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{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|image =
|creator = [[User:IlL|IlL]], [[User:Praimhín|Praimhín]]
|imagesize =
|name = Classical Windermere
|creator = [[User:IlL|IlL]]
|nativename = wănaang Dămee
|name = Classical Wiobian
|pronunciation= wɔnaʱŋ dɔˈmeʱ
|nativename = ''wüöbem Muts''
|setting = [[Verse:Tricin]]
|pronunciation= /wyːøbəm muːts/
|state = Talma
|region = Wiobermin
|familycolor=tergetic
|extinct = Developed into Early Middle Wiobian in 400 v.C.
|fam1=[[Lakovic languages|Lakovic]]
|familycolor=raxo-talsmic
|fam2=Ashanic
|fam1= [[Gamedan languages|Gamedan]]
|scripts=* Windermere script
|fam2= [[Wiobic languages|Wiobic]]
|script=Wiobian script
|iso3=qwb
|notice=IPA
|notice=IPA
}}
}}
{{Windermere sidebar}}
'''Classical Windermere''' ('''CWdm''', native name: ''wănaang Dămee'' /wɔnaʱŋ dɔˈmeʱ/; Modern Wdm.: ''fi wănäng Impida'' 'the language of the Pida (Sages)'; [[Skellan]]: ''a łynǿñ Dymée ryn Byðá'') is a standardized variety of Windermere based on the language of Windermere texts written from ca. fT -300 through fT 500. Alongside its relative [[Classical Tseer]], Classical  Windermere served as a lingua franca of learning, governance, law, and religion in premodern Talma and lent many words to other Talman languages. Later Classical Windermere borrowed many words from Classical Tseer.


[[Wiobian/Sketchbook|Sandbox]]<br/>
Especially in its religious register, it was influenced by [[Tigol]].
[[Wiobian/Lexicon|Lexicon]]<br/>
[[Wiobian/Verse|Wiobian verse]]<br/>
[[Wiobian/Music|About Wiobian music]]<br/>
[[Wiobian/Wiobian|'''engunn&fiungs mieh Wäls tur Wiob-Hien!''']] ("View this page in Wiobian!")<br/>
[[Wiobian/de|Diese Seite auf Deutsch ansehen]]<br/>


'''Classical Wiobian''' is the oldest attested form of [[Wiobian]], used until 400 v.C.
== Todo ==
* ăyă/ăy > i


==Todo==
==Status==
*DEVELOP PRINCIPAL PARTS
Classical Windermere is the language of Mărotłite sacred texts, such as the Imθumitil and other Pidaic writings.
*''Pei-käh-kiob, in gerbänk-klers iete!'' (''bi-ga-dźu, yn fạng-dlái ed!'')
*''Mäßtes riet!'' - Greetings!
*''Wiob-Schriof-Ahm-Hölsch'' "Wiobian-style collection-piece" - Wiobian Suites


==Notes on notation==
In Talma Classical Windermere has evolved into various Talman Windermere vernaculars. Modern [[Windermere]], on the other hand, is an evolution of revived Classical Windermere. Classical Windermere is still used as the liturgical language of Mărotłism and is an official language of the city-state [[Verse:Tricin/Yocneam|Yocneam]].
*<sup>''i''</sup> - denotes i-umlaut of the root.
*<sup>''u''</sup> - denotes u-umlaut of the root.


==Orthography==
==Phonology==
:''See also: [[Wiobian/Script]].''
===Consonants===
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="wikitable" style="width:700px;text-align:center;"
[[File:Wiobian alphabet.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The Wiobian alphabet]]
! colspan="2" |
 
! |Labial
Wiobian is written in a native alphabet named ''Trabe&Galster'' after the first two letters ''Trabe'' and ''Galst'', also used to write other languages such as [[Trây]]. The spelling rules reflect Classical Wiobian pronunciation; subsequent sound changes have made the relationship between orthography and pronunciation more opaque. (Think Tibetan, English or French spelling.)The transliteration of Wiobian used in this article attempts to reflect the Wiobian orthographical spelling standardized near the end of the Classical Wiobian period and re-standardized in the modern period in 1811 v.C. using classical texts and internal reconstruction from Wiobian topolects (especially utilizing Whetmerish, known for its conservatism in unstressed prefixes). Another factor in the orthography is that literacy was limited to the upper class. Thus often the elites spoke one language while writing in a fossilized form of the language, so that e.g. case endings were still written even after most of them dropped out in the spoken language. The Classical Wiobian they wrote was, however, written in the stricter syntax of the vernacular.
! |Alveolar
 
! |Lateral
Modern Standard Wiobian employs consonant alternations triggered by originally unstressed prefixes. One difficulty is that originally unstressed prefixes often don't change a word's pronunciation anymore, because the particular initial consonant is immune to the mutation caused by the prefix:
! |Palatal
*''mezz'' - 'wait'
! |Velar
*''bemezz'' - 'long for'
! |Glottal
 
are both pronounced /məi̯k˥/. The homophony was solved by compounding nouns and verbs with other words to disambiguate them, creating a wealth of compounds, as in [[w:Chinese language|Chinese]].
===Letter names===
Most letter names for consonants are derived from Proto-Netagin. Vowels, on the other hand, use the vowel itself as the name.
 
*'''T''': ''Trabe'' < *tenābōˀ 'jaws'
*'''G''': ''Galst'' < *gałṭon 'ground'
*'''K''': ''Kohl'' < *kōllon 'bird'
*'''I'''
*'''W''': ''Wier'' < *wiˀron 'head'
*'''N''': ''Nark'' < *nāraqon 'cascade'
*'''U'''
*'''Ü'''
*'''Q''': ''Krit'' < *qarītis 'coast'
*'''L''': ''Lecken'' < *leqnon 'river'
*'''P''': ''Put'' < *pūton 'ox'
*'''Þ''': ''Þesch'' < *þełkon 'tongue'
*'''Ḥ''': ''Ang'' < *ˀangon 'face'
*'''C''': ''Engarms-Ang'' 'emphasizing Ang'
*'''E'''
*'''Z''': ''Zeib'' < *ƛeybon 'harp'
*'''J''': ''Jamm'' < *yanpon 'house' (Netagin ''ˀáb'')
*'''F''': ''Fitt'' 'worm'
*'''O'''
*'''Ö'''
*'''M''': ''Mespul'' < *mezpūlos 'bridge'
*'''D''': ''Dachel'' < *dakl 'tree'
*'''Ɉ''': ''Ɉruke'' <  *λirūkōs 'lips'
*'''R''': ''Rift'' < *ripṭon 'throat'
*'''S''': ''Schnade'' < *łinādōs 'gates'
*'''H''': ''Hammel'' < *hamlon 'flower'
*'''Ƕ''': ''Ƕieg'' < *huyegon 'wall'
*'''B''': ''Bruog'' < *barōgon 'knot'
*'''ẞ''': ''ẞicht'' < *siqdon 'road'
*'''A'''
*'''Ä'''
*'''Å'''
 
dvandva = þesebaßt
 
===Capitalization===
Wiobian orthography has capital and lowercase letters. Wiobian capitalizes all nouns, but not necessarily words that are in the beginning of the sentence; this is reflected in the Romanization.
 
===Punctuation===
The ''Lusk-Frann'' ("binding mark") is a hyphen-like symbol used to link genitive nouns to their heads. It is transcribed with a hyphen (-).
 
The ''Je-Huy'' ("''je''-space"), also called the ''serializer'' in English, is used to link coordinated components in compounds and serial verbs. As its name suggests, it also indicates a missing ''je'' ('and') in poetry. The serializer is transcribed with an ampersand (&).
 
==Historical phonology==
===Proto-Gamedan to Proto-Wiobian===
*PGam {{recon|''h-''}}, {{recon|''ʔ-''}} > {{recon|0}}
*PGam {{recon|''z''}} > {{recon|''h''}}
*PGam {{recon|''s''}} > {{recon|''ts''}}
*Lateral obstruents become palatal obstruents
*"Grimm's law"
**PGam plain stops become fricatives
**PGam voiced stops become aspirated stops
**PGam ejective stops become voiced stops
===Proto-Wiobian to Classical Wiobian===
*Uvulars debuccalize
**Plain uvular stops /q ɢ/ become /ʔ/
**Plain uvular fricative /χ/ merges with /x/ into /x~h/
**Exception: {{recon|''n''}} + C[+uvular] yields Wiobian ''ng'' - This is why final ''-ng'' is common in Wiobian
*kʷ qʷ > kʷ, xʷ χʷ > xʷ, gʷ ɢʷ > w
 
===Classical Wiobian===
A major source for reconstructing the phonology of Classical Wiobian is borrowings from and into neighboring languages with stable and conservative phonologies, such as [[Trây]]. Modern Wiobic lects are also an important guide.
====Phonotactics====
(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)
====Consonants====
Classical Wiobian features a greatly simplified system of 23 consonants (comparable to [[Themsarian]], with 22 consonants).
 
Voiceless plosives could either be aspirated or not - the aspirated allophone was in free variation with the unaspirated one. (Und Achtung Deutschsprachige: Im Wiobischen kommt keine Auslautverhärtung vor! This is because I need more open syllables in Modern Wiobian)
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
|+ '''Late Classical Wiobian consonants'''
! colspan="2"|
! | Labial
! | Alveolar
! | Palatal
! | Click
! | Velar
! | Labiovelar
! | Glottal
|-
|-
! colspan="2" | Nasal
! colspan="2" style="" |Nasal
| '''m''' /m/
| '''m''' /m/
| '''n''' /n/
| '''n''' /n/  
| [ɲ]
|
| '''ng''' /ŋ/
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |Plosive
! | <small>voiceless</small>
| '''p''' /p/
| '''t, th''' /t/
|
| '''ŧ''' /!/
| '''k''' /k/
| '''qu''' /kʷ/
| '''Ø, -ḥ''' /ʔ/
|-
! | <small>voiced</small>
| '''b''' /b/
| '''d''' /d/
|  
|  
| '''đ''' /g!/
| '''g''' /ɡ/
|  
|  
| '''ng''' /ŋ/
|  
|  
|-
|-
! colspan="2" |Fricative
! rowspan="3" |Plosive
| '''f''' /f~v/
! |<small>voiced</small>
| '''s''' /sʰ/, '''ß''' /s/
| '''b''' /b~β/
|
| '''d''' /d~ð/
| '''sch''' /ɧ/
| '''ch''' /x~ɣ/
|
| '''h''' /h/
|-
! colspan="2" |Affricate
| '''pf''' /pf/
| '''z''' /ts/
|
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
| '''g''' /g~ɣ/
|  
|  
|-
|-
! colspan="2" |Trill
! |<small>tenuis</small>
|
| '''p''' /p⁼/
| '''r''' /r/
| '''t''' /t⁼/
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
|
| '''l''' /l/
| '''j, -y''' /j/
|
|
| '''w, -v''' /w/
|
|}
 
''n'' assimilates before palatal plosives to [ɲ] and before velar plosives to /ŋ/.
 
A syllable cannot begin with a vowel in Wiobian. The "null" initial in the orthography is actually the glottal stop initial.
 
In early Classical Wiobian /h/ and /x/ were allophones in free variation.
 
The gemination sign, transcribed as '''c''', is often used in early classical texts. It acts like the Japanese ''sokuon'' symbol: ''wecl'' /welː/ 'slide! (2nd person singular)'. By late Classical Wiobian most gemination signs fell into disuse and were replaced with double letters. '''c''' only survived as part of the graphemes '''-ck''' for long k, and '''ch''' [x], which must have been in complementary distribution with '''h''' [h] by that time, in view of the fact that ''Nuß-Duom&Eik'' lists [h] and [x] as distinct sounds.
 
All fricatives (namely ''f'', ''þ'', ''s'', ''(c)h'', ''ƕ'') are voiced between voiced segments. The phonemes /θ/ and /ts/ merged into /s/ in late Classical Wiobian; however, only former /θ/ displays the voicing alternation [s~z].
 
Final geminated /ç/ is written '''sch'''.
 
====Vowels====
The vowel system is more complex, distinguishing about 9 vowel qualities with length in stressed syllables.
 
Vowel length was not directly marked on the vowel. In Early Classical Wiobian each vowel had an independent length. This changed in Late Classical Wiobian when vowels before single consonants were lengthened and vowels before two consonants were shortened, so that the orthographic final came to determine vowel length. Thus, ''Tumm''  'bird' and ''trum'' 'flat' are respectively pronounced in Early Classical Wiobian /tuːmː/ and /trum/, which in Late Classical Wiobian became /tumː/ and /truːm/. Glottal stop finals were also deleted to trigger compensatory lengthening of the vowel, and final [-h] also disappeared, which is why open long vowels are written with an ''-h'' after the vowel.
 
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
|+ '''Classical Wiobian vowels'''
|-
! rowspan="3" style="width: 90px; "|
! colspan="4" style="width: 180px; " |Front
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Central
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Back
|-
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |<small>unrounded</small>
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |<small>rounded</small>
|-
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
|-
! style="" |Close
| '''i''' /i/
| '''i''' /iː/
| '''ü''' /y/
| '''ü''' /yː/
|
|
| '''u''' /u/
| '''u''' /uː/
|-
! style="" |Close-mid
| '''e''' /e/
| '''e''' /eː/
| '''ö''' /ø/
| '''ö''' /øː/
| '''e''' /ə/
|
| '''o''' /o/
| '''o''' /oː/
|-
! style="" |Open-mid
| '''ä''' /ɛ/
| '''ä''' /ɛː/
|
|
|
|
| '''å''' /ɔ/
| '''å''' /ɔː/
|-
! style="" |Open
|
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
| '''a''' /a/
| '''c''' /k⁼/
| '''a''' /aː/
| <b>'</b> /ʔ/
|
|
|}
 
Diphthongs: '''au aü ei ia ie io iu uo üö''', pronounced as expected.
 
====Umlaut processes====
Wiobian history and morphology are affected by umlaut processes. The precise conditions are yet to be determined.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
''i''-umlaut:
*a + i > ä
*e + i > i
*o + i > ö
*u + i > ü
*au + i > aü
*io + i > üö
*ia + i > ie
*iu + i > ü
{{col-break}}
''u''-umlaut:
*a(:) + u > å(:)
*e + u > ö
*i + u > ü
*io + u > üö
*iu + u > ü
{{col-break}}
''a''-umlaut:
*u + a > o
*i + a > e
{{col-end}}
 
====Stress====
Syllables may have primary or secondary stress. The first syllable of the root is heavily stressed, at the expense of prefixes and endings. The first component of compounds receives primary stress while the subsequent parts receive secondary stress.
 
===Classical Wiobian to Early Middle Wiobian===
The development of Classical Wiobian to Middle Wiobian saw tonogenesis and increasing analyticity.
====Initials====
<poem>
'''Classical Wiobian''':
Preinitials/Prefixes: C-V-(n/s)-
Initials: s-C-R-
</poem>
=====No mutation=====
<poem>
C₁[+plosive]-C₂[+obstruent]- > C₂[+obstruent]-
</poem>
 
=====With mutation=====
<poem>
V-C > C[+lenition]
N-C > C[+nasalization]
s-C[+obstruent] > C[+obstruent, -voice]
C[+obstruent, -voice]-N > N[-voice]
C[+obstruent, +voice]-N > N[+voice]
</poem>
 
====Rimes====
=====Stressed environments=====
Finals after a vowel:
*'''-b''' > [-w] + modal
*'''-f''' > [-w] + breathy
*'''-d, -g''' > + modal
*'''-þ, -ß, -h, -ch''' > [-ː] + breathy
*'''-ɟ''' > [-j] + modal
*'''-s''' > [-j] + breathy
*'''-l''' > [-w]/[-j] depending on the vowel + modal
*'''-r''' > [-ː] + modal
*'''-mp''' > [-m] + glottalized
*'''-nd''' > [-n] + glottalized
*'''-nz''' > [-ɳ] + glottalized
*'''-nk''' > [-ŋ] + glottalized
"Entering tone" finals:
*'''-p''' > [-p̚]
*'''-t''' > [-t̚]
*'''-z''' > [-c̚]
*'''-k''' > [-k̚]
 
=====Primary stress=====
<poem>
This is the part of the Great Wiobian Vowel Shift to Early Middle Wiobian:
 
/o u/ > /ʊ/
/au ɔː oː/ > /oː/
/uo/ > /uː/
/ɔ/ > /o/
/a/ > /ɔ/
/aː/ > /æː/
/ɛ/ > /æ/ > /a/
/ay/ > /œ̠ː/
/ei/ > /ɪː/
</poem>
 
=====2ndary stress=====
Not very common, analogized to primary stress due to increasing analyticity. Only occurs with some compound word components that have lost their meaning.
 
=====Post-stressed environments=====
 
===Early Middle Wiobian===
The phonological inventory of Middle Wiobian is inferred from rhyme dictionaries, poetry and transcriptions to and from other languages.
====Phonotactics====
====Initials====
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
|+ '''Early Middle Wiobian initials'''
! colspan="2"|
! | Labial
! | Alveolar
! | Palatal
! | Velar
! | Glottal
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" | Nasal
! |<small>aspirated</small>
! | <small>voiceless</small>
| '''φ''' /pʰ/
| /m̥/
| '''θ''' /tʰ/
| /n̥/
| /ɲ̊/
| /ŋ̊/
|  
|  
|-
! | <small>voiced</small>
| /m/
| /n/
| /ɲ/
| /ŋ/
|
|-
! rowspan="3" |Plosive/Affricate
! | <small>plain</small>
| /p/
| /t/
| /tɕ/
| /k/
| /ʔ/
|-
! | <small>voiced</small>
| /b/
| /d/
| /dʑ/
|  
|  
| '''χ''' /kʰ/
|  
|  
|-
|-
! | <small>aspirated</small>
| /pʰ/
| /tʰ/
| /tɕʰ/
| /kʰ/
|
|-
|-
! rowspan="2" |Fricative
! colspan="2" style="" |Affricate
! | <small>voiceless</small>
| /f/
| /s/
| /ɕ/
| /x/
|  
|  
|-
| '''ts''' /ts̪/
! | <small>voiced</small>
| '''tł''' /tɬ/
| /v/
| /z/
| /ʑ/
| /ɣ/
|  
|  
|-
! colspan="2" |Approximant
| /w/
| /r/, /r̥/, /l/, /l̥/
| /j/
|  
|  
|  
|  
|}
====Nuclei====
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
|+ '''Early Middle Wiobian vowels'''
|-
! rowspan="3" style="width: 90px; "|
! colspan="4" style="width: 180px; " |Front
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Central
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Back
|-
|-
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |<small>unrounded</small>
! colspan="2" style="" |Fricative
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |<small>rounded</small>
|-
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>short</small>
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>long</small>
|-
! style="" |Close
|  
|  
| '''ī''' /iː/
| '''s''' /s̪/
| '''ł''' /ɬ/
| '''ș''' /ʃ/
|  
|  
| '''ǖ''' /yː/
| '''h''' /h/
|
|
|
| '''ū''' /uː/
|-
|-
! style="" |Near-close
! colspan="2" |Resonant
| '''i''' /ɪ/
| '''w''' /w/
| '''ei''' /ɪː/
| '''r''' /r/
| '''ü''' /ʏ/
| '''l''' /l/
|
| '''y''' /j/
|
|
| '''o, u''' /ʊ/
| '''uo''' /ʊː/
|-
! style="" |Close-mid
| '''e''' /e/
| '''ē''' /eː/
| '''ö''' /ø/
| '''ȫ''' /øː/
|
|
| '''å''' /o/
| '''ō''' /oː/
|-
! style="" |Open-mid
|
| '''ǟ''' /ɛː/
|
| '''aü''' /œ̠ː/
|
|
| '''a''' /ɔ/
| '''å&#772;''' /ɔː/
|-
! style="" |Open
|
| '''ā''' /æː/
|
|
| '''ä''' /a/
|
|  
|  
|  
|  
|}
|}


====Coda consonants====
The glottal stop is not transcribed word-initially.
The allowed coda consonants are /p t c k m n ɲ ŋ l r w j/, similar to written Khmer or Mường. Plosive finals are unreleased.


====Initial alternations of Early Middle Wiobian====
===Vowels===
In Middle Wiobian, derivational prefixes have become silent but can trigger four types of initial alternations or mutations. (Stressed/non-silent prefixes are bolded.) Compounding causes mutation too at times.
Classical Windermere had six stressed vowels '''a e i o u ü''' /a e i o u ü/ ('''ü''' was central unlike in Modern Windermere). It also had breathy voiced vowels '''aa ee ii oo uu üü''' /aʱ eʱ iʱ oʱ uʱ üʱ/.


The following tables show the ''usual'' outcomes of alternating environments; they are most valid for instances of initials that come from of simpler onsets. Alternations may be blocked for reflexes of certain complex onsets.
Late Classical Windermere also had '''ö''' /ø/ in [[Tseer]] loans.
=====Lenition=====
This mutation is triggered by the prefixes ''be-'', ''þe-'', ''ger-'', '''''i-''''' when the root begins in an aspirated plosive.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="<!-- width:650px; --> text-align:center;"
|-
! Phoneme
! /pʰ/
! /tʰ/
! /tɬʰ/
! /ʈʰ/
! /tɕʰ/
! /kʰ/
|-
! Lenited
| /v/
| /z/
| /l/
| /ʐ/
| /ʑ/
| /ɣ/
|}


=====Nasalization=====
In Middle Windermere, the clear vowels '''a e i o u ü''' became RTR vowels /ɑ ɛ ɪ ɔ ʊ ʏ/, while the breathy vowels  '''aa ee ii oo uu üü''' became ATR vowels /æ e i o u y/. These qualities became the basis for vowel realizations in reading traditions.
This mutation is triggered by the prefixes ''en-'' and ''wen-''.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="<!-- width:650px; --> text-align:center;"
|-
! Phoneme
! /p/
! /pʰ/
! /f/
! /t/
! /tʰ/
! /s/
! /tɬ/
! /tɬʰ/
! /ɬ//
! /ʈ/
! /ʈʰ/
! /ʂ/
! /tɕ/
! /tɕʰ/
! /ɕ/
! /k/
! /kʰ/
! /w/
! /x/
! /ʔ/ < {{recon|h}}, {{recon|ʔ}}
! /ʔ/ < {{recon|q}}
|-
! Nasalized
| /b/
| /m/
| /v/
| /d/
| /n/
| /z/
| /dɮ/
| /nˡ/
| /l/
| /ɖ/
| /ɳ/
| /ʐ/
| /dʑ/
| /ɲ/
| /ʑ/
|colspan="3"| /ŋ/
| /ɣ/, /ŋ/
| /m/ or /n/
| /ŋ/
|}


=====Voicing=====
Classical Windermere had two reduced vowels, '''ă''' /ɔ/ and '''ĭ''' /ə~ɪ/, which merged to '''ă''' /ə/ in Modern Windermere. '''ă''' comes from Proto-Ashanic unstressed *a, *o, *u, and '''ĭ''' comes from Proto-Ashanic unstressed *i, *ü, *e. This contrast is retained in [[Pradiul]] as palatalization.
This mutation is triggered by the prefixes ''be-'', ''ge-'', ''ger-'', '''''i-''''' when the root begins in certain fricatives.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="<!-- width:650px; --> text-align:center;"
|-
! Phoneme
! /f/
! /s/ <þ>
! /ɫ/*
! /ʂ/*
! /ɕ/
! /x/**
|-
! Voiced
| /v/
| /z/
| /l/
| /ʐ/
| /ʑ/
| /ɣ/
|}


<nowiki>*</nowiki> Only consistently affected by ''productive'' prefixes and compounding (e.g. unstressed prefixes are not productive).<br/>
===Phonotactics===
<nowiki>**</nowiki> Has exceptions, where the word takes the last consonant of the prefix as the initial.
CWdm allowed initial bd bg db dg gb gd.


=====Devoicing=====
==Morphophonology==
This mutation is triggered by the prefixes ''deß'' in words beginning with nasals, resonants or aspirated plosives.
===Sandhi===
Classical Windermere had a complex sandhi system (somewhere between Biblical Hebrew and Sanskrit) which is no longer productive in Modern Windermere; most notably it affected plurals and verb forms, making them less predictable.


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="<!-- width:650px; --> text-align:center;"
*th + fric → fric + t
|-
**θs → st, as in ''sèφ'' 'go' → *''θsèφ'' → ''steeφ'' 'to drive' (Modern ''binsteaf'' 'energy', ''sămteaf'' 'to energize')
! Phoneme
**θφ → φθ, e.g. ''tăφi'' 'laugh' → ''*tiθφi'' → ''tiφθi'' 'to mock' (Classical and Modern Wdm. ''tăfi'', ''tifti'')
! /m/
**θχ → χθ e.g. Proto-Windermere ''àrθχa'' → ''răχθa'' 'to die'
! /pʰ/
**θł, θș → łt, șt
! /n/
*χ + φ, s, θ, ł, ș → χw, ??? ??? ??? ??? ???
! /tʰ/
*s + φ, θ, χ → sp, st, sc
! /nˡ/
*rC, lC > Cr, Cl
! /tɬʰ/
*ps pn png → sp φn φng
! /l/
*tp θp tsp kp χp → tw θw tsw cw χw; Proto-Windermere breathy vowel + tp tsp kp > dw tsw gw
! /ɳ/
*tsc cts tsp pts sts ts > sc sc sp sp st st
! /ʈʰ/
! /ʐ/
! /ɲ/
! /tɕʰ/
! /j/
! /ŋ/
! /kʰ/
! /w/
|-
! Devoiced
| /m̥/
| /p/
| /n̥/
| /t/
| /ɬ/
| /tɬ/
| /ɬ/
| /ɳ̊/
| /ʈ/
| /ʂ/
| /ɲ̊/
| /tɕ/
| /ɕ/
| /ŋ̊/
| /k/
| /x/
|}


====Rimes====
===Sandhi table===
====Stress====
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible"
 
! rowspan=2 | Initial <br/>Consonant
====Tones====
! colspan=23| Final Consonant
Every stressed syllable has tone. There are three tones in syllables ending in a vowel or resonant:
|-
*''modal tone'', counterpart to the Chinese level tone
! f
*''glottalized tone'', counterpart to the Chinese rising tone
! p
*''breathy tone'', counterpart to the Chinese departing tone
! b
 
! m
The breathy tone is used to inflect nouns for case:
! th
 
! t
:''Püll'' /pʰyw/ 'column (nominative)' > ''Püll'''s''''' /pʰyjʰ/ 'column (dative)'
! d
:''Fran'' 'mark (nominative)' /freːɐ̯n/ > ''Fran'''s''''' /freːɐ̯ʰn/ 'mark (dative)'
! n
No tone change occurs:
! ch
 
! c
*when a noun was originally a plural noun and thus takes the ''-ens'' ending for the dative
! g
:''Þelort'' /loːt/ 'era, time (nominative)' > ''Þelort'''ens''''' /loːt/ 'era (dative)'
! ng
 
! s
*when the noun already has breathy tone
! ts
:''Klisch'' /klijʰ/ 'prince (nominative)' > ''Klisch'''es''''' /klijʰ/ 'prince (dative)'
! ł
 
! tł
===Early Middle Wiobian to Late Middle Wiobian===
! ș
====Initials====
! h
<poem>
! '
palatal > alveolar
! l
Cr > retroflex
! r
Cl > lateral
! w
TONE SPLIT
! y
</poem>
|-  
====Vowels====
! f
<poem>
| f
/oː/ > /o/
| p
/uː/ > /ʉ/
| sp
/ʊ/ > /u/
| fn
/æː/ > /ja/ > /jɔ/
| ft
/œ̠ː/ > /ɛ/
| ft
/̠ɛː/ > /jæ/ > /ja/
| ft
/eː/ > /je/
| fn
/ø/ > /ə/
| fch
/øː/ > /ø/
| pc
/yː/ > /jy/
| pc
/iː/ > /ji/
| fng
/ie ia io iu yø/ > /jə jɛ jo ju jø/
| ps
/ɪː/ > /i/
| fts
</poem>
| pł
====Coda====
| ftł
<poem>
| pș
/-c/ > /-jk/
| f
/-ɲ/ > /-jŋ/
| f'
/-l/ > /-w/ resp. /-j/ depending on [conditions]
| fl
/-r/ > /-ː/ resp. /-j/
| fr
</poem>
| f
 
| fy
===Late Middle Wiobian===
|-
====Initials====
! p
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
| f
|+ '''Late Middle Wiobian initials'''
| p
! colspan="2"|
| sp
! | Labial
| fn
! | Dental
| ft
! | Alveolar
| ft
! | Lateral
| ft
! | Retroflex
| fn
! | Palatal
| pc
! | Velar
| pc
! | Glottal
| pc
|-
| fng
! colspan="2" | Nasal
| ps
| /m/
| fts
|
| pł
| /n/
| ftł
| /nˡ/
| pș
| /ɳ/
| f
| /ɲ/
| p'
| /ŋ/
| pl
|
| pr
|-
| p
! rowspan="2" |Plosive/Affricate
| py
! | <small>plain</small>
|-
| /p/
! b
| /ts/
| f
| /t/
| p
| /tɬ/
| sp
| /ʈʂ/
| fn
| /tɕ/
| fth
| /k/
| ft
| /ʔ/
| ft
|-
| fn
! | <small>aspirated</small>
| fch
| /pʰ/
| pc
| /tsʰ/
| pc
| /tʰ/
| fng
| /tɬʰ/
| ps
| /ʈʂʰ/
| fts
| /tɕʰ/
| pł
| /kʰ/
| ftł
|  
| pș
|-
| f
! colspan="2" |Fricative
| p'
| /f/
| bl
| /s/
| br
|
| b
| /ɬ/
| by
| /ʂ/
|-
| /ɕ/
! m
| /χ/
| mf
|  
| mp/mb
|-
| mp/mb
! colspan="2" |Approximant
| m
| /w/
| mth
|  
| mt/md
|  
| mt/md
| /l/
| mn
| /ʐ/
| mch
| /j/
| mc/mg
|  
| mc/mg
|  
| mng
|}
| ms
 
| mts
====Vowels====
| mł
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 540px; text-align:center;"
| mtł
|+ '''Late Middle Wiobian vowels'''
| mș
|-
| mh
! rowspan="3" style="width: 90px; "|
| m'
! colspan="4" style="width: 180px; " |Front
| ml
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Central
| mr
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |Back
| m
|-
| my
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |<small>unrounded</small>
|-  
! colspan="2" style="width: 90px; " |<small>rounded</small>
! th
|-
| ft
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>plain</small>
| ft
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>iotated</small>
| sp
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>plain</small>
| thm
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>iotated</small>
| th
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>plain</small>
| t
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>iotated</small>
| st
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>plain</small>
| thn
!style="width: 45px; "|<small>iotated</small>
| cht
|-
| cht
! style="" |Close
| cht
| '''i, ei''' /ɪ/
| thng
| '''ī''' /jɪ/
| st
| '''ü''' /ʏ/
| tst
| '''ǖ''' /jʏ/
| łt
| '''ū, uo''' /ʉ/
| tłt
|
| șt
| '''o, ō, u''' /u/
| th
| '''iu''' /ju/
| t'
|-
| thl
! style="" |Close-mid
| thr
| '''e''' /e/
| thw
| '''ē''' /je/
| thy
| '''ȫ''' /ø/
|-
| '''üö''' /jø/
! t
| '''ö''' /ə/
| ft
|
| ft
| '''au, å, å&#772;, ō''' /o/
| sp
| '''io''' /jo/
| tm
|-
| th
! style="" |Open-mid
| t
| '''aü''' /ɛ/
| st
| '''ǟ''' /jɛ/
| tn
|
| cht
|
| cht
|
| cht
|
| tng
| '''a''' /ɔ/
| st
| '''ia''' /jɔ/
| tst
|-
| łt
! style="" |Open
| tłt
|  
| șt
|  
| th
|  
| t'
|  
| tl
| '''ä''' /a/
| tr
| '''ā''' /ja/
| tw
|  
| ty
|  
|-  
|}
! d
 
| ft
After a retroflex consonant iotated vowels lose their iotation, and /i/ resp. /y/ are realized as [ɨ] resp. [ʉ].
| ft
 
| sp
===Late Middle Wiobian to Early Great Wiobian===
| tm
====Initials====
| th
 
| t
====Rimes====
| st
 
| tn
==Grammar==
| cht
===Parts of speech===
| cht
Classical Wiobian inflected nouns with endings. Case/number and personal endings were eventually elided or turned into tone distinctions. Writers were nevertheless expected to write all case and personal endings, until the 1811 v.C. re-standardization of the orthography abolished personal endings as well as most number/case endings.
| cht
====Nouns====
| tng
=====Gender=====
| st
Nouns have two genders, animate and inanimate. Nouns of each gender take their respective verb endings and pronouns in Classical Wiobian; pronoun agreement is preserved to some extent into Modern Wiobian.
| tst
<poem>
| łt
Some Proto-Wiobic declensions
| tłt
*stremja 'throng, crowd' (Wiobian Strimm, pl. Strimme)
| șt
Singular
| th
NOM: *stremja
| d'
ACC: *stremjaz
| dl
GEN: *stremj
| dr
DAT: *stremjaç
| dw
PRED: *stremjaz
| dy
Plural
|-  
NOM: *stremjō
! n
ACC: *stremjan
| mp
GEN: *stremjōh
| mp
DAT: *stremjanç
| nf
PRED: *stremjō
| nm
*katsi 'leaf' (Wiobian Käße, pl. Kaße)
| nth
Singular
| nt
NOM: *katsi
| nt
ACC: *katsiz
| nn
GEN: *katsiʔ
| nch
DAT: *katsiç
| ngc
PRED: *katsjaz
| ngc
Plural
| nng
NOM: *kats
| ns
ACC: *katsin
| nts
GEN: *katsēh
| nł
DAT: *katsinç
| ntł
PRED: *kats
| nș
*hleʔk 'animal' (Wiobian Schleck, Schlöcke)
| nth
Singular:
| n'
NOM: *hleʔk
| l
ACC: *hleʔkez
| r
GEN: *hleʔk
| nw
DAT: *hleʔkeç
| ny
PRED: *hleʔkaz
|-  
Plural
! ch
NOM: *hleʔkū
| chp
ACC: *hleʔkūn
| chp
GEN: *hleʔkūh
| chp
DAT: *hleʔkūnç
| chm
PRED: *hleʔkū
| cht
</poem>
| cht
 
| cht
=====Number=====
| chn
Classical Wiobian has many morphological ways of forming plurals, some of which may be combined.
| ch
*''-e'' suffix
| c
*''-er'' collective suffix
| c
*''-(e)t'' suffix
| chng
*''Þe-'' prefix
| chs
*''<sup><s>i</s></sup>'' "de-umlauting" the singular stem (''Þrömm'' 'wall' > ''Þromm'' 'walls')
| chts
*''<sup>u</sup>-e'' ''u''-umlaut
| chł
 
| chtł
The plural form of a noun was unpredictable. Thus many speakers, especially non-Gamedan speaking foreigners, found this system chaotic and opted for the most common number used, usually singular for highly individualized nouns and plural for collective nouns. Thus Modern Wiobian has grammatical number only for some common nouns referring to people.
| chș
 
| cht
=====Case endings=====
| ch'
In Classical Wiobian, nouns are also inflected in 5 cases:
| chl
*Nominative: subject
| chr
*Accusative: direct object, some adverbial expressions
| chw
*Dative: indirect object, some adverbial expressions, possessor after Classical Wiobian
| chy
*Genitive: it's your bog-standard genitive case.
|-
**The genitive is often "hyphenated" to the word it modifies because of its ambiguity. In particular, the genitive noun ''must'' be hyphenated to the head noun whenever the genitive noun is not modified by an adjective. Cf. similar rules for compounds in [[Trây]].
! g
*Predicative: predicate
| cp
 
| cp
In Modern Wiobian, there is no number and case inflection (the dative remains in fossilized expressions).
| cp
 
| cm
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg collapsible " style=" text-align: center;"
| cht
! colspan="3" | Wiobian declension
| cht
|-
| cht
! style="width: 90px;" | Case
| gn
! style="width: 150px;" | Singular
| ch
!  style="width: 150px;" | Plural
| g
|-
| c
! Nominative
| cng
| [SINGULAR STEM]''-''Ø || [PLURAL STEM]''-''Ø
| cs
|-
| cts
! Accusative
| cł
| [SINGULAR STEM]''-e'' || [PLURAL STEM]''-n''
| ctł
|-
| cș
! Genitive
| cht
| [SINGULAR STEM]''-''Ø || [PLURAL STEM]''-(e)''
| g'
|-
| gl
! Dative
| gr
| [SINGULAR STEM]''-s'' || [PLURAL STEM]''-ns''
| gw
| gy
|-  
! c
| cp
| cp
| cp
| cm
| cht
| cht
| cht
| cn
| ch
| c
| c
| cng
| cs
| cts
| cł
| ctł
| cș
| cht
| c'
| cl
| cr
| cw
| cy
|-  
! ng
| ngf
| ngp
| ngb
| ngm
| ngth
| ngt
| ngd
| ngn
| ngch
| ngc
| ngg
| ng
| ngs
| ngts
| ngł
| ngtł
| ngș
| ngt
| ng'
| ngl
| ngr
| ngw
| ngy
|-  
! s
|-  
! ts
|-  
! ł
|-  
! tł
|-  
! ș
|-  
! h
|-  
! '
|-  
! l
|-  
! r
|-  
! w
|-  
|-  
! Predicative
! y
| [SINGULAR STEM]''-e'' || [PLURAL STEM]''-''Ø
|}
|}


Wiobian uses the indefinite article ''ƕiem'' 'one' for indefinite singular nouns. This is one of the only ways number is still indicated in modern Wiobian.
===Grassmann's law===
 
Grassmann's law was productive in Classical Windermere: when there were two aspirated consonants before a stressed vowel in a word, the first was deaspirated. e.g. *χăφol > căφol 'to turn'.
=====Case and adpositions=====


====Adjectives====
==Morphology==
Adjectives may take the same case endings as nouns or, more commonly, take no ending. Adjectives in the predicative position, however, must have the predicative ending.
===Nouns===
=====Degree=====
====Articles====
Wiobian uses analytic constructions for degrees of adjectives.
There are two articles like in Modern Windermere, but with gender distinctions: the definite article ''fin'' (m sg), ''fis'' (f sg), ''fi'' (pl), from the distal demonstrative ''fi'', and the specific article ''sen'' (m sg), ''ses'' (f sg), ''se'' (pl), from the proximal demonstrative ''se''. Indefinite nonspecific nouns do not take an article.


In Classical Wiobian, to form the comparative one attaches the semi-serial verb ''&kloh'' ('cross') to the predicative form of the adjective. (The same applies to verbs.) The standard of comparison is in the accusative. The superlative is identical to the comparative.
The accusative particle ''ü'' (from the Proto-Lakovic direct case marker ''Hu'') was mandatory, unlike in Modern Windermere.


:'''''in biule{{blue|&klöhen}} mie Winke.'''''
====Plurals====
:[ʔin ˌbiuləˈkløːən ˈmiə ˌwiŋkə]
Classical Windermere had many irregular plurals due to the effects of sandhi.
:<small>1SG.NOM just-PRED=cross/PRES-1SG this-ACC.SG mortal-ACC.SG</small>
:''I am more upright than this man.''


Classical Wiobian forms the negative comparative by using the adverb ''quäs hioleng'' after the finite verb. The standard of comparison is in the dative.
Examples:


:'''''ofel in dräzzzime {{blue|quäs hioleng}} mis.'''''
Regular reduplicated plurals:
:[ˈʔoːvəl ˈʔiːn ˈdrɛcːˌciːmə ˈkʷɛːç ˌhioˈleŋː ˈmiːç]
*''cnul'' 'leaf' > ''nălcnul'' 'leaves'
:<small>behold 1SG.NOM sinful-PRED less below this-DAT.SG</small>
Sandhi plurals:
:''Indeed, I am less sinful than he.''
*''drong'' 'kernel' > ''tăngrădong'' 'kernels'
Suppletive plurals:
*''croθ'' 'person' > ''hĭngüs'' 'people'
Concatenative plurals (especially for longer words):
*''păltsiφ'' 'merchant' > ''impăltsiφ'' 'merchants'
*''neeχ-snooχ'' 'man of learning' > ''luc-snooχ''


====Pronouns====
====Gender====
The full case inflection is still upheld for personal pronouns in Modern Wiobian.
Classical Windermere had grammatical gender, with masculine and feminine genders.
*For "basic" words, nouns with breathy voice were generally feminine: ''φin tger'' /pʰin tger/ 'the voice' was masculine, while ''φis trămaay'' 'the rain' was feminine.
*Exceptions were human nouns, for which the gender followed natural gender.
*Words with certain affixes
**Words with the nominalizer {{angbr|''i''}} were masculine.
**Words with nominalizers ''hăl-'' or ''să-'' were feminine.


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="width: 450px; text-align: center;"
===Verbs===
|+'''Personal pronouns'''
Trigger infixes and certain aspects had become derivational in Classical Windermere, but not other aspects or tenses.
!style="width:90px;"|Person →
====Gender====
! colspan="2" |1
The feminine agreement prefix ''u-'' goes before TAM markers. It becomes ''wă-'' before a single consonant that is not a glottal stop or /h/ beginning a minor syllable. A glottal stop or /h/ initial minor syllable is deleted before applying the rule.
! colspan="2" |2
|-
!|Number →
!style="width:90px;" rowspan="2" |Singular
!style="width:90px;" rowspan="2" |Plural
!style="width:90px;" rowspan="2" |Singular
!style="width:90px;" rowspan="2" |Plural
|-
!|Case ↓
|-
!|Nominative
| |{{abbtip|usually with short &quot;i&quot;; long &quot;i&quot; when emphasized|''in''}}
| |''ƕind''
| |''i''
| |''lind''
|-
!|Accusative
| |''inne''
| |''ƕien''
| |''ie''
| |''lien''
|-
!|Genitive
| |''inno''
| |''ƕio''
| |''io''
| |''lio''
|-
!|Dative
| |''ins''
| |''ƕiens''
| |''ies''
| |''liens''
|-
!|Predicative
| |''inte''
| |''ƕinte''
| |''iete''
| |''linte''
|}


Wiobian lacks true third-person pronouns. The closest equivalents are the demonstratives ''mi'' 'this' and ''a'' 'that'.
*șroy 'pays' > ușroy
*ămșroy 'paid' > umșroy
*tășăyșroy 'pays in installments' > wătășăyșroy


In Modern Wiobian ''in'' 'I' is often used when referring to an object or place central to the deixis or discourse, "the way a camera would talk". It can also refer to an object or person with which the speaker identifies with intimately or closely. (Of course, the actual "me" is presumed to be outside of the domain of discourse.) Examples:
====Tense====
*for a trivial example, the player character in a video game
Verbs have the following principal parts: present, imperfect, perfect, future I, and verbal noun, which are marked with reduplication, ablaut, and/or prefixes. This complex and irregular system is probably a relic of transitioning from Proto-Lakovic aspects to tenses.
*when describing what happened to one's friend or pet
*as an empathy-signalling device.
:''''''''''
:''Whoa, your professor was such a prick to you [lit. me]!''


====Verbs====
*Present: present or present progressive
Verbs have stem forms for present, past and verbal noun which are not always distinct. (A similar but more well preserved system is found in [[Themsarian]]). Verbs are often additionally marked by auxiliary words to disambiguate the tense, because most forms are identical or very similar.
*Imperfect: Past incomplete or ongoing action; sometimes like the English pluperfect
*Perfect: Past completed action
*Future/Subjunctive I: future imperfective
*Future/Subjunctive II: future perfective
*Imperative: Present or Subjunctive II


The three principal parts are thus the present imperative, the past 2s form and the verbal noun.
The exact paradigm depends on the verb. For stative verbs like ''plang'' 'to stand', present and perfect forms are identical.


The citation form is the present stem, which is also the short 2nd person singular imperative in Classical Wiobian.
Example:
*Present = Perfect: ''plang'' 'stands; (has) stood'; feminine ''uplang''
*Imperfect: ''plăplang'' 'was standing; had stood' (from PLak reduplication for iterative); feminine ''wăpinglang''
*Future: ''hepălang'' 'will stand' (from ''heφ-'' future tense marker + nominal grade ''pälŋ'' of root √''pläŋ''); feminine ''wepălang''
*Infinitive: ''pălang'' (from nominal grade *pälng)


Jussive endings are only found in Classical Wiobian.
===Personal pronouns===
=====Personal endings=====
Pronouns were similar to later Windermere, but with feminine plural pronouns, possessive pronouns, and inflected prepositions.
In Classical Wiobian, the verb is also inflected for person.


Here the superscript <sup>i</sup> denotes umlaut of stems of "athematic" verbs.
====Independent pronouns====
The independent pronouns were used as subjects and direct objects.
*1sg: ''ri''
*2sg: ''łen'' (m), ''łes'' (f)
*3sg: ''in'' (m), ''is'' (f)
*1pl exclusive: ''tsa''
*1pl inclusive: ''bang''
*2pl: ''łĭnam'' (m), ''łĭsam'' (f)
*3pl: ''ĭnam'' (m), ''ĭsam'' (f)


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 350px; text-align: center;"
Pronouns get cliticized to verbs in Middle Windermere.
|-
!colspan="3" | Imperative endings
|-
!style="width: 50px; "|
!style="width: 100px; "|Singular
!style="width: 100px; "|Plural
|-
!|1
|''-''
|[PRESENT]''-n''
|-
!|2
|[PRESENT]''-(t)''
|[PRESENT]''-l''
|}
 
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 350px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3" | Present tense endings
|-
!style="width: 50px; "|
!style="width: 100px; "|Singular
!style="width: 100px; "|Plural
|-
!|1
|[PRESENT]''<sup>i</sup>-n''
|[PRESENT]''-m(e)''
|-
!|2
|[PRESENT]''<sup>i</sup>-e''
|[PRESENT]''-l''
|-
!|3.m
|[PRESENT]''-n''
|rowspan="2"|[PRESENT]''<sup>i</sup>-e''
|-
!|3.f
|[PRESENT]''<sup>i</sup>-s''
|}
 
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 350px; text-align: center;"
|-
!colspan="3" | Jussive endings
|-
!style="width: 50px; "|
!style="width: 100px; "|Singular
!style="width: 100px; "|Plural
|-
!|1
|[PRESENT]''<sup>i</sup>-n''
|[PRESENT]''-m(e)''
|-
!|3.m
|[PRESENT]''-m(e)''
|rowspan="2"|[PRESENT]''<sup>i</sup>-e''
|-
!|3.f
|[PRESENT]''<sup>i</sup>-se''
|}


====Possessive prefixes====
+V represents a voicing mutation on a following noun: /p t k/ > /b d g/.


{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 350px; text-align: center;"
*1sg: ''rĭ-'' +V
|-
*2sg: ''hĭ-'' +V (m), ''hĭ-'' (f)
!colspan="3" | Past tense endings
*3sg: ''ĭ-'' +V (m), ''ĭs-'' (f)
|-
*1pl exclusive: ''tsă-'' +V
!style="width: 50px; "|
*1pl inclusive: ''su-'' +V (from a fossilized ''seew'' 'here')
!style="width: 100px; "|Singular
*2pl: ''łăm-/łăn-'' (both m and f)
!style="width: 100px; "|Plural
*3pl: ''năm-/năn-'' (m), ''săm-/săn-'' (f)
|-
!|1
|[PAST]''<sup>i</sup>-n''
|[PAST]''-m(e)''
|-
!|2
|[PAST]''-e''
|[PAST]''-l''
|-
!|3.m
|[PAST]''-n''
|[PAST]''<sup>i</sup>-e''
|-
!|3.f
|colspan="2"|[PAST]''-''Ø
|}


=====Formation of verbal principal parts=====
====Prepositions====
Quiet! I'm figuring out the morphology to produce the principal parts
Classical Windermere had inflected prepositions, like [[Tigol]] and most modern Talmic languages. Some prepositions had suppletive forms when inflected.


A combination of redup, ablaut, infixing and prefixing... huh sounds a lot like PIE (also the whole idea of principal parts)!
The regular pronominal affixes:
*1sg: ''-ir''
*2sg: ''-eł'' (m), ''-łes'' (f)
*3sg: ''-in'' (m), ''-is'' (f)
*1pl.ex: ''-tsa''
*1pl.in: ''-ang''
*2pl: ''-łam'' (both genders)
*3pl: ''-nam'' (m), ''-sam'' (f)


*''peh-''~''pie-'', ''pie-'', ''Pap'' 'give charitably'
Examples:
*''mi'' 'in, at': ''mir, mił, miłes, min, mis, mitsa, ming, miłam, miłam, minam, misam''
*''șa'' 'to, for': ''șar, șał, șăłes, șan, șas, șatsa, șbang, șăłam, șăłam, șănam, șăsam''
*''φa'' 'from': ''ăχir, ăχeł, ăχłes, ăχin, ăχis, ăχtsa, ăχbang, ăχłam, ăχłam, ăχnam, ăχsam''
*''ya'' 'with: ''yăngir, yăngeł, yăngłes, yăngin, yăngis, yăngtsa, yăbang, yăłam; yănam, yăsam''


On the other hand, many verbs (especially derived ones) have identical stems for all three principal parts:
Sometimes variant forms with -ng- show up: e.g. ''șăngłam'' or ''șăngar''
*''benuß'', ''benuß-'', ''Benuß'' 'judge'


Verbal nouns are formed by one of the following methods:
===Derivation===
*''-s''
(Anything else?)
*ablaut
*''*θ-/θă-'' (causative; denominal verbs)
*''<sup>i</sup>-el''
*''θu-'' = intensive
*''-en''
*''pĭ-'' (agentive; triggers voicing of following voiceless stops ''p t c'' to ''b d g'')
*''-te''
**''da'' (know) -> ''pĭda'' 'sage'
*Prefix ''Ze-''
**''tüθ'' (to grasp) -> ''pĭdüθ'' 'meaning, intention'
*''nu-'' agentive
*''ha-'' (passive)
* {{angbr|i}} nominalization
====Breathy voice====
Words with breathy voice alternations are explained by older affixes which have lost their productivity:
*feminine *-s for nouns, which often derives instruments from verbs: ''snar'' < *snär 'catch' (Modern Wdm. ''snar'' 'to know'), ''snaar'' < *snär-s 'trap, snare' (Modern Wdm. ''snär'').
*an infix *{{angbr|H}} for verbs?


=====TAM auxiliary constructions=====
====Aktionsart====
like Modern Wdm.


{|class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center;"
==Syntax==
|+'''Some tense constructions'''
The usual word order is VOS (assuming the topic is the subject), unlike Modern Windermere's SVO. The syntax is generally Mishnaic Hebrew-like but it's topic-final.
|-
!|Meaning
!|{{PAGENAME}} construction
|-
!perfect
|''duoɟ'' + [subject]-DAT + (''zraf'' can go here for progressive) + [verb]-VERBAL_NOUN-ACC
|-
!preterite
|[verb]-PRETERITE (no auxiliary)
|-
!present habitual
|[verb]-PRESENT
|-
!present progressive
|''zraf'' + [verb]-PRESENT
|-
!future
|''terl'' + [subject]-DAT + (''zraf'' can go here for progressive) + [verb]-VERBAL_NOUN-ACC
|}


===Syntax===
==Sample texts==
====Word order====
==="The Round Table", from the ''Imθumitil''===
Constituents are arranged in SVO order in both Classical Wiobian and most modern topolects (with more variation allowed in classical poetry). Noun modifiers (adjectives and possessors) almost always precede the modified noun, except in the Tergetian-influenced Kurmian.
(The following story is from the [[Verse:Tricin/Imθumitil|Imθumitil]], a major Talman religious text.)


====Truth value====
Ngiiθ dur mogor se taχ χaaθ. "Măra łĭnam?" tăbits φin Pĭda Brăwid.  
For negation, Classical Wiobian uses a negative verb ''mei'' (present), ''quek'' (preterite), ''Quah'' (verbal noun) + the verbal noun in the dative case:
{{Gloss
|phrase = in meien Borrs heite.  
|IPA = /ʔin ˈmeilən borç ˈheitə/
|morphemes = in meil-en Borr-s heit-e.  
|gloss = 1SG.NOM NEG/PRES-1SG sing/VN-DAT well-ACC
|translation = I do not sing well.
}}


Compare the affirmative sentence:
Mi-ăngnuung căχθaaθ năθa emrĭtsal sen doon: "Șrüχ te-stiiw: taχ mognas, θaφ te-müts θraaφ, liw stăliiw, θaφ te-müts sălmeχ, taχ mălüüts, doon tălaχ."


{{Gloss
"Ǎna mee ra, srü hĭdeen croθ năθa?" tăbits φin Pĭda Brăwid.
|phrase = in borren heite.  
|IPA = /ʔin ˈborːən ˈheitə/
|morphemes = in borr-s heit-e.
|gloss = 1SG.NOM sing/PRES-1SG well-ACC
|translation = I sing well.
}}


In copular sentences, though affirmative sentences do not require a copula, negative sentences do:
"Op cănga, φin Pĭda: tsor pădiχ φnărtaang, te ămsaχ păχwădiχ năθa ya φin croθ φi!" eφθooc φin χaaθ.


{{col-begin}}
"Ăruy șa-χaaθ ses tsărüng te sen θăpal φănaw φănaw." esngim
{{col-2}}
șa φin χaaθ φin Pĭda Brăwid.
{{Gloss
|phrase = in Hauere.
|IPA = /ʔin ˈhauərə/
|morphemes = in Hauer-e.
|gloss = 1SG.NOM king-PRED
|translation = I am the king.
}}
{{col-2}}
{{Gloss
|phrase = in meien Luos Hauere.
|IPA = /ʔin ˈmeien luoç ˈhauərə/
|morphemes = in meil-en luos Hauer-e.
|gloss = 1SG.NOM NEG/PRES-1SG COPULA.VN-DAT king-PRED
|translation = I am not the king.
}}
{{col-end}}


For contrastive negation of a constituent other than the verb, the main verb need not be repeated:
====Gloss====
''Ngiiθ dur se taχ χaaθ mogor. Tăbiits φin Pĭda Brăwid: "Măra łĭnam?"''


{{Gloss
time sit.STAT SP six child circle. ask.PFV DEF.M Master B.: "how_many 2PL?"
|phrase = ins priuden ƕiem Zall, meien ƕiem Zrüsch.
|IPA = /ʔinç ˈpriuden xʷiem calː ˈmeiən xʷiem cryçː/
|morphemes = in-s priud-en ƕiem Zall mei-en ƕiem Zrüsch
|gloss = 1SG.DAT be_needed/PRES-3SG.AN INDEF.NOM man.NOM NEG/PRES-1SG INDEF.NOM child.NOM
|translation = I want a man, not a boy.
}}


Polar questions utilize an interrogative auxiliary ''hüf, snöf, Hof'' (< 'swear'):  
Once, six children were in a round table. Master Brăwiid asked them: "How many of you are here?"


{{Gloss
''Mi-ăngnuung căχθaaθ năθa emrĭtsal sen doon: "Șrüχ te-stiiw: taχ mognas, θaφ te-müts θraaφ, liw stăliiw, θaφ te-müts mălsaaχ, taχ mălüüts, doon tălaχ."''
|phrase = i hüfe Quarþes inne?
|IPA = /ʔiː hyfə ˈkʷarsəç ʔinnə/
|morphemes = i hüf-e Quarþ-es inn-e
|gloss = 2SG.NOM Q/PRES-2SG love.VN-DAT 1SG-ACC
|translation = Do you love me?
}}


An echo response is often used to interrogative questions. For "yes" the interrogative verb may be echoed instead.
in-PROG-count other PFV-call SP.M one: 63: six individual, 15 pair, 20 triad, 15 tetrad, 6 pentad, 1 hexad


{{col-begin}}
While the others were still counting, one child replied: "Sixty-three: 6 individuals, 15 teams of two, 20 teams of 3, 15 teams of 4, 6 teams of 5, and one team of 6."
{{col-2}}
{{Gloss
|phrase = quörþen.
|IPA = /ˈkʷørsən/
|morphemes = quorþ-<sup>i</sup>en
|gloss = love/PRES-1SG
|translation = Yes. (to the question "Do you love me?")
}}
{{col-2}}
{{Gloss
|phrase = meien [Quarþes].
|IPA = /ˈmeiən (ˈkʷarsəç)/
|morphemes = mei-en [Quarþ-es].
|gloss = NEG/PRES-1SG [love.VN-DAT]
|translation = No. (to the question "Do you love me?")
}}
{{col-end}}


If a "yes" answer involves a predicate, the predicate noun is echoed:
''Tăbits φin Pĭda Brăwid: "Ǎna mee ra, srü hĭdeen croθ năθa?"''


{{Gloss
PFV-ask DEF.M Master B.: "then many what, if enter person other"
|phrase = Hauere.
|IPA = /ˈhauərə/
|morphemes = Hauer-e
|gloss = king-PRED
|translation = Yes. [to the question "Are you a/the king?"]
}}


In Modern Wiobian the preterite form is lost and ''mei'' /mi˩/ has been generalized as the interjection for ''no'' or the adverb for ''not''.
Now Master Brăwiid asked: "Well then, how many people will be there if another person enters?"


====Passive====
''Eφθooc φin χaaθ, "Op cănga, φin Pĭda: tsor pădiχ φnărtaang, te ămsaχ păχwădiχ năθa ya φin croθ φi!"''
====Relative clauses====
Relative clauses are internally headed: The head is the first constituent of the relative clause, and an anaphoric "co-relative pronoun" ''nie'' occurs after the relative clause that refers back to the head.


Simpler relative clauses often use the gap construction and use the ''nie'' determiner as the relativizer.
PFV-answer DEF.M child "lo, clear DEF.M Master all team previous, and add PL-team other with-person that"


<!--
The child responded: "It is plain, Master: all of the old teams, as well as another set of teams with the new person!"
:'''''na drott himm liuwes nükksen, geto uom naß huoleme.'''''
:<small>ANA-SG.NOM thief-NOM 2PL-DAT yesterday steal-3SG.AN here 1EX.NOM ANA.ACC see-1EX</small>
:''This is where we saw the thief that robbed you yesterday.'' (Note that the demonstrative ''na'' both marks the relativized noun and refers to it.)


:'''''geto uom himm liuwes nükksen drotteß huoleme.'''''
''Esngim φin Pĭda Brăwid șa φin χaaθ șa-ngiil, "Ăruy șa-χaaθ ses tsărüng te sen θăpal φănaw φănaw."''
:<small>here 1EX.NOM 2PL-DAT yesterday steal-3SG.AN thief-SG.ACC see-1EX</small>
:''This is where we saw the thief that robbed you yesterday.''


:'''''geto uom huoleme gaß nükksen liuwes himm gaß drotteß.'''''
PFV-praise DEF.M Master B. to DEF.M child to-say, "exist wisdom and understanding to DEF.M child this true true"''
:<small>here 1EX.NOM see-1EX DEF-SG.ACC steal-3SG.AN 2PL-DAT DEF-SG.ACC thief-SG.ACC</small>
:''This is where we saw the thief that robbed you yesterday.''
-->


====Serial verbs====
Master Brăwied praised the child saying, "This child has wisdom and understanding indeed."
Wiobian loves serial verb constructions, unlike Germanic languages, but like East Asian languages.


==Derivational morphology==
==Poetry==
Some suffixes are pronounced differently depending on the final consonant of the root.
===Early Classical poetry===
Early Classical Windermere poetry, such as poetic parts of the Imθumitil, was a form of rhymed prose. (cf. saj3 in the Qur'an)


*''<sup>U</sup>(-n)'': nominalization, patient
===Later Classical poetry===
**''Þiem'' 'deed' < ''þiom'' 'do'
[[Classical Tseer]] poetry (which used both rhyme and meter) introduced meter to Windermere poetry. As in Tseer prosody, a meter was determined by the number of syllables per line and the placement of the caesura. The notation "m+n" denotes a meter of m syllables + caesura + n syllables.
*''be-'': intensive/applicative/denominal verb prefix; common like in German
**'''''be'''rast'' 'make powerful, strengthen' < ''Rast'' 'power'
*''deß-'': detransitivizing/valency-decreasing
*''em-/(w)en-'': perfective; causative/valency-incrementing
*''<sup>U</sup>-em'': adjectival/attributive/place noun suffix
**''Jünd'''em'''ruoger'' 'tapestry of life'
*''-er'': collective, augmentative, place noun, resultative
**''Puog'''er''''' 'throne' < ''Puog'' 'chair'
**''Ruog'''er''''' 'statue' < ''ruog, rieg, Ruogs'' 'carve'
**''Jeng'''er''''' 'ocean, sea' < ''Jeng'' 'water'
*''ger-'': inceptive, dynamic
**'''''ger'''zißt'': 'initiate' < ''zißt'' 'run' (intransitive)
*''i-'' (< PWio {{recon|''ī''}} < PGam {{recon|''hiz''}}): negative
**'''''i'''biul'' 'not straight, unjust' < ''biul'' 'straight, just'
*''-li'' agent noun, someone associated with [NOUN]
**''Winkli'' 'mortal' < ''wink-'' 'die' + ''-li''
*''-mack'': resultative, ability
*''-null'': prototypical member of a set, ''Ur-''
*''-ung'': singulative/some singular nouns
*''-s'' (< PGam {{recon|''λ''}} ~ Thm. supine ''-dh''): verbal nouns, nominalization
*''-zi'': abstract noun, -ness/-hood
*''uo-'' (< PWio {{recon|''ā-''}} < PGam {{recon|''ʔāz-''}}): augmentative
**'''''Uo'''res, '''Uo'''rs'' 'wolf, predatory beast' < euphemistically derived from ''Rüös'' 'dog'
*''wech-'': perfective/telic
*''-zim'': characterized by [noun]


==Phrasebook==
Some meters were:
*''Woi2 szan6''! - Hello.
*4+4
*''ta2 hung2'' - thank you.
*4+6
*5+5
*6+4
*4+7
*6+5
*6+6
*7+7


{{List subpages|caption=Related pages with more information}}
====4+4====
An average early Late-Classical philosophical poem:
<poem>
''Hay croθ φnărooχ / χĭrał mi-tliis,''
''Răwoł hĭspeel / tsor pĭχăngdiis.''
''Da hĭtsărüüng, / woch hogăsgiis,''
''Hĭdgun cămbey, / heneeb θiφiis.''
</poem>
<poem>
''O fleeting man / swept by desire,''
''Your maw dissolves / all fine repast.'' (lit. your ear forgets all ''pĭχăngdiis'', a type of joyful dance music)
''Know your good sense / and light your fire;''
''Consume your food; / your life won't last.''
</poem>


[[Category:Gamedan languages]][[Category:Wiobic languages]][[Category:Pseudo-Germanic]][[Category:Hussmauch]]
[[Category:Windermere]]

Latest revision as of 17:17, 27 July 2022

Classical Windermere
wănaang Dămee
Pronunciation[wɔnaʱŋ dɔˈmeʱ]
Created byIlL, Praimhín
SettingVerse:Tricin
Native toTalma
Lakovic
  • Ashanic
    • Classical Windermere
  • Windermere script
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Template:Windermere sidebar Classical Windermere (CWdm, native name: wănaang Dămee /wɔnaʱŋ dɔˈmeʱ/; Modern Wdm.: fi wănäng Impida 'the language of the Pida (Sages)'; Skellan: a łynǿñ Dymée ryn Byðá) is a standardized variety of Windermere based on the language of Windermere texts written from ca. fT -300 through fT 500. Alongside its relative Classical Tseer, Classical Windermere served as a lingua franca of learning, governance, law, and religion in premodern Talma and lent many words to other Talman languages. Later Classical Windermere borrowed many words from Classical Tseer.

Especially in its religious register, it was influenced by Tigol.

Todo

  • ăyă/ăy > i

Status

Classical Windermere is the language of Mărotłite sacred texts, such as the Imθumitil and other Pidaic writings.

In Talma Classical Windermere has evolved into various Talman Windermere vernaculars. Modern Windermere, on the other hand, is an evolution of revived Classical Windermere. Classical Windermere is still used as the liturgical language of Mărotłism and is an official language of the city-state Yocneam.

Phonology

Consonants

Labial Alveolar Lateral Palatal Velar Glottal
Nasal m /m/ n /n/ ng /ŋ/
Plosive voiced b /b~β/ d /d~ð/ g /g~ɣ/
tenuis p /p⁼/ t /t⁼/ c /k⁼/ ' /ʔ/
aspirated φ /pʰ/ θ /tʰ/ χ /kʰ/
Affricate ts /ts̪/ tł /tɬ/
Fricative s /s̪/ ł /ɬ/ ș /ʃ/ h /h/
Resonant w /w/ r /r/ l /l/ y /j/

The glottal stop is not transcribed word-initially.

Vowels

Classical Windermere had six stressed vowels a e i o u ü /a e i o u ü/ (ü was central unlike in Modern Windermere). It also had breathy voiced vowels aa ee ii oo uu üü /aʱ eʱ iʱ oʱ uʱ üʱ/.

Late Classical Windermere also had ö /ø/ in Tseer loans.

In Middle Windermere, the clear vowels a e i o u ü became RTR vowels /ɑ ɛ ɪ ɔ ʊ ʏ/, while the breathy vowels aa ee ii oo uu üü became ATR vowels /æ e i o u y/. These qualities became the basis for vowel realizations in reading traditions.

Classical Windermere had two reduced vowels, ă /ɔ/ and ĭ /ə~ɪ/, which merged to ă /ə/ in Modern Windermere. ă comes from Proto-Ashanic unstressed *a, *o, *u, and ĭ comes from Proto-Ashanic unstressed *i, *ü, *e. This contrast is retained in Pradiul as palatalization.

Phonotactics

CWdm allowed initial bd bg db dg gb gd.

Morphophonology

Sandhi

Classical Windermere had a complex sandhi system (somewhere between Biblical Hebrew and Sanskrit) which is no longer productive in Modern Windermere; most notably it affected plurals and verb forms, making them less predictable.

  • th + fric → fric + t
    • θs → st, as in sèφ 'go' → *θsèφ → steeφ 'to drive' (Modern binsteaf 'energy', sămteaf 'to energize')
    • θφ → φθ, e.g. tăφi 'laugh' → *tiθφi → tiφθi 'to mock' (Classical and Modern Wdm. tăfi, tifti)
    • θχ → χθ e.g. Proto-Windermere àrθχa → răχθa 'to die'
    • θł, θș → łt, șt
  • χ + φ, s, θ, ł, ș → χw, ??? ??? ??? ??? ???
  • s + φ, θ, χ → sp, st, sc
  • rC, lC > Cr, Cl
  • ps pn png → sp φn φng
  • tp θp tsp kp χp → tw θw tsw cw χw; Proto-Windermere breathy vowel + tp tsp kp > dw tsw gw
  • tsc cts tsp pts sts ts > sc sc sp sp st st

Sandhi table

Initial
Consonant 		Final Consonant
f p b m th t d n ch c g ng s ts ł tł ș h ' l r w y
f f p sp fn ft ft ft fn fch pc pc fng ps fts pł ftł pș f f' fl fr f fy
p f p sp fn ft ft ft fn pc pc pc fng ps fts pł ftł pș f p' pl pr p py
b f p sp fn fth ft ft fn fch pc pc fng ps fts pł ftł pș f p' bl br b by
m mf mp/mb mp/mb m mth mt/md mt/md mn mch mc/mg mc/mg mng ms mts mł mtł mș mh m' ml mr m my
th ft ft sp thm th t st thn cht cht cht thng st tst łt tłt șt th t' thl thr thw thy
t ft ft sp tm th t st tn cht cht cht tng st tst łt tłt șt th t' tl tr tw ty
d ft ft sp tm th t st tn cht cht cht tng st tst łt tłt șt th d' dl dr dw dy
n mp mp nf nm nth nt nt nn nch ngc ngc nng ns nts nł ntł nș nth n' l r nw ny
ch chp chp chp chm cht cht cht chn ch c c chng chs chts chł chtł chș cht ch' chl chr chw chy
g cp cp cp cm cht cht cht gn ch g c cng cs cts cł ctł cș cht g' gl gr gw gy
c cp cp cp cm cht cht cht cn ch c c cng cs cts cł ctł cș cht c' cl cr cw cy
ng ngf ngp ngb ngm ngth ngt ngd ngn ngch ngc ngg ng ngs ngts ngł ngtł ngș ngt ng' ngl ngr ngw ngy
s
ts
ł
tł
ș
h
'
l
r
w
y

Grassmann's law

Grassmann's law was productive in Classical Windermere: when there were two aspirated consonants before a stressed vowel in a word, the first was deaspirated. e.g. *χăφol > căφol 'to turn'.

Morphology

Nouns

Articles

There are two articles like in Modern Windermere, but with gender distinctions: the definite article fin (m sg), fis (f sg), fi (pl), from the distal demonstrative fi, and the specific article sen (m sg), ses (f sg), se (pl), from the proximal demonstrative se. Indefinite nonspecific nouns do not take an article.

The accusative particle ü (from the Proto-Lakovic direct case marker Hu) was mandatory, unlike in Modern Windermere.

Plurals

Classical Windermere had many irregular plurals due to the effects of sandhi.

Examples:

Regular reduplicated plurals:

  • cnul 'leaf' > nălcnul 'leaves'

Sandhi plurals:

  • drong 'kernel' > tăngrădong 'kernels'

Suppletive plurals:

  • croθ 'person' > hĭngüs 'people'

Concatenative plurals (especially for longer words):

  • păltsiφ 'merchant' > impăltsiφ 'merchants'
  • neeχ-snooχ 'man of learning' > luc-snooχ

Gender

Classical Windermere had grammatical gender, with masculine and feminine genders.

  • For "basic" words, nouns with breathy voice were generally feminine: φin tger /pʰin tger/ 'the voice' was masculine, while φis trămaay 'the rain' was feminine.
  • Exceptions were human nouns, for which the gender followed natural gender.
  • Words with certain affixes
    • Words with the nominalizer ⟨i⟩ were masculine.
    • Words with nominalizers hăl- or să- were feminine.

Verbs

Trigger infixes and certain aspects had become derivational in Classical Windermere, but not other aspects or tenses.

Gender

The feminine agreement prefix u- goes before TAM markers. It becomes wă- before a single consonant that is not a glottal stop or /h/ beginning a minor syllable. A glottal stop or /h/ initial minor syllable is deleted before applying the rule.

  • șroy 'pays' > ușroy
  • ămșroy 'paid' > umșroy
  • tășăyșroy 'pays in installments' > wătășăyșroy

Tense

Verbs have the following principal parts: present, imperfect, perfect, future I, and verbal noun, which are marked with reduplication, ablaut, and/or prefixes. This complex and irregular system is probably a relic of transitioning from Proto-Lakovic aspects to tenses.

  • Present: present or present progressive
  • Imperfect: Past incomplete or ongoing action; sometimes like the English pluperfect
  • Perfect: Past completed action
  • Future/Subjunctive I: future imperfective
  • Future/Subjunctive II: future perfective
  • Imperative: Present or Subjunctive II

The exact paradigm depends on the verb. For stative verbs like plang 'to stand', present and perfect forms are identical.

Example:

  • Present = Perfect: plang 'stands; (has) stood'; feminine uplang
  • Imperfect: plăplang 'was standing; had stood' (from PLak reduplication for iterative); feminine wăpinglang
  • Future: hepălang 'will stand' (from heφ- future tense marker + nominal grade pälŋ of root √pläŋ); feminine wepălang
  • Infinitive: pălang (from nominal grade *pälng)

Personal pronouns

Pronouns were similar to later Windermere, but with feminine plural pronouns, possessive pronouns, and inflected prepositions.

Independent pronouns

The independent pronouns were used as subjects and direct objects.

  • 1sg: ri
  • 2sg: łen (m), łes (f)
  • 3sg: in (m), is (f)
  • 1pl exclusive: tsa
  • 1pl inclusive: bang
  • 2pl: łĭnam (m), łĭsam (f)
  • 3pl: ĭnam (m), ĭsam (f)

Pronouns get cliticized to verbs in Middle Windermere.

Possessive prefixes

+V represents a voicing mutation on a following noun: /p t k/ > /b d g/.

  • 1sg: rĭ- +V
  • 2sg: hĭ- +V (m), hĭ- (f)
  • 3sg: ĭ- +V (m), ĭs- (f)
  • 1pl exclusive: tsă- +V
  • 1pl inclusive: su- +V (from a fossilized seew 'here')
  • 2pl: łăm-/łăn- (both m and f)
  • 3pl: năm-/năn- (m), săm-/săn- (f)

Prepositions

Classical Windermere had inflected prepositions, like Tigol and most modern Talmic languages. Some prepositions had suppletive forms when inflected.

The regular pronominal affixes:

  • 1sg: -ir
  • 2sg: -eł (m), -łes (f)
  • 3sg: -in (m), -is (f)
  • 1pl.ex: -tsa
  • 1pl.in: -ang
  • 2pl: -łam (both genders)
  • 3pl: -nam (m), -sam (f)

Examples:

  • mi 'in, at': mir, mił, miłes, min, mis, mitsa, ming, miłam, miłam, minam, misam
  • șa 'to, for': șar, șał, șăłes, șan, șas, șatsa, șbang, șăłam, șăłam, șănam, șăsam
  • φa 'from': ăχir, ăχeł, ăχłes, ăχin, ăχis, ăχtsa, ăχbang, ăχłam, ăχłam, ăχnam, ăχsam
  • ya 'with: yăngir, yăngeł, yăngłes, yăngin, yăngis, yăngtsa, yăbang, yăłam; yănam, yăsam

Sometimes variant forms with -ng- show up: e.g. șăngłam or șăngar

Derivation

(Anything else?)

  • *θ-/θă- (causative; denominal verbs)
  • θu- = intensive
  • pĭ- (agentive; triggers voicing of following voiceless stops p t c to b d g)
    • da (know) -> pĭda 'sage'
    • tüθ (to grasp) -> pĭdüθ 'meaning, intention'
  • nu- agentive
  • ha- (passive)
  • ⟨i⟩ nominalization

Breathy voice

Words with breathy voice alternations are explained by older affixes which have lost their productivity:

  • feminine *-s for nouns, which often derives instruments from verbs: snar < *snär 'catch' (Modern Wdm. snar 'to know'), snaar < *snär-s 'trap, snare' (Modern Wdm. snär).
  • an infix *⟨H⟩ for verbs?

Aktionsart

like Modern Wdm.

Syntax

The usual word order is VOS (assuming the topic is the subject), unlike Modern Windermere's SVO. The syntax is generally Mishnaic Hebrew-like but it's topic-final.

Sample texts

"The Round Table", from the Imθumitil

(The following story is from the Imθumitil, a major Talman religious text.)

Ngiiθ dur mogor se taχ χaaθ. "Măra łĭnam?" tăbits φin Pĭda Brăwid.

Mi-ăngnuung căχθaaθ năθa emrĭtsal sen doon: "Șrüχ te-stiiw: taχ mognas, θaφ te-müts θraaφ, liw stăliiw, θaφ te-müts sălmeχ, taχ mălüüts, doon tălaχ."

"Ǎna mee ra, srü hĭdeen croθ năθa?" tăbits φin Pĭda Brăwid.

"Op cănga, φin Pĭda: tsor pădiχ φnărtaang, te ămsaχ păχwădiχ năθa ya φin croθ φi!" eφθooc φin χaaθ.

"Ăruy șa-χaaθ ses tsărüng te sen θăpal φănaw φănaw." esngim șa φin χaaθ φin Pĭda Brăwid.

Gloss

Ngiiθ dur se taχ χaaθ mogor. Tăbiits φin Pĭda Brăwid: "Măra łĭnam?"

time sit.STAT SP six child circle. ask.PFV DEF.M Master B.: "how_many 2PL?"

Once, six children were in a round table. Master Brăwiid asked them: "How many of you are here?"

Mi-ăngnuung căχθaaθ năθa emrĭtsal sen doon: "Șrüχ te-stiiw: taχ mognas, θaφ te-müts θraaφ, liw stăliiw, θaφ te-müts mălsaaχ, taχ mălüüts, doon tălaχ."

in-PROG-count other PFV-call SP.M one: 63: six individual, 15 pair, 20 triad, 15 tetrad, 6 pentad, 1 hexad

While the others were still counting, one child replied: "Sixty-three: 6 individuals, 15 teams of two, 20 teams of 3, 15 teams of 4, 6 teams of 5, and one team of 6."

Tăbits φin Pĭda Brăwid: "Ǎna mee ra, srü hĭdeen croθ năθa?"

PFV-ask DEF.M Master B.: "then many what, if enter person other"

Now Master Brăwiid asked: "Well then, how many people will be there if another person enters?"

Eφθooc φin χaaθ, "Op cănga, φin Pĭda: tsor pădiχ φnărtaang, te ămsaχ păχwădiχ năθa ya φin croθ φi!"

PFV-answer DEF.M child "lo, clear DEF.M Master all team previous, and add PL-team other with-person that"

The child responded: "It is plain, Master: all of the old teams, as well as another set of teams with the new person!"

Esngim φin Pĭda Brăwid șa φin χaaθ șa-ngiil, "Ăruy șa-χaaθ ses tsărüng te sen θăpal φănaw φănaw."

PFV-praise DEF.M Master B. to DEF.M child to-say, "exist wisdom and understanding to DEF.M child this true true"

Master Brăwied praised the child saying, "This child has wisdom and understanding indeed."

Poetry

Early Classical poetry

Early Classical Windermere poetry, such as poetic parts of the Imθumitil, was a form of rhymed prose. (cf. saj3 in the Qur'an)

Later Classical poetry

Classical Tseer poetry (which used both rhyme and meter) introduced meter to Windermere poetry. As in Tseer prosody, a meter was determined by the number of syllables per line and the placement of the caesura. The notation "m+n" denotes a meter of m syllables + caesura + n syllables.

Some meters were:

  • 4+4
  • 4+6
  • 5+5
  • 6+4
  • 4+7
  • 6+5
  • 6+6
  • 7+7

4+4

An average early Late-Classical philosophical poem:

Hay croθ φnărooχ / χĭrał mi-tliis,
Răwoł hĭspeel / tsor pĭχăngdiis.
Da hĭtsărüüng, / woch hogăsgiis,
Hĭdgun cămbey, / heneeb θiφiis.

O fleeting man / swept by desire,
Your maw dissolves / all fine repast. (lit. your ear forgets all pĭχăngdiis, a type of joyful dance music)
Know your good sense / and light your fire;
Consume your food; / your life won't last.

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