme
*'''r rr h m n nь ng l y''' /r r̝ h m n nj ŋ l j/  
!''m''!!''p''!!''b''!!''f''!!''t''!!''d''!!''s''<sup>*</sup>!!''x''!!''c''!!''g''!!''0''
**/l/ is velarized when not followed by /i/, /j/, /y/, or /ɥ/.
|-
!IPA
|/m/||/p/||/b/||/f/||/t/||/d/||/s/||/ʃ/||/k/, /tʃ/||/g/, /dʒ/||/  ∅/
|-
!|Lenited
!''v''!!''f''!!''v''!!''h''!!''ħ''!!''0''!!''h''!!''-''!!''ch''!!''gh''!!''h-''
|-
!IPA
|/v/||/f/||/v/||/h/
|/ħ/||/∅/||/h/||/∅/
||/x/, /ʃ/||/ɣ/, /j/
|/h/
|-
!|Eclipsed
!''-''!!''b''!!''m''!!''v''!!''d''!!''n''!!''-''!!''-''!!''g''!!''ŋ''!!''n-''
|-
!IPA
|''-''||/b/||/m/||/v/
||/d/||/n/||/z/
|''-''
||/g/, /dʒ/||/ŋ/||/n/
|}
 
<sup>*</sup>The clusters written ''sp'', ''st'', ''sc'' do not mutate.


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
{{PAGENAME}} has a moderately large vowel system.
Ciètian has the following vowels:
 
*'''i ü u ie üe a'''  /ɪ ʏ ʊ jɛ ɥɛ a/
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="greentable lightgreenbg" style="text-align:center;"
*/ɪj ʏɥ ʊw jɛː wɔː ɑː ɒj æː äj äw jäw jæj (ɥ)ɶj ɯː ɤː jɤː ɥɤː wɤː aɯ/
|+ '''{{PAGENAME}} vowels'''
*/ə ɨ~i/
|-
====Monophthongs====
! rowspan="3" |
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style=" text-align:center;"
! colspan="2" |Front
! rowspan="2" style=""|
! colspan="2" |Central
! colspan="2" style="" |Front
! colspan="3" |Back
! colspan="2" style="" |Central
|-
! colspan="2" style="" |Back
! colspan="2" style="" |<small>unrounded</small>
! style=" " |<small>unrounded</small>
! style=" " |<small>rounded</small>
! style=" " |<small>unrounded</small>
! colspan="2" style=" " |<small>rounded</small>
|-
|-
!style=" "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style=" "|<small>long</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
!style=" "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style=" "|<small>long</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
!style=" "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style=" "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
!style=" "|<small>long</small>
|-
|-
! style="" |Close
! style="" |Close
| '''i, y''' /ɪ/
| '''i''' /i/, '''ü''' /y/
| '''î, ŷ''' /iː/
| '''ì''' /ɪj/, '''ǜ''' /ʏɥ/
|  
|  
| '''û''' /ʉː/
|  
|  
| '''u''' /ʊ/
| '''u''' /u/
| [uː]
| '''ù''' /ʊw/
|-
|-
! style="" |Mid
! style="" |Close-mid
|
|
| '''e''' /ə/
|  
|  
| '''ê, ø̂''' /eː/
| '''-a''' /ə/
| '''ô''' /ɵː/
| [ɤˁ]
|  
|  
| [oː]
| /ɯː/
|-
|-
! style="" |Open-mid
! style="" |Mid
| '''e, ø''' /ɛ/
|'''ie, üe''' /ɛ/
| '''è, ø̀''' /ɛː/
|'''ià''' /ɛː/
|  
| [ə]
|  
|  
|  
|  
| '''o''' /ɔ/
| '''(u)ò''' /wɔː/
| '''ò''' /ɔː/
|-
|-
! style="" |Open
! style="" |Open
| '''ia''' [æ]
|  
|  
|
| '''a''' /a/  
| '''a''' /a/
| '''â''' /aː/
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
| '''à''' /ɑː/
|}
|}
[ɨ(ː) ʉ(ː)] are allophones of /i(ː) y(ː)/ after dental and retroflex sibilants.


/ʉː, ɵː/ retain fully back allophones [uː, oː] before /ɹ/.
/ɯː/ is more fully back, unlike [ɨː].
 
===Phonotactics===
Allowed initial clusters in roots (in native words), not counting clusters from initial mutations:
*''bl br cl cn cr dl dr fl fr gl gn gr ml mn mr ŋl ŋr (pl) (pr) sc scl scr (sp) sl sm sn sñ sŋ sr st tn tl tr''


===Prosody===
Semivowel onglides: '''i ü u''' /j ɥ w/
{{PAGENAME}} has a distinctive intonation paradigm.
*In declarative sentences, the stressed syllable of the focus word (if there is no focused constituent, the last word) has a lower pitch than the immediately preceding syllable. ("...mid ꜜ LOW mid...") This originates from discursive uptalk in older forms of {{PAGENAME}}, which has since generalized to all declarative sentences. A few accents, such as Tumacan accents, do not use this pattern.
*In interrogative sentences, the stressed syllable of the focus word has a higher pitch than the syllable immediately before. ("... mid ꜛ HIGH mid ... ?")
*In exclamations, the pattern is "... mid ꜜ LOW-HIGH mid ... !", possibly with a gradual drop to low pitch in the end. Angry or indignant questions also use an exclamatory intonation.


==Dialectology==
Diphthongs: '''ai au ei ou iou iei üei''' /ɒj æː äj äw jäw jæj ɥɶj/
{{PAGENAME}} is subject to a fair amount of accentual and dialectal variation.
<!--
===Scádar accent===
This dialect is most prominent in and around the Óc Eo (/ɵːk ɵː/ 'white rock', English: /ˈoʊk.oʊ/ "oak-oh") metropolitan area in Anbhair.
*''l'' = [ʁ] after a consonant, [ɴ̆] initial/intervocalic
*/Vʟ/ = [Vɴ] before a consonant
*''r'' = [l] in all positions
*/θ, ð/ = [ts, dz] when not before a plosive
*No Auslautverhärtung at all (except ''-ig'' and ''-igh'')
**Word-final ''-ig'' and ''-igh'' pronounced as [-ɪç].
*/ɛ, œ, ɔ/ > [ɪ, ʏ, ʊ] before nasals
*/ɛj/ > [aj]
*/a/ = [æ] before coronals
*/aː/ is backed to [ɑː~ɒː]


===Cnólta accent===
====R-colored vowels====
Spoken in the largely rural areas of Cnólta (/ˈknɔːˁtə/, English: /kəˈnɔːltə/ or /kəˈnoʊltə/). Stereotypically associated with backwardness and boorishness.
(No linking R is used.)
*''l'' = [ʁ] after a consonant, [ɴ̆] initial/intervocalic
*ar, àr /ɔɯ~ɤː/
**/Vʟ/ = [Ṽ~Vɰ̃]
*er, èr, air, aor /aɯ/
*/tʃ, dʒ/ = [ts~tɕ, dz~dʑ]
*ir, ìr, iur, eir, ier, ièr /jəɯ~jɤː/
*/eː, øː/ = [eə, øə]
*or, òr /uɯ~ɯː/
*/eːj, øːj, ɛj, œj/ = [eː, øː, ɛː, œː]
*ür, ǜr /ɥɤː/
*''r'' is pronounced as a bunched [ɹ], which retracts preceding front vowels /ɪ, ɛ/ to /ɨ, ɜ/.
*ur, ùr /wɤː/
*/ʉː, ɵː, aw/ = [ʉu, ɵu, æu]
*final -er = /ɨ/
**/ʉː, ɵː/ = [u:, o:] before ''r''
*final -ier = /i/
*/aː/ = [æ:]
*/sp, st, sk, sm, sn, sŋ, sʟ, sɾ/ = [ʃp, ʃt, ʃk, ʃm, ʃn, ʃŋ, ʃʁ, ʃɹ]


===Códha accent===
===Phonotactics===
Códha (/ˈkɵːðə/, English: /ˈkoʊðə/) is a Duínidhe accent. It is non-lambdic.


*''l'' = [ʁ] after a consonant, just realized as a difference in vowel quality otherwise:
===Loanword phonology===
**/iʟ, ɪʟ/ = [joː]
Initial /θ/, /x/ and /h/ in loans are rendered /t/, /k/ and /Ø/ respectively (cf. German pronounces initial ''ch'' in Greek loans as /k/). Non-initial /θ/, /x/, and /h/ become /ħ/, /x/, and /x/.
**/yʟ, ʏʟ/ = [ɥoː~woː]
**/ʊʟ/ = [ʊː]
**/eʟ/ = [eːɔ]
**/ɛʟ/ = [ɛɔ]
**/øʟ/ = [øːɔ]
**/œʟ/ = [œɔ]
**/ɔʟ/ = [uː]
**/aʟ/ = [ɒː]
*''r'' = [ɾ] before a vowel, [l] before a consonant or word-finally
*/ʉː, ɵː/ = [uː, oː] before /ɾ/
*(other features)


===Tumaca accent===
Stress is usually as in the original language; non-initially stressed words lengthen the stressed vowel. Example: ''bintelesràl'' /pɪnthəɫəsˈɻaːɫ/ 'republic'.
A conservative accent used in the mountainous regions of Tumaca /tʊməkə/ in Duínidhe; continuous with [[Tumacan]].
*/b d dʒ g/ are devoiced to (unaspirated) [p t c k] in all positions.
*/tʃ, dʒ, ʃ/ = [c, ɟ, ç]
*/n, ʟ, ɾ/ distinguish between "fortis" or unlenited [n̪, ɫ, r] and "lenis" or lenited [ð̞̃, ʀ, z].
*''th, dh'' are [ħ, z] word-initially and become [h, z] word-finally.
*/ʉ, ɵ/ are always fully back [uː, oː].


===Tecadh an bhFuŋŋ accent===
==Morphophonology==
non-lambdic, L-colored vowels similar to Códha
===Mutations===
*''l'' = [ʁ] after a consonant, just realized as a difference in vowel quality otherwise:
*''r'' = [l] in all positions
**/iʟ, ɪʟ/ = [joː]
**/yʟ, ʏʟ/ = [ɥoː~woː]
**/ʊʟ/ = [uː]
**/eʟ/ = [eːɔ]
**/ɛʟ/ = [ɛɔ]
**/øʟ/ = [øːɔ]
**/œʟ/ = [œɔ]
**/ɔʟ/ = [oː]
**/aʟ/ = [ɑə~ɔ]
*/a/ = [æ]
*/aː/ = [ɑː]


===Éise accent===
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style=" text-align: center;"
This accent is primarily used in the Éise (/ˈiːsə/) province (including the famous city Flian).
 
Vowel length is mainly realized as tenseness:
*/ɪ i ʏ y ʉ ʊ/
*/ɛ e œ ø ə ɵ ɔ/
*/ɐ ɑ/
*/iə yə uə aw æj œj ej øj/
*/Vʟ/ = [Ṽ~Vɰ̃] (nasalization)
*''r'' = [l] in all positions
*ú ó backed before r
*In ''sp st sc'', the s is weakened so that these are voiceless unaspirated [p t k/tS] initially and preaspirated [hp ht hk/htS] medially. These are distinguished from ''b d g'' by having a higher pitch.
*Reduced ''ai'' = [ʊ], reduced ''i'' = [ʏ]
 
===Phormatin accent===
The majority accent of {{PAGENAME}} native speakers in Phormatin is a lot like Éise, except most notably the short vowels /ɛ œ ɔ/ raise to /ɪ ʏ ʊ/ before nasals and /ʟ/. Lax vowels are also slightly laxer than in Éise; Éise speakers often hear Phormatian lax vowels as schwas.
==="Stage {{PAGENAME}}"===
So-called "Stage {{PAGENAME}}" is a semi-artificial standard developed for use in classical singing and other elevated stage performances.
 
*/ʟ/ is always pronounced [ɫ]
*/ɾ/ may be trilled [r]
*Short vowels before single C + V - the C is allophonically geminated
*Non-lambdic vowels are close to their standard counterparts, except /aː/ is pronounced [ɑː~ɒː] (close to its Classical Netagin counterpart)
*/ɨ/ is pronounced [ɪ]
 
===Early Modern {{PAGENAME}}===
*''ae/ái, aoi, ao'' were pronounced /ɛː, œː, ɔː/ as opposed to ''é, ói, ó'' /eː, øː, oː/; these two sets have merged to /eː, øː, ɵː/ in most modern dialects.
*/ɨ/ was pronounced [ɪ].
 
==Morphology==
===Nouns===
Nouns are classed into two genders, masculine (''reist ŋullán'' /ˈɾɪst ˈŋʊʟaːn/) and feminine (''reist dhéán'' /ˈɾɪst ˈðeːaːn/); they are also inflected in two numbers (singular and plural) and three states (indefinite, definite, construct). There are some trends in gender assignment of nouns: for example, substances tend to be masculine, and abstract concepts and processes tend to be feminine. The construct suffix is usually ''-adh/-edh'' for singular nouns and ''-ann/-enn'' for plural nouns; however, for Netagin loans no suffix is used for the singular construct.
 
There are no possessive suffixes, unlike in [[Thensarian]] or other Talmic languages. If the possessor is a pronoun, the disjunctive form of the pronoun is used with the construct state: e.g. ''suaradh scainedh ná'' 'my friend's house'.
 
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg " style=" text-align: center;"
|+ ''már'' 'tree' (masculine, declension 1)
|-
|-
!style="width: 100px;"|Number→<br/>State↓
|+ '''Consonant mutations'''
!style="width: 100px;"|Singular
!style="width: 100px;"|Plural
|-
|-
!|Indefinite
!|Radical
|''már''||''máir''
|''m'' /m/||''p'' /pʰ/||''b'' /p/||''f'' /f/||''t'' /tʰ/||''d'' /t/||''q'' /tɕʰ/||''j'' /tɕ/||''s'' /s/||''x'' /ɕ/||''sh'' /ʂ/||''k'' /kʰ/||''g'' /k/||''ch'' /tʂʰ/||''zh'' /tʂ/||''0'' /Ø/, ''y'' /j/
|-
|-
!|Definite
!|Lenited
|''an már''||''na máir''
|''ngm'' /ŋ/ ||''fp'' /f/ ||''vb'' /v/ ||''f'' /f/ ||''ħt'' /ħ/||''tzd'' /ts/||''xq'' /ɕ/||''ξj'' /ʑ/||''hs'' /h/||''x'' /ɕ/||''sh'' /ʂ/||''hk'' /x/||''γg'' /ɣ/||''sch'' /ʂ/||''rzh'' /ɻ/|| add ''h' '' /x/
|-
|-
!|Construct
!|Eclipsed
|''máradh''||''máirenn''
|''m'' /m/||''bp'' /p/||''mb'' /m/||''vf'' /v/||''dt'' /t/||''nd'' /n/||''jq'' /tɕ/||''nj'' /ɲ/||''зs'' /z/||''ξx'' /ʑ/||''rsh'' /ɻ/||''gk'' /k/||''ŋg'' /ŋ/||''jch'' /tʂ/||''njh'' /ɲ/|| add ''n' '' /n/
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg " style=" text-align: center;"
|+ ''búta'' 'cave' (masculine, declension 1)
|-
!style="width: 100px;"|Number→<br/>State↓
!style="width: 100px;"|Singular
!style="width: 100px;"|Plural
|-
!|Indefinite
|''búta''||''bútaí''
|-
!|Definite
|''an búta''||''na bútaí''
|-
!|Construct
|''bútadh''||''bútaíonn''
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg " style=" text-align: center;"
|+ ''scain'' 'friend' (masculine, declension 2)
|-
!style="width: 100px;"|Number→<br/>State↓
!style="width: 100px;"|Singular
!style="width: 100px;"|Plural
|-
!|Indefinite
|''scain''||''scaine''
|-
!|Definite
|''an scain''||''na scaine''
|-
!|Construct
|''scainedh''||''scainenn''
|}
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg " style=" text-align: center;"
|+ ''sert'' 'pole' (feminine, declension 3)
|-
!style="width: 100px;"|Number→<br/>State↓
!style="width: 100px;"|Singular
!style="width: 100px;"|Plural
|-
!|Indefinite
|''sert''||''sertar''
|-
!|Definite
|''an zsert''||''na sertar''
|-
!|Construct
|''sertadh''||''sertann''
|}
{{col-end}}


===Adjectives===
==Dialectology==
{{PAGENAME}} adjectives have three principal parts: the predicative (the unmarked form), the masculine absolute plural form and the feminine absolute plural form.
{{SUBPAGENAME}} is subject to a fair amount of accent and dialect variation.
===Common dialectal features===
*/x ɣ/ realized as uvular [χ ʁ]
*h from Tigol h = /h/; h from Tigol ch = /x/; ħ is consistently /ħ/


The predicative determines:
===Dialect 1===
*the indefinite and definite singular, which are the same as the predicative (modulo mutations for gender and definiteness).
Something closer to my old Yekhanese (i.e. more Sorbian/Persian-ish)
*the construct singular: specifically, if the adjective ends in a ''-th'' or a ''-dh'', the suffix ''-adh'' is not added in the construct singular.
:'''''Nyav baa gew gkar asŋea gasaan ak ascii nea woŋŋacy ak nea vmarozh. Nyav ar·seciin nea na vmiishiin ak i n'astorŋax, ak nya ar hu wa poda baraaħanar nea na weesycy na syarbacy.'''''
 
:/ɲəv baː gɛw gaɾ əsˈŋɛː gəˈsaːn ək əsˈtsiː nɛː ˈwoŋːətɕ ək nɛː vəˈɾɔʒ. ɲəv əɾsɛˈtsiːn nɛ nə viːˈʃiːn ək i nəstɔɾˈŋax, ək ɲə ˈaɾ hu wə pɔˈda bəˈraːħənəɾ nɛː nə ˈweːɕtɕ nə ɕəɾˈbatɕ./
The feminine absolute plural determines:
*the construct plural
 
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg " style=" text-align: center;"
|+ ''árd'' 'big'
|-
!style="width: 100px;"|Number→<br/>State↓
!style="width: 100px;"|Singular
!style="width: 100px;"|Plural
|-
!|Predicative
|colspan="2"|''árd''
|-
!|Indefinite
|''árd'' (m.)<br/>''h-árd'' (f.)
|rowspan="2"|''áird'' (m.)<br/>''árdar'' (f.)
|-
!|Definite
|''árd'' (m.)<br/>''n-árd'' (f.)
|-
!|Construct
|''árdadh''||''árdann''
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg " style=" text-align: center;"
|+ ''caraimh'' 'human'
|-
!style="width: 100px;"|Number→<br/>State↓
!style="width: 100px;"|Singular
!style="width: 100px;"|Plural
|-
!|Predicative
|colspan="2"|''caraimh''
|-
!|Indefinite
|''caraimh'' (m.)<br/>''charaimh'' (f.)
|rowspan="2"|''carú'' (m.)<br/>''carúr'' (f.)
|-
!|Definite
|''caraimh'' (m.)<br/>''gcaraimh'' (f.)
|-
!|Construct
|''carúdh''||''carúnn''
|}
{{col-end}}
 
====Degree====
The comparative form of adjectives is formed with the suffix ''-ta/-te'' /-tə/ which becomes ''-ata/-eata'' /-ətə/ after ''t, d, th, dh'' and ''-tha/-the'' /θə/ after ''b, p, g, c''. The comparandum is marked with the particle ''rá'' /ɾaː/ 'than'.
 
The superlative is formed with the suffix ''-as'' /-əs/.
 
====Forming adverbs====
Adverbs are formed by adding ''go'' 'with' before the predicative form of the adjective.


==Morphology==
===Pronouns===
===Pronouns===
====Personal====
Anbirese but with more politeness distinctions
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg " style=" text-align: center;"
===Nouns===
|-
Standard {{SUBPAGENAME}} nouns are quite conservative: they have three genders (masculine, feminine and neuter), three numbers (singular, plural and collective), and three states (nominative, genitive and construct). Collective nouns take singular agreement with verbs and adjectives. Regiolects usually have more tone and less noun declension.
|+ '''{{PAGENAME}} personal pronouns'''
|-
!|
!1sg!!2sg!!2pol!!3sg.m!!3sg.f!!1pl.ex!!1pl.in!!2pl!!3pl
|-
!|Conjunctive
|''ná''||''fiar''||''dTlá''||''hú''||''hí''||''cámh''||''céid''||''séid''||''hár''
|-
!|Disjunctive
|''ná''||''iar'' ||''dTlá''||''ú''||''í''||''ámh''||''chéid''||''héid''||''ár''
|}


The disjunctive ''iar'' is often shortened to '' 'r'' in informal speech.
*The nominative singular, nominative plural, and genitive singular must be memorized for every noun. Feminine plurals tend to end in ''-r''.
*The genitive plural is formed by affixing ''-enı'' to the genitive singular.
*The singular construct is formed by affixing ''-aħ'' to the nominative singular.
*The plural construct is formed by affixing ''-u'' to the nominative singular if the nominative singular ends in a consonant, and ''-v'' to the nominative singular if it ends in a vowel.
====The article====
The article inflects and triggers mutation based on number, case and gender.


To emphasize a pronoun or an inflected preposition, ''-na''/''-ne'' is added to the pronoun.
The singular definite article ''ye'' and ''ye<sup>N</sup>'' changes to ''yen'' (with no mutation) before a noun starting with a vowel or a semivowel. For example:
*''*ye<sup>N</sup> ùr'' > ''yen ùr'' /jən ˈwɤː/ (masculine) 'the sense (nominative)';
*''*ye àvaz'' > ''yen àvaz'' /jən ˈaːvəz/ (neuter) 'the book (nominative)'.
But:
*''ye<sup>L</sup> astzuòtz'' > ''ye h'astzuòtz'' /jə xasˈtswɔːts/ (feminine) 'the guilt (nominative)'.


====Politeness====
Collective nouns are by nature definite, and the collective of a noun is formed by using the collective article before the singular form.
In archaic usage, ''séid'' is used as an honorific pronoun when speaking to a person of high social standing. In modern {{PAGENAME}}, this usage is restricted to e.g.:
* books, movies, games, ... when depicting the past or past-like settings (such as historical fiction or fantasy)
* when addressing a deity or a king
* in BDSM contexts when a "slave" refers to their "master".


In modern {{PAGENAME}}, ''fiar'' and ''séid'' are used for family members, friends, children or teens, animals, people on the Internet, or to address people of lower social position, and ''dTlá'' is used to an addressee of higher position and for strangers; for example, it is considered acceptable for a professor to address his students, or for a boss his employees, using familiar pronouns.
*The nominative case is used for the subject
*The accusative case is used for direct objects and after certain prepositions
*The dative cade is used after certain prepositions
*The genitive case is used for possession


====Correlatives====
Todo: accusative and dative
*''mé'' = this
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg" style="text-align:center;"  
*''cé'' = that
|+ '''Definite article'''
*''tá'' = what?
! rowspan=2 | || colspan="3" | singular || colspan="3" | plural
*''tua'' = who?
*''tach'' = where?
*''tuín, tiann'' = why?
*''tér'' = how?
*''tís'' = when?
 
===Prepositions===
Prepositions are inflected, as in the ancestral Thensarian. The pronoun ''dTlá'' is not fused with the preposition, however.
 
''ebh'' = 'after', ''ebhta'' = near/next to
 
''ful'' = 'around' (fulan, fulas, fula, fuli, fulam, fulad, fulac, fular)
 
The sequences ''le'' + ''an'' and ''de'' + ''an'' contract to ''len'' /ʟɛn/ and ''den'' /dɛn/.
 
The 1sg and 2sg forms of prepositions are stressed on the last syllable; all other forms have initial stress.
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg " style=" text-align: center;"
|-
|+ '''Inflection of prepositions'''
|-
|-
!|
! m. || f. || n. || m. || f. || n.  
!1sg!!2sg.m!!3sg.m!!3sg.f!!1pl.ex!!1pl.in!!2pl!!3pl
|-
|-
!|''de-L, d'-'' 'in, at'
! nom.
|''dian''||''dias''||''diú''||''dí''||''diam''||''diad''||''diac''||''diar''
| ''ye<sup>N</sup>'' || ''ye<sup>L</sup>'' || ''ye'' || ''na'' || ''ner'' || ''na<sup>N</sup>''
|-
|-
!|''ar'' 'on'
! Example
|''aran''||''aras''||''or''||''ari''||''aram''||''arad''||''arac''||''arar''
| ''ye mpràn'' || ''ye gkàtz'' || ''ye hazier'' || ''na pràn'' || ''ner kàtzer'' || ''na nghazier''
|-
|-
!|''geil'' 'from'
! acc.
|''geilan''||''geilas''||''gela''||''geili''||''geilem''||''geiled''||''geilec''||''geiler''
| ''ye<sup>L</sup>'' || ''ye'' || ''ye'' || ''na'' || ''ner'' || ''na<sup>N</sup>''
|-
|-
!|''go'' 'with'
! Example
|''guan''||''góis''||''gú''||''gúi''||''guam''||''guad''||''guac''||''guar''
| ''ye mpràn'' || ''ye kàtz'' || ''ye hazier'' || ''na pràn'' || ''ner kàtzer'' || ''na nghazier''
|-
|-
!|''le-L'' 'to'
! dat.
|''lion''||''leis''||''leo''||''léi''||''liom''||''liod''||''lioc''||''lior''
| ''yi<sup>N</sup>'' || ''na<sup>L</sup>'' || ''yi'' || ''na'' || ''na'' || ''na''
|-
|-
!|''nae'' 'with (instrumental)'
! Example
|''naen''||''naes''||''nae''||''naí''||''naem''||''naed''||''naec''||''naer''
| ''yi mpràn'' || ''ye gkàtz'' || ''yi hazier'' || ''na pràn'' || ''na kàtzer'' || ''na hazier''
|-
|-
!|''ŋal'' 'before'
! gen.
|''chaoin''||''chaois''||''chao''||''chaoi''||''chaoim''||''chaoid''||''chaoic''||''chaoir''
| ''na<sup>L</sup>'' || ''na<sup>L</sup>'' || ''na<sup>L</sup>'' || ''nanı'' || ''nanı'' || ''nanı''
|-
|-
!|''ro'' (ergative)
! Example
|''rún''||''rús''||''rú''||''rúi''||''rúm''||''rúd''||''rúc''||''rúr''
| ''na bprànı'' || ''na gkàtzan'' || ''n'γazra'' || ''nanı prànenı'' || ''nanı kàtzenı'' || ''nanı hazrienı''
|}
|}


''Ar'' 'on' can be used to indicate obligation, similarly to Irish and Hebrew:
===Adjectives===
:'''''Aran an cáin le descach.'''''
Attributive adjectives must agree with nouns in gender, number and case. Adjectives have  the same principal parts as nouns. The feminine plural always ends in ''-er'', and the genitive plural always ends in ''-enı''.
:on-1SG DEF.SG.M food to eat-VN
:''I have to eat the food.''
 
===Verbs===
[[Old Eevo]] had a verb system with complex alternations, almost comparable to that of Old Irish. Modern {{PAGENAME}} simplified this system substantially, leaving behind a mixture of synthetic forms (used without a subject pronoun) and analytic forms (used with a subject noun or pronoun), similar to the Modern Irish system. However, many basic verbs are irregular, with many "principal parts"; some common verbs even retain the Old Eevo allomorphy between independent and dependent forms.


Ex:
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg" style="text-align:center;"  
*''cáigh ná'' 'I eat'; ''cáir'' 'you eat'
|+ Attributive forms of ''cial'' 'small'
*''ní dhesc ná'' 'I don't eat'; ''ní dhescar'' 'you don't eat'
! rowspan=2 | || colspan="3" | singular || colspan="3" | plural
====Present tense====
The present tense is conjugated as follows. For some verbs, umlaut occurs with certain affixes. For verb stems ending in ''-gh'' or ''-igh'', the ''-gh'' or ''-igh'' is deleted: ''tnáigh hú'' < {{recon|''tnáighigh hú''}} 'he believes'.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-3}}
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg " style=" text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3" | Present tense
|-
!|
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
|''STEM-((a)igh) ná''<br/>''STEM-an/en''
|''STEM-ú''
|-
!|1.in
|''-''
|''STEM-((a)igh) céid''<br/>''STEM-ad/ed'' (''poetic'')
|-
!|2
|''STEM-(e)ar''
|''STEM-((a)igh) séid''<br/>''STEM-as/es'' (''poetic'')
|-
!|3.m
|''STEM-((a)igh) hú/hí''
|''STEM-((a)igh) hár''
|-
!|Impersonal
|colspan="2"|''STEM-a<sup>1</sup>ra/-e<sup>1</sup>ra''
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg  " style=" text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3" | Present tense of the verb ''molaigh'' 'thank'
|-
!|
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
| ''mol(aigh) ná''<br/> ''molan''
| ''molú''
|-
!|1.in
| ''-''
| ''mol(aigh) géid''<br/>''molad'' (''poetic'')
|-
|-
!|2
! m. || f. || n. || m. || f. || n.
| ''molar''
| ''mol(aigh) séid''<br/>''molas'' (''poetic'')
|-
|-
!|3.m
! nom.
|''mol(aigh) hú''<br/>''mol(aigh) hí''
| ''jcial'' || ''xcial'' || ''cial'' || ''ciala'' || ''cialer'' || ''jciala''  
|''mol(aigh) hár''
|-
|-
!|Impersonal
! gen.
|colspan="2"|''molara''
| ''jciele'' || ''jciele'' || ''jciele'' || ''cialenı'' || ''cialenı'' || ''cialenı''  
|}
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg  " style=" text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3" | Present tense of the verb {{abbtip|idaigh|''idigh''}} 'lie in a place'
|-
!|
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
| ''id(igh) ná''<br/>''iden''
| ''idú''
|-
!|1.in
|''-''
| ''id(igh) céid''<br/>''ided'' (''poetic'')
|-
!|2
| ''idear''
| ''id(igh) zéid''<br/>''ides'' (''poetic'')
|-
!|3.m
|''id(igh) hú/hí''
|''id(igh) hár''
|-
!|Impersonal
|colspan="2"|''idre''
|}
{{col-end}}


<sup>1</sup> The buffer ''-e-'' is added when the previous consonant is a cluster, r or l.
===Verbs===
 
====Finite verb inflection====
The ''-igh'' ending in analytic forms must be deleted when a preverbal particle such as ''ní'' 'not', ''ri'' 'REL', ''bhfá'' 'COMP': ''molaigh hú'' 'he thanks', but ''ní mhol hú'' 'he does not thank'. For verbs that have a separate stem for imperatives, the imperative stem is used with a preverbal particle. The ''-igh'' may also be deleted or added in poetry. This is a remnant of Middle {{PAGENAME}} where there was a distinction between ''molamh hú'' 'he thanks (once)' (dependent ''mola hú'' or ''mol hú'') and ''molaigh hú'' 'he thanks (regularly)'.
All forms of a {{PAGENAME}} verb are formed from four principal parts:
 
====Present progressive====
''Laidh ná de dhescach'' = I'm eating
 
''Níl ná de dhescach'' = I'm not eating
 
====Imperfect tense====
To form the imperfect tense, the particle ''go'' is used before the verb, and the verb undergoes lenition.
*''go mhola ná'' 'I used to thank'
*''go h-airde hí'' 'she used to lie'
 
====Preterite tense====
 
The suffix ''-ín'' is added to the preterite stem to form the past participle. The subject is preceded by an ergative marker ''lu''. For the impersonal the subject is simply omitted. This is the standard way of forming the preterite in ''Étaoin'' {{PAGENAME}}.


:'''''Déicín luc rúin.'''''
#the present absolute stem
:''I ate/have eaten a fruit.''
#the imperative stem
#the past stem
#the bare infinitive stem


====Pluperfect tense====
The forms of a {{PAGENAME}} verb are the following:
''g'lao'' + past participle. This tense uses ergative alignment like the preterite.
*Present tense: PRESENT + ''-ig'', negative ''θri'' + IMPERATIVE
*''g'lao moilín ná'' 'I had thanked'
*Subjunctive (after preverbs): also IMPERATIVE
*''g'lao fairdín hí'' 'she had lain'
*Future tense: ''aeb'' + IMPERATIVE
*Past tense: PAST + ''-in''; induces split-ergativity
*Imperative: IMPERATIVE
*''-eod'' infinitive: PRESENT + -eod
*bare infinitive: INFINITIVE


====Future tense====
There is no aspect distinction.
The future tense is formed by suffixing the future marker ''t'' and conjugating the result like a present tense verb, except that the analytic form is invariably ''-ta/-te''.


The future marker ''-t-'' becomes ''-at-/-et-'' after ''t, d, th, dh'' or any time when a resulting cluster does not consist of two obstruents and would violate the sonority hierarchy (voiced C between two voiceless C's) and ''-th-'' after ''b, p, g, c''.
====Other forms====
*The active participle in ''-ig'' is used to modify a noun. As such it is used as a relative form for the subject.
*The ''-et'' infinitive:
**is used with modal verbs.
*The ''-eγ'' infinitive:
**with ''zi'' 'in', indicates "while the action is taking place" or, when possessed, "while POSSESSOR is VERBing"
**with ''ar'' 'on', indicates "upon/as soon as the action is taking place" or, when possessed,  "upon the POSSESSOR's VERBing"
**with ''nai'' 'by', indicates that the verb's action serves a purpose: "by VERBing"
*The bare infinitive:
**with ''zi'' 'in', indicates the progressive.
**with ''jel'' 'from', indicates (from just having been VERB-ing)
**with ''ħrù'' 'next to', indicates "intends to VERB" or "about to VERB"
**with ''asd'' 'without', indicates "without VERBing"
**(nonstandard) with ''ħand'' 'after', indicates that the action just happened.


====Future perfect tense====
====Split-ergativity====
''fácht'' + past participle. This tense uses ergative alignment like the preterite.
{{PAGENAME}} has split-ergativity: past tense verbs display ergative alignment, and non-past tense verbs have accusative alignment.


====Jussive====
That is, the subject is marked with the preposition ''u'' for transitive verbs, and is unmarked for intransitive verbs. In the case of transitive verbs, the ergative marking occurs regardless of whether or not there is a direct object.
The jussive is mainly used for third-person imperatives and sometimes to specify a wish or a requirement.


Modern {{PAGENAME}} just uses ''molúr'' in every person: ''molúr ná'', ''mólúr fiar'', etc. The passive form is ''molrúr''.
Examples:
 
This form uses ''dá''-L for the negative, not ''tir''-L.
 
:'''''Geilan bhfá ŋgríciúr hí guan.'''''
:''I want her to stay with me.''
 
====Conditional====
 
====Imperative====
{{col-begin}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-3}}
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg  " style=" text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3" | Imperative
|-
!|
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
|''-''
|''-''
|-
!|1.in
|''-''
|''STEM-ad!''
|-
!|2
|''STEM!''
|''STEM-as!''
|-
!|3.m
|''-''
|''-''
|-
!|Impersonal
|colspan="2"|''-''
|}
{{col-break}}
{{col-break}}
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg  " style=" text-align: center;"
'''Transitive verbs'''
|-
:''Xabin '''u''' na.''
!colspan="3" | Imperative of the verb ''mol'' 'thank'
:eat.PRET ERG 1SG
|-
:'I have eaten.'
!|
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
|''-''
|''-''
|-
!|1.in
|''-''
|''molad!''
|-
!|2
|''mol!''
|''molas!''
|-
!|3.m
|''-''
|''-''
|-
!|Impersonal
|colspan="2"|''-''
|}
{{col-break}}
{| class="greentable lightgreenbg  " style=" text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3" | Imperative of the verb ''id'' 'lie in a place'
|-
!|
!style="width: 125px; "|Singular
!style="width: 125px; "|Plural
|-
!|1.ex
| ''-''
| ''-''
|-
!|1.in
| ''-''
| ''airded!''
|-
!|2
| ''aird!''
| ''airdes!''
|-
!|3.m
| ''-''
| ''-''
|-
!|Impersonal
|colspan="2"|''-''
|}
{{col-end}}


The polite 2nd person equivalents are ''molúr dTlá'' and ''airdúr dTlá''.
:''Xabin '''u''' na n sáeng.''
:eat.PRET ERG 1SG DEF bread
:'I have eaten the bread.'


The imperative stem is used in a Hebrew-style "infinitive absolute" construction: ''deasc déctha hú ú'' = 'he will indeed eat it'
:''A tjéobrjeong '''u''' na n kéolsjang χa.''
:but leave.PRET ERG 1SG DEF glh_schanng there
:'But I left the ''glh schanng'' (kefir-soaked Bjeheondian salad) there.'
{{col-break}}
'''Intransitive verbs'''
:''Eoseong eo már.''
:die.PRET DEF tree/PL
:'The trees died.'


====Verbal noun====
:''Farjeogin meo nóγeol χaltan.''
The verbal noun serves many important syntactic functions.
:return.PRET 1PL.EXC.POSS dog/PL at_last
:'Our dogs finally returned.'
{{col-end}}


Some markers for verbal nouns:
====Strong verbs====
 
As in Germanic, some Anbirese verbs form the past tense and the ''-eod'' infinitive by using ablaut.
*''-ach/-ech''
*''-as/-es''
*''-t/-ta/-te''
*ablaut
*bare stem
*''-a/-e''
*''-ú''
*umlaut/''-e''
 
====Emphatic forms====
To emphasize the subject the clitic ''-nna'' is added to:
*the verb if the verb is in a synthetic form;
*the subject if the verb is in an analytic form.


===Prepositions===
If the prepositional object is a pronoun, the genitive form of the pronoun is used: ''la nà'' = to me, for me.
===Numbers===
===Numbers===
*0: ''ħaŋíts'' /ha'ŋi:ts/
ngic, cìm, tiħer, nèig, dèib, selь, sdàm, ruìz, lèr, bàr, ngiaor, yàxim, knè
*1: ''ciamh'' /tʃiəw/
*2: ''tioth'' /tɪθ/
*3: ''náidh'' /neːð/
*4: ''daoibh'' /døːv/
*5: ''soil'' /sœʟ/
*6: ''stámh'' /staːw/
*7: ''ruai'' /ɾyə/
*8: ''lóidh'' /ʀøːð/
*9: ''bairbh'' /bɛlv/
*10: ''uar'' /uəl/
*11: ''eáichemh'' /eːʃəw/
*12: ''cnae'' /kneː/
 
Numbers must be used with singular nouns. The numbers ''ciamh'' comes after the noun, while other numbers come before it.
 
The suffix ''-ar/-er'' is used for 'nth', and ''-tar/-ter'' is used for 'n times'.
 
1/n = n-bhedh = "n-part" (half = ''drá'')


===Derivational morphology===
===Derivational morphology===
Below are some common {{PAGENAME}} derivational affixes. In addition to derivational affixes, {{PAGENAME}} uses compound nouns like German; also, some productive prefixes has been re-analyzed into existence from Old Eevo prefix combinations. This allowed {{PAGENAME}} to coin new native words instead of using loanwords.
*''yir-'' = un-, non-
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="greentable lightgreenbg" style="text-align:center;"
**yirstzuòtz, yirstzuòtz (f) 'innocence', from ''stzuòtz'' (f) 'guilt'
|-
*''-gàn, -gànь, -gànь'' = -able?
! rowspan="2" colspan="2"|
*''-ah, -ax, -aha'' (n) = verbal noun
! colspan="4"|From...
*Unstressed initial prefixes are separated by an interpunct (·)
|-
**''ar·'' is an applicative
! Noun
! Verb
! Adjective<br>or Determiner
! Adverb
|-
! rowspan="4"|To...
! Noun
|
|
|
|
|-
! Verb
|
|
|
|
|-
! Adjective<br>or Determiner
|
|
|
|
|-
! Adverb
|
|
|
| -
|}
 
 
*''-a/e'' (f): nominalizer of verbs and adjectives
*''-ach/-ech, -achar/-echar'' (f): verbal noun (the most common suffix)
*''-acht/-echt'' = forms adjectives from verbs
*''-ám, -áma'' (m/f): augmentative (from Netagin)
*''-án/-eán, -áin/-eáin'': adjectivizer
*''-ar, -ara'': augmentative (Talmic)
*''-(a)im, -(a)imer'' = female suffix
**''-óiŋ'' > ''-óiŋim''
*''-ú'' (f.): abstract nouns; -hood
*''-ín, -íne'' = used to form adjectives in Netagin loans; also used with native words sometimes
*''-ín, -íní'' = patient, passive participle
*''-aí/-í''/''-aíche/-íche'' = diminutive
*''-gán, -gáin'' = -able
*''é-'' = co-, con-, together
*''for-'' = causative
*''má-L'': un-
*''mí-L'': mis-
*''ní-L'' (hyphenated): non-
*''-óiŋ, -óiŋe'' (m) = agent suffix
*''sin-L'': "well"
*Nouns can often be verbed
 
==Syntax==
:''Main article: [[{{PAGENAME}}/Syntax]]''
==Vocabulary==
{{PAGENAME}} is relatively purist; most {{PAGENAME}} vocabulary is of Talmic origin. However, a non-trivial fraction of the vocabulary is loaned from Netagin (either [[Classical Netagin]] or [[Koine Netagin]]) and, to a lesser extent, Clofabic. Most recently, [[Clofabosin]] words are entering the language, mostly in the domains of information technology and culture.
 
===Colors===
===Calendar and time===
===Kinship terms===
*''annar, annta'' = father
*''iamh, iamhar'' = mother
*''có, cótha'' = son
 
==Phrasebook==
*{{abbtip|/ə ˈsɛxtə ʟɪs/|''An Saichte leis!''}} (to one person)/{{abbtip|/ə ˈsɛxtə ʟɛk/|''An Saichte lec!''}} (to ≥2 people) = Hello! (lit. "the spirit-complex [give blessing] to you")
*{{abbtip|/ˈmœʟə/|''Moile!''}} = Thank you!
*{{abbtip|/ʟə ˈheːˌgantə/|''Le h-éganta!''}} = Goodbye! (lit. "to meeting")
*''Arbára ná [NAME].'' = My name is [NAME].
*{{abbtip|/ˈstaːnsə ˈbœɾə ʟɪs/| ''Stánsa boire leis!''}} = Happy Stannsa!
*{{abbtip|/ˈsŋøːˌxɾeː ˈvœɾə ʟɪs/| ''Sŋaoichré bhoire leis!''}} = Happy birthday!
*{{abbtip|/ˈɪθəl ˈhyŋaːn ʟɪn/|''Ither huiŋeán lion.''}} = Nice to meet you.
*''Aeilligh ná iar.'' / ''Aeilligh ná 'r.'' = I love you.
*''Ní thnáighin leis!'' = I don't believe you!
*''Brós na dellar iar guirenta.'' = Lower your standards. ("Put your eyes lower.")
*''Suinmigh hú'' = it makes sense ("it tunes")
*[repeat verb] = Yes, X does [verb]. (reply to ''Is '' [verb] ''... ?'')
*[repeat adjective] = Yes, X is [adjective]. (reply to ''Is '' [adjective] '' ... ?'')
*[inflected form of ''de''] = Yes, X is Y.
*''Ní'' + lenition + [verb/adjective/inflected form of ''de''] = No.
*''Níl.'' = No. (reply to ''Is laidh ... ?'')


==Sample texts==
==Sample texts==
===E pur si muove!===
===UDHR===
''Sóibh argann argannaigh hú!''
:'''''Niam pà cil ghar sngèi casàn ac sdeħèid nai lòngatz ac nai marrenь. Niam amsetzìn nai mìsrìnen ac ye as·torngegen, ac niam ar ham la foza cràdener nai ghiegòren ri ziarbetzen.'''''
===The North Wind and the Sun===
:/nʲəm pɑː tʃəɫ ɣɤː sŋaɪ ˈkasɑːn ək sdəˈħait nɒ ɫawŋəts ək nɒ mar̝ənʲ. nʲəm ˈamsətsiːn nɒ ˈmiːsʲɾʲiːnən ək jə əsˈtʊɯŋəgən, ək nʲəm əɾ ham ɫə ˈfɔzə kɾɑːdənɨ nɒ zjəgʊɯn ɾɪ zʲɤːbətsən/
====Phonetic version====
:''All humans are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.''
'''''An b:vuołkołn al an :ngúd'''''
 
''Kiewlách gré an b:vuołkołn al an :ngúd d'uskech go nale dli ní, t:thuov girel édhene, án nyødhín zothlǿng de léhe d'z:ýl go :hespeł f:wún dlú. Ieliedhín tytheln ní, ngamew édhene zufín ho ré ngú an b:ván li k:grynteteth sú hǿn, s'an z:othlǿng ho lá, an :hespeł lizu ho d:dhelvech. Anøs ngolín an b:vuołkołn go t:thán li gré conlethu, ach go ngolech al gré ngole ngú, ón al-sngýchtín an :hespeł lizu lu an z:othlǿng dli ngúłdhu. Di hél an t:dánev, síł-wárín an b:vuołkołn gił an snǿseł. Anøs sásefín fýne lu an :ngúd, al k:chéhest delvín an :hespeł lizu lu an z:othlǿng. Al anást fáchín frénín an b:vuołkołn ho g:gholgiespech, ní an :ngúd hí an b:ván :hédhene.''
 
====Orthographic version====
'''''A bhólcoln ar an ŋ-úd'''''
 
''Ciamhrách g'laí an bhólcoln ar an ŋ-úd d'usgach go nar dri ní thóbh gilar aédhanna, án nuaidhín zothróiŋ de reía d'zhíor go h-eisbel bhfúnn drú. éréidhín tiotharann ní ŋamamh aédhanna zufín sho laí ŋú an bhánn ri gcluintetadh sú heíon, s'an zhothróiŋ sho reá, an h-eisbel rizu sho dhearbhach. Anois ŋorrín an bhólcoln go thán ri g'laí conrathu, ach go ŋorrach ar g'laí ŋorra ŋú, aón ar-sŋúichdín an h-eisbel rizu ru an zhothróiŋ dri ŋlúdhu. Di fhaír an dtánabh, síl-bhfáilín an bhólcoln gil an snóisel. Anois sásaín fúinne ru an ŋ-úd, ar cheíesd dearbhín an h-eisbel rizu ru an zhothróiŋ. Ar anásd fáchín fléinín an bhólcoln sho ghorgéach, ní an ŋ-úd hí an bhánn h-aédhanna.''
 
====Gloss====
{{Gloss
|phrase = Kiewlách gré a b:vuołkołn al a :ngúd d'uskech go nale dli ní t:thuov girel édhene, án nyødhín zothlǿng de léhe d'z:ýl go :hespeł f:wún dlú.
|pinyin =
|IPA = [ˈcʰiəwl̠äːx qʷˁeː ə ˈvʊːˁkʰɔːˁn əl̠ ə ˈŋʉ̠ːt ˈtʊs̠kəx kə ˈnal̠ə dɾɪ niː ˈθɵ̠ːv ˈɡɪʁᵝəl̠ ˈeːðənə̟ ǀ äːn ˈnyəðiːn ˈz̠ɔθl̠øːŋ də ˈl̠eːə ˈdyːl̠ ɡə ˈhɛs̠pɤᵝˁ ˈwʉ̠ːn dɾʉ̠ː]
| morphemes = kiewlách gré-N a-L buołkołn al a-N úd de-L uskech go-L nale dli ní-L tuov gir-el édh-ene, án-L nyødh-ín zothl-ǿng de-L léhe de-L zýl go-L espeł N-fún dl-ú
| gloss = one_time IPF DEF.M.SG north-wind and DEF.F.SG sun COMIT each_other on COMP who from-3PL strong-CMPV, when easily-PST.PART travel-AGT LOC come-VN LOC way COMIT cloak INDEF.M.SG.warm on-3SG
| translation = Once the north wind and the sun were arguing with each other about which one was stronger, when a traveler appeared in the way with a warm cloak on him.
| index =
}}
 
{{Gloss
|phrase = Ieliedhín tythlen ní ngamew édhene zuspín ho ré ngú a b:ván li k:gryntetedh sú hǿn, s'an z:othlǿng ho lá, a :hespeł lizu ho d:dhelvech.
|pinyin =
|IPA = [ˈʔiəl̠iəðiːn ˈtʰʏθl̠ən niː ˈŋɐməw ˈeːðənə ˈʐʊs̠piːn hɔ̽ ʁeː ŋʉ̠ː ə väːn l̠ɪ ɢʷˁʏntʰətʰəθ s̠ʉ̠ː høːn ǀ s̠ən ˈɔθl̠øːŋ hɔ̽ ˈl̠äː ə ˈhɛs̠pɤᵝˁ l̠ɪz̠ʊ hɔ̽ ˈðɛl̠vəx]
| morphemes = ie-liedh-ín tythel-en ní-L ngamew édhene zusp-ín ho-L ré ngú a-L bán li-N k:grynt-et-edh s-ú hǿn so-L an-L z:othlǿng ho-L lá, a-L espeł liz-u ho-L delv-ech
| gloss = together-come-PST.PART two-DEF.M.PL COMP must strong-CMPV TEL-count_as-PST.PART TO_INFINITIVE be.VN 3SG.M.INDEP DEF-M one REL succeed-FUT-PART to-3SG.M first to DEF.M.SG traveller TO_INFINITIVE make.VN DEF.M.SG cloak POSS-3SG.M TO_INFINITIVE take_off-VN
| translation = The two agreed that he was to be considered stronger who would first succeed in making the traveler take off his cloak.
| index =
}}
 
{{Gloss
|phrase = úle ngolín a b:vuołkołn go t:thán li gré conlethu, ach go ngolech al gré ngole ngú, ón al-sngýchtín a :hespeł lizu lu an z:othlǿng dli ngúłdhu.
|pinyin =
|IPA = [ˈʔʉ̠ːl̠ə ˈŋɔl̠iːn ə ˈvʊːˁkʰɔːˁn gə ˈθäːn lɪ qʷˁeː ˈkʰɔnl̠əθʊ ǀ ʔɐx ˈŋɔl̠əx əl̠ qʷˁeː ˈŋɔl̠ə ŋʉ̠ː ǀ ˈɵːn ˈɐl̠s̠ɲyːxtiːn ˈhɛs̠pɤᵝˁ l̠ɪz̠ʊ l̠ʊ ən ˈɔθl̠øːŋ ə dɾɪ ˈŋʊᵝˁðʊ]
| morphemes = úle ngol-ín a buołkłn go-L tán li-N gré conleth-u ach go-L ngol-ech al gré ngol-e ngú ón al-sngýcht-ín a-L espeł liz-u lu an zothlǿng dli ngúłdh-u
| gloss = now blow-PST.PART DEF.M.SG north_wind COMI all DEF IPFV might-3SG.M, but COMI blow-VN and IPFV blow-IPFV 3SG.M.INDEP more fasten-PST.PART DEF.M.SG cloak POSS-3SG.M ERG DEF.M.SG traveller on body-3SG.M
| translation = Now the north wind blew with all his might, but the more he blew, the more did the traveler fasten the cloak around him.
| index =
}}
 
{{Gloss
|phrase = De f:hél a t:dánev, síł-wárín a b:vuołkołn gił a snǿseł.
|pinyin =
|IPA = [tɛ ˈheːl̠ ə däːnəv ˈsiːɤᵝˁwɑːʁᵝiːn ə ˈvʊːˁkʰɔːˁn gɪɤᵝˁ ə ˈʂnøːs̠ɤᵝˁ]
| morphemes = de-L fél a-N tánev síł-wár-ín a-L buołkołn gił a-L snǿs-eł
| gloss = LOC bottom DEF lamp give_up-PST.PART DEF.M.SG north_wind from DEF.SG.N continue-VN
| translation = Realizing that continuing would be futile, the north wind gave up continuing.
| index =
}}
 
{{Gloss
|phrase = úle sásefín fýne lu a :ngúd, al k:chéhest delvín a :hespeł lizu lu an z:othlǿng.
|pinyin =
|IPA = [ˈʔʉ̠ːl̠ə ˈs̠äːs̠əfiːn ˈfyːnə l̠ʊ ə ˈŋʉ̠ːt ǀ əl̠ ˈçeːəst tɛl̠viːn ə ˈhɛs̠pɤᵝˁ ˈl̠ɪz̠ʊ l̠ʊ ən ˈɔðl̠øːŋ]
| morphemes = úle sásef-ín fýne lu a-N úd al L-céhest delv-ín a-L hespeł liz-u lu an-L zothlǿng
| gloss = now shine-PST.PART warmth ERG DEF.F.SG sun, and ADV-immediate take_off-PST.PART DEF.M.SG cloak ERG DEF.M.SG traveler
| translation = Now the sun shined out warmth, and immediately the traveler took off his cloak.
| index =
}}
 
{{Gloss
|phrase = Al anást fách frénín a b:vuołkołn ho g:gholgéhech, ní a :ngúd hí a b:ván :hédhene.
|pinyin =
|IPA = [əl̠ əˈnäːs̠t fäːx ˈfʁᵝeːniːn ə ˈvʊːˁkʰɔːˁn hɔ̽ ˈɣɔl̠geːəx ǀ niː ə ˈŋʉ̠ːt hiː ə väːn ˈheːðənə̟]
| morphemes = al anást fách frén-ín a-L buołkołn ho-L golgie-ech ní a-N úd hí a-L bán L-édh-ene
| gloss = and thus be.PRET obligate-PST.PART DEF.M.SG TO_INFINITIVE confess.VN, COMP DEF.F.SG 3SG.F.INDEP DEF.M.SG one DEF.M.SG-strong-CMPV
| translation = And thus the north wind was obliged to admit that the sun was the stronger one.
| index =
}}
 
===UDHR, Article 1===
===Featured language banner===
 
==Other resources==
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[[Category:{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Talmic languages]]
[[Category:Talmic languages]]
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[[Category:Tricin]]
[[Category:Tricin]]
[[Category:Languages]]
[[Category:Languages]]

Latest revision as of 22:01, 18 November 2023

Pages with the prefix 'Ciètian' in the and 'Talk' namespaces:

Talk:
Ciètian
ye Giètem
Created byIlL
SettingTricin
Native toTalma
Native speakers100 million L1 speakers (300 million L2 speakers) (fT 1670dd (2676))
Quame
  • Talmic
    • Thensaric
      • Tigolic
        • Ciètian
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Ciètian (CHAIT-i-ən; natively Ciètem, ye Giètem, from Thensarian Centimae) is a Talmic language (in the Tigolic subbranch of Talmic, which also includes Eevo). It's inspired by Mandarin, German, Occitan, Irish, Thedish, and English (particularly Cockney and Philadelphian).

A close relative (sometimes considered a dialect) is Páuluòbeng. Anbirese, a more distant relative, is still somewhat mutually intelligible.

Todo

  • should be Ăn Yidiș gib?
  • Change orthography
  • No case, Welsh grammar
  • netzier = chain
  • Nian yirastzuòtzìn! = I'm innocent!
  • Srüeil = a name (from Sréul)
  • Sgüeila = Skella
  • Single vs. double negatives: use both
    • a > ea, e > eo, i > iu in certain conditions - what type of pal'n do these new vowels trigger
      • e.g. cell 'small' > *cĕoll > ciel
    • already have eo éu iu íu/iú
  • Actually palatalization is NOT as simple as this. y ø a o u vs. i ie vs. ia io iu vs ja jo ju je/ĺa ĺo ĺu ĺe affect consonants differently.
  • non-initial -gh might die
  • mièn àvath (this-DEF book) = 'this book'
  • Revise Thensarian declension based on Ciètian
  • Have a separate schwa phoneme a /ə/?
  • -atz is cognate to Eevo -ahd
  • -z is one plural suffix (often used for nouns ending in vowels; from palatalized lenited -dh)
  • cht > tz à la Wenedyk, final slender -t > -cy
  • sg palatalizes to /ʃ/ ⟨sgi⟩
  • Etymological doublets from Tigol absolute-conjunct verb forms.
  • lianger = dream (< leṁar)
  • Slender t > ts

a e i o u á é í ó ú ai ei io iu oi ui ae ao aoi ái éi eó éu ia ío íu iú(i) ói oí ua uai úi uí

-> a ia i uo u à iè ì uò ù e ie i ü e ü ai ao è ai ei iao iù ì ì ǜ ǜ ù uì ù è

Numbers: cìm, tiħer, nèz, dèv, sel, sdàm, ruìz, lèr, bàr, niaur, yàchim, cnè

Notes

Symbols

  • L - lenition/aspiration
  • N - eclipsis

Phonology

The following describes Ciètian as spoken in Sdiemìn.

Stress

Stress is not phonemic and is weight-sensitive. The rule is: the last long vowel is stressed. If there is no long vowel the last syllable is stressed.

In most compound words, primary stress falls on the first member and a secondary stress falls on the second member. Place names are sometimes exceptions to the preceding rule: for example, the element -vià is always stressed.

Intonation

Pitch accent?

Word level

  • A stressed short vowel has a high pitch.
  • A stressed long vowel or diphthong has a falling pitch but ends in a higher pitch than unstressed vowels.
  • Unstressed vowels have low pitch.

Clause level

  • Pitch drops at the end of a sentence.

Consonants

The Anbiric spirantization had taken place: Tigol t ṫ d ḋ /tʰ dʰ t d/ had become /θ ð tʰ d/ in Old Anbirese, the "common ancestor" or "areolect" in the Anbiric dialect continuum characterized by this shift.

Ciètian has an aspiration distinction in stops; however, the distinction is neutralized in word-final position.

  • c g ch gh /k g x ɣ/
  • ci/cü gi/gü chi/chü/sgi/sgü /tʃ dʒ ʃ/
  • tz dz s z /ts dz s z/
  • t d th dh /t d ħ ɣ/
  • p b f v /p b f w/
  • pь bь fь vь /pj bj fj vj/
  • r rr h m n nь ng l y /r r̝ h m n nj ŋ l j/
    • /l/ is velarized when not followed by /i/, /j/, /y/, or /ɥ/.

Vowels

Ciètian has the following vowels:

  • i ü u ie üe a /ɪ ʏ ʊ jɛ ɥɛ a/
  • /ɪj ʏɥ ʊw jɛː wɔː ɑː ɒj æː äj äw jäw jæj (ɥ)ɶj ɯː ɤː jɤː ɥɤː wɤː aɯ/
  • /ə ɨ~i/

Monophthongs

Front Central Back
short long short long short long
Close i /i/, ü /y/ ì /ɪj/, ǜ /ʏɥ/ u /u/ ù /ʊw/
Close-mid e /ə/ /ɯː/
Mid ie, üe /ɛ/ ià /ɛː/ [ə] (u)ò /wɔː/
Open ia [æ] a /a/ à /ɑː/

[ɨ(ː) ʉ(ː)] are allophones of /i(ː) y(ː)/ after dental and retroflex sibilants.

/ɯː/ is more fully back, unlike [ɨː].

Semivowel onglides: i ü u /j ɥ w/

Diphthongs: ai au ei ou iou iei üei /ɒj æː äj äw jäw jæj ɥɶj/

R-colored vowels

(No linking R is used.)

  • ar, àr /ɔɯ~ɤː/
  • er, èr, air, aor /aɯ/
  • ir, ìr, iur, eir, ier, ièr /jəɯ~jɤː/
  • or, òr /uɯ~ɯː/
  • ür, ǜr /ɥɤː/
  • ur, ùr /wɤː/
  • final -er = /ɨ/
  • final -ier = /i/

Phonotactics

Loanword phonology

Initial /θ/, /x/ and /h/ in loans are rendered /t/, /k/ and /Ø/ respectively (cf. German pronounces initial ch in Greek loans as /k/). Non-initial /θ/, /x/, and /h/ become /ħ/, /x/, and /x/.

Stress is usually as in the original language; non-initially stressed words lengthen the stressed vowel. Example: bintelesràl /pɪnthəɫəsˈɻaːɫ/ 'republic'.

Morphophonology

Mutations

Consonant mutations
Radical m /m/ p /pʰ/ b /p/ f /f/ t /tʰ/ d /t/ q /tɕʰ/ j /tɕ/ s /s/ x /ɕ/ sh /ʂ/ k /kʰ/ g /k/ ch /tʂʰ/ zh /tʂ/ 0 /Ø/, y /j/
Lenited ngm /ŋ/ fp /f/ vb /v/ f /f/ ħt /ħ/ tzd /ts/ xq /ɕ/ ξj /ʑ/ hs /h/ x /ɕ/ sh /ʂ/ hk /x/ γg /ɣ/ sch /ʂ/ rzh /ɻ/ add h' /x/
Eclipsed m /m/ bp /p/ mb /m/ vf /v/ dt /t/ nd /n/ jq /tɕ/ nj /ɲ/ зs /z/ ξx /ʑ/ rsh /ɻ/ gk /k/ ŋg /ŋ/ jch /tʂ/ njh /ɲ/ add n' /n/

Dialectology

Ciètian is subject to a fair amount of accent and dialect variation.

Common dialectal features

  • /x ɣ/ realized as uvular [χ ʁ]
  • h from Tigol h = /h/; h from Tigol ch = /x/; ħ is consistently /ħ/

Dialect 1

Something closer to my old Yekhanese (i.e. more Sorbian/Persian-ish)

Nyav baa gew gkar asŋea gasaan ak ascii nea woŋŋacy ak nea vmarozh. Nyav ar·seciin nea na vmiishiin ak i n'astorŋax, ak nya ar hu wa poda baraaħanar nea na weesycy na syarbacy.
/ɲəv baː gɛw gaɾ əsˈŋɛː gəˈsaːn ək əsˈtsiː nɛː ˈwoŋːətɕ ək nɛː vəˈɾɔʒ. ɲəv əɾsɛˈtsiːn nɛ nə viːˈʃiːn ək i nəstɔɾˈŋax, ək ɲə ˈaɾ hu wə pɔˈda bəˈraːħənəɾ nɛː nə ˈweːɕtɕ nə ɕəɾˈbatɕ./

Morphology

Pronouns

Anbirese but with more politeness distinctions

Nouns

Standard Ciètian nouns are quite conservative: they have three genders (masculine, feminine and neuter), three numbers (singular, plural and collective), and three states (nominative, genitive and construct). Collective nouns take singular agreement with verbs and adjectives. Regiolects usually have more tone and less noun declension.

  • The nominative singular, nominative plural, and genitive singular must be memorized for every noun. Feminine plurals tend to end in -r.
  • The genitive plural is formed by affixing -enı to the genitive singular.
  • The singular construct is formed by affixing -aħ to the nominative singular.
  • The plural construct is formed by affixing -u to the nominative singular if the nominative singular ends in a consonant, and -v to the nominative singular if it ends in a vowel.

The article

The article inflects and triggers mutation based on number, case and gender.

The singular definite article ye and yeN changes to yen (with no mutation) before a noun starting with a vowel or a semivowel. For example:

  • *yeN ùr > yen ùr /jən ˈwɤː/ (masculine) 'the sense (nominative)';
  • *ye àvaz > yen àvaz /jən ˈaːvəz/ (neuter) 'the book (nominative)'.

But:

  • yeL astzuòtz > ye h'astzuòtz /jə xasˈtswɔːts/ (feminine) 'the guilt (nominative)'.

Collective nouns are by nature definite, and the collective of a noun is formed by using the collective article before the singular form.

  • The nominative case is used for the subject
  • The accusative case is used for direct objects and after certain prepositions
  • The dative cade is used after certain prepositions
  • The genitive case is used for possession

Todo: accusative and dative

Definite article
singular plural
m. f. n. m. f. n.
nom. yeN yeL ye na ner naN
Example ye mpràn ye gkàtz ye hazier na pràn ner kàtzer na nghazier
acc. yeL ye ye na ner naN
Example ye mpràn ye kàtz ye hazier na pràn ner kàtzer na nghazier
dat. yiN naL yi na na na
Example yi mpràn ye gkàtz yi hazier na pràn na kàtzer na hazier
gen. naL naL naL nanı nanı nanı
Example na bprànı na gkàtzan n'γazra nanı prànenı nanı kàtzenı nanı hazrienı

Adjectives

Attributive adjectives must agree with nouns in gender, number and case. Adjectives have the same principal parts as nouns. The feminine plural always ends in -er, and the genitive plural always ends in -enı.

Attributive forms of cial 'small'
singular plural
m. f. n. m. f. n.
nom. jcial xcial cial ciala cialer jciala
gen. jciele jciele jciele cialenı cialenı cialenı

Verbs

Finite verb inflection

All forms of a Ciètian verb are formed from four principal parts:

  1. the present absolute stem
  2. the imperative stem
  3. the past stem
  4. the bare infinitive stem

The forms of a Ciètian verb are the following:

  • Present tense: PRESENT + -ig, negative θri + IMPERATIVE
  • Subjunctive (after preverbs): also IMPERATIVE
  • Future tense: aeb + IMPERATIVE
  • Past tense: PAST + -in; induces split-ergativity
  • Imperative: IMPERATIVE
  • -eod infinitive: PRESENT + -eod
  • bare infinitive: INFINITIVE

There is no aspect distinction.

Other forms

  • The active participle in -ig is used to modify a noun. As such it is used as a relative form for the subject.
  • The -et infinitive:
    • is used with modal verbs.
  • The -eγ infinitive:
    • with zi 'in', indicates "while the action is taking place" or, when possessed, "while POSSESSOR is VERBing"
    • with ar 'on', indicates "upon/as soon as the action is taking place" or, when possessed, "upon the POSSESSOR's VERBing"
    • with nai 'by', indicates that the verb's action serves a purpose: "by VERBing"
  • The bare infinitive:
    • with zi 'in', indicates the progressive.
    • with jel 'from', indicates (from just having been VERB-ing)
    • with ħrù 'next to', indicates "intends to VERB" or "about to VERB"
    • with asd 'without', indicates "without VERBing"
    • (nonstandard) with ħand 'after', indicates that the action just happened.

Split-ergativity

Ciètian has split-ergativity: past tense verbs display ergative alignment, and non-past tense verbs have accusative alignment.

That is, the subject is marked with the preposition u for transitive verbs, and is unmarked for intransitive verbs. In the case of transitive verbs, the ergative marking occurs regardless of whether or not there is a direct object.

Examples:

Transitive verbs

Xabin u na.
eat.PRET ERG 1SG
'I have eaten.'
Xabin u na n sáeng.
eat.PRET ERG 1SG DEF bread
'I have eaten the bread.'
A tjéobrjeong u na n kéolsjang χa.
but leave.PRET ERG 1SG DEF glh_schanng there
'But I left the glh schanng (kefir-soaked Bjeheondian salad) there.'

Intransitive verbs

Eoseong eo már.
die.PRET DEF tree/PL
'The trees died.'
Farjeogin meo nóγeol χaltan.
return.PRET 1PL.EXC.POSS dog/PL at_last
'Our dogs finally returned.'


Strong verbs

As in Germanic, some Anbirese verbs form the past tense and the -eod infinitive by using ablaut.

Prepositions

If the prepositional object is a pronoun, the genitive form of the pronoun is used: la nà = to me, for me.

Numbers

ngic, cìm, tiħer, nèig, dèib, selь, sdàm, ruìz, lèr, bàr, ngiaor, yàxim, knè

Derivational morphology

  • yir- = un-, non-
    • yirstzuòtz, yirstzuòtz (f) 'innocence', from stzuòtz (f) 'guilt'
  • -gàn, -gànь, -gànь = -able?
  • -ah, -ax, -aha (n) = verbal noun
  • Unstressed initial prefixes are separated by an interpunct (·)
    • ar· is an applicative

Sample texts

UDHR

Niam pà cil ghar sngèi casàn ac sdeħèid nai lòngatz ac nai marrenь. Niam amsetzìn nai mìsrìnen ac ye as·torngegen, ac niam ar ham la foza cràdener nai ghiegòren ri ziarbetzen.
/nʲəm pɑː tʃəɫ ɣɤː sŋaɪ ˈkasɑːn ək sdəˈħait nɒ ɫawŋəts ək nɒ mar̝ənʲ. nʲəm ˈamsətsiːn nɒ ˈmiːsʲɾʲiːnən ək jə əsˈtʊɯŋəgən, ək nʲəm əɾ ham ɫə ˈfɔzə kɾɑːdənɨ nɒ zjəgʊɯn ɾɪ zʲɤːbətsən/
All humans are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
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