Ris: Difference between revisions

From Linguifex
Jump to navigation Jump to search
m (Waahlis moved page User:Waahlis/Messa to User:Waahlis/Ris without leaving a redirect)
No edit summary
 
(161 intermediate revisions by 4 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
:'''πρανάσση, άι στραθά πανἂννη!'''
{{construction}}
:'''pranássē, ai strathá panā́nnē!'''
::''Remember: You walk with your feet!''
 


{{Infobox language
{{Infobox language
|image = Hrasic.png
|image = Ris.png
|imagesize = 250px
|imagesize = 250px
|name = Messan
|name = Ris
|nativename = Messa ranzi
|nativename = oī́kas ri
|pronunciation= /ˈχrʌsɯ ˈmɯŋg̚/
|pronunciation= ɔˈɪːkas rɪ
|region = [[w:Caucasus|Caucasus]]
|setting = [[w:Mediterranean|Mediterranean]]
|states = [[w:Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]], [[w:Russia|Russia]]; [[w:Republic of Dagestan|Republic of Dagestan]]
|nation = [[w:Italy|Italy]], [[w:Cyprus|Cyprus]]; [[w:Sicily|Sicily]]
|speakers = 301,486
|speakers = 301,486
|date = 2012
|date = 2012
|familycolor= Indo-European
|familycolor= American
|family=Menmer languages
|family=Jasi-Jivan languages
|ancestor=Proto-Men
|ancestor=Proto-Jivan
|script=[[w:Latin script|Latin]]
|script1=Latn
|agency=Ahrasú rám amúng nánshi
|script2=Grek
|iso1=hr
|clcr=qri
|iso2=hr
|iso3=qhr
|notice=IPA
|notice=IPA
|creator=User:Waahlis
}}
}}
'''Mansa ranzi''', ''Μάνσα ράνζη'' //, '''Mensa''' or '''Messa''' // is a language spoken in the [[w:Eastern Caucasus|Eastern Caucasus]], by the Hrasú people. The population is dispersed over an area covering the Eastern parts of [[w:Dagestan|Dagestan]] in [[w:Russia|Russia]], as well as the area around [[w:Baku|Baku]] in [[w:Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]]. The number of speakers were in 2012 estimated to be about 300,000, and increasing.


The language is a [[w:language isolate|language isolate]], and is thus not known to be related to any extant language. Hrasic has a normal-sized inventory of consonants and a fair amount of [[w:allophony|allophony]]. It is a [[w:fusional|fusional]] language and is morphosyntactically [[w:nominative-accusative|nominative-accusative]]. The [[w:morphology|morphology]] is evenly split between nominal and verbal inflections.
The '''Ris''' language, ''oī́kas ri'', /ɔˈɪːkas  rɪ/ or simply '''Ris''' /rɪs/, is a Jasi-Jivan language related to the [[Kiwi]] and [[Kandi]] languages.  
==Background==
The '''Messa''' language, or '''Messan''', is a [[w:conlang|constructed language]], but does have a fictional background set in the real world.
==Phonology==
===Consonants===
The following is the inventory of consonants in the Hrasú language. There are 20 contrastive consonants.


{| class="browntable lightbrownbg" style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
Grammatically speaking, the Ris language is morphologically [[w:fusional|fusional]] with a few [[w:agglutinative|agglutinative]] characteristics. It has [[Ris#Enclitic|enclitic]] pronouns representing the core arguments of agent and patient. It also has an unsusual [[Ris#Morphosyntactic-alignment|morphosyntactic alignment]]; the [[w:active-stative languages|active-stative]] one, in the [[w:Fluid-S|fluid subject]] subtype. This implies a system of [[Ris#Control|control]] and volition, closely tied to a distinction in [[Ris#Animacy|animacy]]. The [[w:morphology|morphology]] is evenly split between nominal and verbal inflections.
|+'''Hrasú consonants'''
|-
! colspan="9"|Consonants
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2"|


! rowspan="2"| Bilabial
Phonologically and phonaesthetically, the language is modelled after [[w:Greek language|Greek]]. Other influences are [[w:native American languages|native American languages]], the [[w:Shona language|Shona language]] and to certain degree [[w:Swedish language|Swedish]]. Ris has a normal-sized inventory of consonants and a fair amount of [[w:allophony|allophony]].


! colspan="2" rowspan="1"| Denti-alveolar
Ris is my attempt to unite the sketchy constructed languages of mine; those lost forever in incomprehensible grammar, unsatisfying aesthetics and cumbersome phonologies. They stand united by the one shared feature - their relationship to the [[w:Greek language|Greek language]]; my greatest influence no matter the language.


! rowspan="2"| Palatal
==Phonology==
 
===Consonants===
! rowspan="2"| Velar
The following is the inventory of consonants in the Ris language. There are 19 contrastive consonants. The inventory is very similar to what you would expect from an Indo-European language, except for the voiceless sonorant, /r̥/.
 
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 700px; text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2"| Glottal
|+'''Ris consonants'''
|-
! colspan="8"|Consonants
|-
|-
! <small>apical</small>
! colspan="2"|
 
!  Bilabial
! <small>laminal</small>
!  Dental
!  Alveolar
!  Postalveolar
!  Velar
! Glottal
|- align="center"
|- align="center"
!Nasals
!Nasals
!<small>plain</small>
!<small>plain</small>
|'''m''' /m/
|'''m''' /m/
 
|colspan="2"|'''n '''/n/
| colspan="2"|'''n '''/n/
|
 
|
|
|'''ng''' /ŋ/
|
|
|-
|-
! rowspan="3"|Plosives
! rowspan="3"|Plosives
 
!<small>affricate</small>
!<small>aspirated</small>
|'''ph''' /p͡f/
 
|'''th''' /t͡θ/
|'''bh''' /pʰ/
|'''ts''' /t͡s/
 
|'''th''' /t̺ʰ/
 
|
 
|
 
|'''ch''' /kʰ/
 
|
|
|'''kh''' /k͡x/
|
|-
|-
!<small>unvoiced</small>
!<small>unvoiced</small>
|'''p''' /p/
|'''p''' /p/
 
|colspan="2"|'''t''' /t/
|
|
 
|'''k''' /k/
|'''t''' /t/
 
|
 
|'''c''' /k/
 
|
|
|-
|-
!<small>voiced</small>
!<small>voiced</small>
|'''b''' /b/
|'''b''' /b/
 
|colspan="2"|'''d''' /d/
|
 
|'''d''' /d/
 
|
|
|'''g''' /g/
|'''g''' /g/
|
|
|-
|-
! colspan="1" rowspan="2"|Fricatives
! colspan="1" rowspan="2"|Fricatives
!<small>unvoiced</small>
!<small>unvoiced</small>
|
|
 
|
|'''sh''' /s̺ʰ/
 
|'''s''' /s/
|'''s''' /s/
 
|'''sh''' /ʃ/
| colspan="3" rowspan="1"|'''h''' /ç ~ x ~ h/
| colspan="2" |'''h''' /x ~ h/
|-
|-
!<small>voiced</small>
!<small>voiced</small>
|
|
|
|
|'''z''' /z/
|'''z''' /z/
|'''y''' /ʝ/
|
|
 
|
|
|
|-
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="1"|Trills
! rowspan="2"|Trills
 
!<small>voiceless</small>
|
|
 
|  
|
| '''rh''' /r̥/
 
|'''r''' /r/
 
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="1"|Approximants
!<small>voiced</small>
 
|'''hu''' /w/
 
|
|
 
|
| '''r''' /r/
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="1"|Laterals
! colspan="2" rowspan="1"|Laterals
|
|
|
|
|'''l''' /l ~ ɬ/
|
|
|
|
 
|'''l''' /ɫ/
|
|
|}
|}


====Consonant allophony====
====Consonant allophony====
[[w:Allophony|Allophony]] is common to many consonants, and [[w:sandhi|sandhi]] forces them to be realised different in different environments.
[[w:Allophony|Allophony]] is common, and a variety of processes affect the consonants.
 
=====The glottal fricative=====
The phoneme /h/, the so called glottal fricative, is in [[w:free variation|free variation]] with the unvoiced palatal fricative /ç/ as well as the unvoiced velar fricative /x/.
 
{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em;"
|+
<!-- Sentence -->
| colspan="5"|'''{{blue|խ}}լո'''
|-
| colspan="5"|'''{{blue|h}}lá'''
|-
<!-- Pronunciation-->
|  /ˈ{{blue|h}}ɬæ/
 
! =
 
| /ˈ{{blue|x}}ɬæ/
 
! =
 
|/ˈ{{blue|ç}}ɬæ/
|-
<!-- Translation -->
| colspan="5"| ''good; well''
|}
 
The velar fricative is the most common one, but the phones are all affected by palatalisation, producing the palatal fricative [ç]. If followed by a rhotic trill /r/, the pronunciation becomes uvular.
 
{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em;"
|+
<!-- Sentence -->
| colspan="4"|'''{{blue|խև}}յ'''
| colspan="3"|'''{{blue|խր}}ասվ'''
|-
| colspan="4"|'''{{blue|hy}}ó'''
| colspan="3"|'''{{blue|hr}}asú'''
|-
<!-- Pronunciation-->
| /ˈ{{blue|hʝ}}ə/
 
! →
 
|[ˈ{{blue|ç}}ə]
 
!
 
|/ˈ{{blue|hr}}ɑsɯ/
 
! →
 
|/ˈ{{blue|χr}}ʌsɯ/
|-
<!-- Translation -->
| colspan="4"| ''to leave.''{{sc|subj}}
| colspan="3"| ''pride''
|}
 
 
The uvularisation of the glottal fricative is included in broad transcriptions, as such, it is enclosed by slashes, //. The palatalisation is not.
 
=====Palatalisation=====
[[w:Palatalisation|Palatalisation]] occurs due to many factors:
* The phonemes /ʝ/ and /ɪ/, the voiced palatal fricative and the near-close near-front vowel, tend to palatalise adjacent consonants internally.
* Externally, a final voiced velar stop, /g/, palatalises the initial consonant of the following word.
 
All post-[[w:bilabial consonant|bilabial]] consonants are affected, except the rhotic /r/ and the aspirated apical fricative /s̺ʰ/. As such, the allophony is rather extensive:
 
 
{| class="browntable lightbrownbg" style="width:650px; text-align:center;"
|-
! Plain
! /n/
! /t/
! /d/
! /s/
! /z/
! /l/
! /ŋ/
! /k/
! /g/
! /kʰ/
! /t̺ʰ /
! /h/
|-
! Palatalised
| [ɲ]
| [t͡ʃ]
| [d͡ʒ]
| [ʃ]
| [ʒ]
| [ʎ]
| [ɲ]<sup>1</sup>
| [t͡ʃ]
| [d͡ʒ]
| [k]
| [t]
| [ç]
|}
#Realised as /ŋg/ when non-initial. This grants /ŋg/ → [ɲd͡ʒ].
 
 
{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em;"
|+
<!-- Script-->
| colspan="3"| '''խրո{{blue|ն}}ի'''
 
!
 
| colspan="3"| '''{{blue|դ}}իան'''
 
!
 
| colspan="3"| '''ոդ{{blue|զ}}ի;'''
 
!
 
| colspan="3"|'''մյ{{blue|ղ}}ի'''
|-
<!-- Sentence -->
| colspan="3"| '''hrá{{blue|n}}i'''
 
!
 
| colspan="3"| '''{{blue|t}}ian'''
 
!
 
| colspan="3"| '''át{{blue|z}}i?'''
 
!
 
| colspan="3"|'''mó{{blue|ng}}i'''
|-
<!-- Pronunciation-->
|/ˈhrænɪ/
 
! →
 
|[ˈχræɲɪ]
 
!
 
|/ˈtɪɑn/
 
! →
 
|[ˈt͡ʃɪan]
 
!
 
|/ˈætzɪ/
 
! →
 
| [ˈætʃɪ]
 
!
 
| /ˈməŋgɪ/
 
! →
 
| [ˈməɲd͡ʒɪ]
|-
<!-- Translation -->
| colspan="3"| ''spider, hand''
 
!
 
| colspan="3"| ''friend''
 
!
 
| colspan="3"| ''now.''{{sc|int}}
 
!
 
| colspan="3"|''to go.''{{sc|subj.}}
|}
 
=====Voicedness=====
Some phonemes are susceptible to [[w:voicedness|voicedness]] sandhi. These are the sibilants and the voiced lateral approximant /l/. When preceded by a phoneme differing in voicedness, the above mentioned phonemes assimilate.
 
{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em;"
|+
<!-- Sentence -->
| colspan="3"| '''h{{blue|l}}á'''
 
!
 
| colspan="3"| '''gyáng-{{blue|s}}óm'''
 
!
 
| colspan="3"| '''át{{blue|z}}i?'''
 
!
 
| colspan="3"|'''méng{{blue|sh}}i'''
|-
<!-- Pronunciation-->
| /ˈç{{blue|l}}æ/
 
! →
 
|/ˈç{{blue|ɬ}}æ/
 
!
 
|/ˈgʝæŋg{{blue|s}}əm/
 
! →
 
|/ˈgʝæŋg{{blue|z}}əm/
 
!
 
|/ˈætzɪ/
 
! →
 
| /ˈætsɪ/
 
!
 
| /ˈmiŋɡs̺ʰɪ/
 
! →
 
| /ˈmiŋɡz̺ʱɪ/
|-
<!-- Translation -->
| colspan="3"| ''good; well; happy''
 
!
 
| colspan="3"| ''to say.''{{sc|subj}}''-you.''{{sc|1.p.pl.acc.inf}}''
 
!
 
| colspan="3"| ''now.''{{sc|int}}
 
!
 
| colspan="3"|''to dance.''{{sc|subj.caus}}
|}
 
 
The voicedness assimilation is included in broad transcriptions, as such, it is enclosed by slashes, //.


===Vowels===
===Vowels===
There are 10 [[w:vowel|vowel]] phonemes in the Hrasic language. In addition to these, the [[w:open mid-back unrounded vowel|open mid-back unrounded vowel]], /ʌ/, is an allophone of /ɑ/.
There are 6 [[w:vowel|vowel]] phonemes in the Ris language.


{| class="browntable lightbrownbg" style="width: 375px; text-align: center;"
All vowels are pronounced short. The transcription into the Latin alphabet includes no single grapheme <nowiki><u></nowiki>.
|+'''Hrasú vowels'''
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg " style="width: 375px; text-align: center;"
|+'''Ris vowels'''
|-
|-
!
! colspan="1"|
 
! Front
! Front
! Near-front
! Near-front
! Central
! Central
! Near-back
! Near-back
! Back
! Back
|-
|-
! Close
! Close
|'''é''' /i/
|
|
|'''í''' /ɨ/
|
|
 
|
|'''ú''' /ɯ/
|
 
|
|-
|-
!Near-close
!Near-close
|
|
 
|'''i '''/ɪ/ · '''y''' /ʏ/
|'''i''' /ɪ/
 
|
|
 
|'''ou '''/ʊ/
|'''u''' /ʊ/
 
|
|
|-
|-
!Close-mid
!Close-mid
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|-
!Mid
!Mid
|
|
|
|
|'''e''' /ə/
|
|
|
|
 
|
|-
|-
!Open-mid
!Open-mid
 
|'''e''' /ɛ/
|
|
|
|
|'''ó''' /ɞ/
|
|
 
|'''o''' /ɔ/
|'''a''' /ʌ/ '''·''' '''o''' /ɔ/
 
|-
|-
!Near-open
!Near-open
|'''á''' /æ/
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
 
|
|-
|-
!Open
!Open
 
|'''a '''/a/
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|'''a''' /ɑ/
|}
====Vowel allophony====
=====Open mid-back vowel=====
The [[w:open mid-back unrounded vowel|open mid-back unrounded vowel]], /ʌ/, is an allophone of /ɑ/ when it precedes the [[w:close back unrounded vowel|close back unrounded vowel]], /ɯ/, or the [[w:open mid-back rounded vowel|open mid-back rounded vowel]], /ɔ/.
{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em;"
|+
<!-- Sentence -->
| colspan="4"|'''g{{blue|a}}huo'''
| colspan="3"|'''hr{{blue|a}}sú'''
|-
<!-- Pronunciation-->
| /ˈg{{blue|ɑ}}wɔ/
! →
|/ˈg{{blue|ʌ}}wɔ/
!
|/ˈhr{{blue|ɑ}}sɯ/
! →
|/ˈχr{{blue|ʌ}}sɯ/
|-
|-
<!-- Translation -->
| colspan="4"| ''bush''
| colspan="3"| ''pride''
|}
|}


==Morphology==
:''Main article: [[Ris/Morphology|Ris morphology]]''


The allophony of the open mid-back vowel is included in broad transcriptions, as such, it is enclosed by slashes, //.
==Grammar==
====Number====
Ris has three numbers, all of which are equally common in the language. The Ris numbers are different to those of English, instead using a system similar to a [[w:singulative number|collective-singulative]] distinction.


===Morphophonology===
=====Singular number=====  
====Metaphony====
The [[w:singular|singular]] ({{sc|sg}}) denotes one, single noun, and roughly corresponds to the English equivalent of [[w:singular|singular]]. A singularnoun is a single item, either of a collective noun or even a mass noun.
Hrasic has a system of [[w:metaphony|regressive metaphony]] similar to the [[w:Umlaut|I- and U-mutation]] in the [[w:Germanic languages|Germanic languages]]. It is a kind of [[w:vowel harmony|vowel harmony]], rather than mutation.
{{Gloss/indexable
|phrase = Athuo trema.
|IPA = /ˈatʰʉ̩ːɔ ˈtreːma/
|morphemes = athy-o tre-{{blue|ma}}
|gloss = to want-IND.PRFV.1.SG.M wheat.IV-{{blue|PAT}}.SG
|translation = I want a grain of wheat.
|index = 4.7
}}{{Gloss/indexable
|phrase = Mnio mna koupar.
|IPA = /ˈmnɪ̩ːɔ mna ˈkʊːpar/
|morphemes = mni-o mna koupar-{{blue|∅}}
|gloss = to see-IND.PRFV.1.SG.M one ram.I.{{blue|PAT}}.SG
|translation = I see a ram.
| index = 4.8
}}{{Gloss/indexable
|phrase = Imbrouas pagma?
|IPA = /ˈɪːmprwas ˈpaːkma/
| morphemes = im-rou-as pag-{{blue|ma}}
| gloss = to hold-SUBJ.PRFV-2.SG.M time.IV-{{blue|PAT}}.SG
| translation = Do you have a minute?
| index = 4.9
}}


It is a long distance metaphony which affects the preceding vowels in a whole word.  
=====Plural numbers=====
======Indefinite plural======
The [[w:definiteness|indefinite]] [[w:plural|plural]] number ({{sc|indef.pl}}) is a special number to the Ris language. The indefinite plural primarily marks a collective number, whereas English uses the plural, or any indefinite amount in general.  


{| cellspacing="5" style="font-size: 110%;"
In addition, it also signify a pair of nouns, in certain contexts. The reason for this is historical; the old indefinite ending was similar in form to the dual ending, and eventually, the distinction between them disappeared.
! <small><span style="line-height: 1.2em;">pre-assimilation</span></small>
{{Gloss/indexable
| &nbsp;
|phrase = Aroumena {{blue|gunte}} thuisto.
! <small><span style="line-height: 1.2em;">post-assimilation</span></small>
|IPA = /aˈrʊːmɛna ˈɣʉːntə ˈtʰwiːstɔ/
|
| morphemes = aroumena {{blue|gunte}} thu-ist-o
|-
| gloss = always fish.I-PAT.{{blue|INDEF.PL}} to_want-IND.IPFV-1.PAT.SG
| C<span style="color:#008000">''V<sub>b</sub>''</span>C<span style="color:#008000">''V<sub>b</sub>''</span>C<span style="color:#800000">'''V<sub>a</sub>'''</span>
| translation = I always want [two] fish(es).
| '''→'''
| index= 4.10
| C<span style="color:#800000">''V<sub>a</sub>''</span>C<span style="color:#800000">''V<sub>a</sub>''</span>C<span style="color:#800000">'''V<sub>a</sub>'''</span>
}}{{Gloss/indexable
| &nbsp;&nbsp;<small>(<span style="color:#800000">V<sub>a</sub></span> = type-a vowel, <span style="color:#008000">V<sub>b</sub></span> = type-b vowel, C = consonant)</small>
|phrase = {{blue|Aganti}} ous imistir {{blue|bhouna}}.
|}
|IPA = /ˈaːkʼantɪ ʊs ɪˈmɪːstɪr ˈpʼʊːna/
| morphemes = {{blue|aganti}} ous im-ist-ir bhou-{{blue|na}}
| gloss = head.II/LOC.{{blue|INDEF.PL}} too  to_have-POT.IPFV-3.PAT.DC fat.II-PAT.{{blue|INDEF.PL}}
| translation = You can have fat on your head as well.
|index = 4.11
}}{{Gloss/indexable
|phrase = Kerak{{blue|ne}} noukist{{blue|ine}}
|IPA = /ˈke:raknə nʊˈkɪːstɪnə/
| morphemes = kerax-{{blue|ne}} nouk-ist-ine
| gloss = bird.II-INV.PAT.{{blue|INDEF.PL}} to_fly-IND.IPFV-3.INV.PAT.DC
| translation = Birds fly.
|index = 4.12
}}
======Definite plural======
The definite plural ({{sc|def.pl}}) marks when there are multiple nouns, but more than two. It does not have the collective sense that the English equivalent does, which means plurals automatically get an article due to context.
{{Gloss/indexable
|phrase = Ani ngou mou, mnio {{blue|bhalloi}} bhallistina .
|IPA = /aˈnɪː ˈŋgʊːˌmʊ ˈŋ͡mɪ̩ːɔ ˈpʰaːlːɔj ˈpʰaːlːɪstɪna/
| morphemes = ani ngou mou mni-o bhall-{{blue|oi}} bhall-ist-ina
| gloss = before eye.III/LOC.INDF.PL my/LOC.SG to_see-IND.IPFV-1.PAT.SG  ball.IV-PAT.{{blue|DEF.PL}} to_roll-IND.IPFV-3{{blue|DEF.PL}}.PAT
| translation = I see balls rolling before my eyes.
| index= 4.13
}}{{Gloss/indexable
|phrase =  Ai ourani {{blue|ouekitsoi}}.
|IPA = /aj ˈʊːranɪ ˈweːkiˌt͡sɔj/
| morphemes = ai ouran-i oekits-oi
| gloss = from<ref name="alpha"></ref> heaven.IV-GEN.SG tomato.IV-PAT.{{blue|DEF.PL}}
| translation = The tomatoes from heaven.
|index = 4.14
}}{{Gloss/indexable
|phrase = Inaskho {{blue|tabellithoulianta}}.
|IPA = /ˈɪːnaskʰɔ taˌpʼɛlːɪtʰʊˈlɪ̩ːanta/
| morphemes = in-askh-o tabellithouli-{{blue|anta}}
| gloss = to_be-IND.CES-1SG.PAT marker_pen.IV-INST.{{blue|DEF.PL}}
| translation = I'm out of marker pens.<ref name="beta"></ref>
|index = 4.15
}}
<ref name="alpha">''ai'', ''au'' and ''ati'' are in fact demonstrative pronouns, but in many contexts, they get an adpositional meaning.</ref>
<ref name="beta">Literally; ''I am no longer with marker pens.''</ref>
<references/>


In the diagram above, the <span style="color:#800000">V<sub>a</sub></span> (type-a vowel) causes the preceding <span style="color:#008000">V<sub>b</sub></span> (type-b vowel) to assimilate and become the same type of vowel (and thus they become, metaphorically, "in harmony").
====Gender and class====
<!--''origou'' and ''amirou'' -->There are two [[w:Grammatical gender|gender]]s in the Ris language, the [[w:animacy|animate]] ({{sc|an}}) and inanimate ({{sc|inan}}). The animate gender includes only living animals and insects, as well as supernaturals like spirits and deities. The inanimate gender mainly denotes non-living objects, abstractions as well as flowers and microorganisms.


In Hrasic, these types of vowels are defined by their [[w:front vowels|frontness]]. There are three different types; '''ming''', '''rán''' and '''bhún''', where the '''rán''' vowel is neutral and can appear with both front and back vowels.
In addition to this, all Ris nouns are divided into classes. The classes are morphological and semantic, and nouns are grouped according to their gender as well as if it is inherently in the indefinite plural, or if it needs marking. There are as such four classes:


*'''ming''' - ''narrow'', meaning [[w:front vowel|front vowel]].
:'''I''' - ''animate, marked indefinite plural''  
*'''rán''' - ''perfect'', signifying the mid-central /ə/, the [[w:schwa|schwa]].
:'''II''' - ''animate, unmarked indefinite plural''
*'''bhún''' - ''broad'' vowels are [[w:back vowels|back vowels]].
:'''III''' - ''inanimate, marked indefinite plural
:'''IV''' - ''inanimate, unmarked indefinite plural''


The class is the only thing indicated in Ris dictionaries, such as the [[User:Waahlis/Jivanity|Ourhagmatika]], where the lemma form is always written first:
{{Gloss/indexable
|phrase = thyrri, thyrrini
|IPA = /ˈtʰʉːr̥ʰːɪ ˈtʰʉːr̥ʰːɪnɪ/
|morphemes = thyrrhi-∅ thyrri-ni
|gloss = woman.I-SG woman.I-INDEF.PL
|translation = a woman, women
|index = 4.16
}}{{Gloss/indexable
|phrase = oryx, orygma
|IPA = /ˈoːrʉgz ˈoːrʉgma/
|morphemes = oryx-∅ oryg-ma
|gloss = whale.II-INDEF.PL whale.II-SG
|translation = whales, a whale<ref name="gamma"></ref>
|index = 4.17
}}{{Gloss/indexable
|phrase = kanthra, kanthrani
|IPA = /ˈkaːntʰra ˈkaːntʰranɪ/
|morphemes = kanthra-∅ kanthra-ni
|gloss = heart.III-SG heart.III-INDEF.PL
|translation = a heart, hearts
|index = 4.18
}}{{Gloss/indexable
|phrase = issix, issigma
|IPA = /ˈɪːsːɪgz ˈɪːsːɪgma/
|morphemes = issix-∅ issig-ma
|gloss = hair.IV-INDEF.PL hair.IV-SG
|translation = hair, strand of hair
|index = 4.19
}}{{Gloss/indexable
|phrase = ankis, ankisma
|IPA = /ˈaːŋkɪs ˈaːŋkɪsma/
|morphemes = ankis-∅ ankis-ma
|gloss = elbow.IV-INDEF.PL elbow.IV-SG
|translation = 2 elbows, an elbow<ref name="delta"></ref>
|index = 4.20
}}<ref name="gamma">Typical examples of class II are animals, although ''gytei'', "fish", is a notable example.
</ref><ref name="delta">Since the indefinite plural has coalesced with the dual, some nouns may have an unmarked dual form. These nouns are typically body parts.</ref>
<references/>


{| class="browntable lightbrownbg" style="text-align:center; width: 250px;"
==Morphosyntax==
|-
===Morphosyntactic alignment and core cases===
! Front !! Neutral !! Back
[[Image:Control-argument-qri.png|right|thumb|A table of the Ris control and volition distinction in the core arguments, illustrating the two-way distinction in the subject of intransitive clauses.|240px]]
|-
Ris possess an originally [[w:active-stative alignment|active-stative alignment]], which means that the two arguments of transitive verbs, the subject and object, are marked with the agentive case and patientive case respectively. The agent of an intransitive verb, however, can be marked with either. The agentive and patientive cases denote a different degree of control and [[w:volition (linguistics)|volition]] with the arguments. Depending on the intransitive verb, different cases would be used.
|  '''i''' /ɪ/ || rowspan="5"| '''e''' /ə/ || '''í''' /ɨ/
|-
| '''á''' /æ/ || '''a''' /ɑ/
|-
| '''u''' /ʊ/ || '''ú''' /ɯ/
|-
| '''ó''' /ɞ/ || '''o''' /ɔ/
|-
| '''é''' /i/ ||
|}


It later developed the so-called ''fluid-S'' subtype, which infers that any intransitive verb can use both the patientive and agentive cases, wich each grant a different degree of control of the verb.


As it happens, '''ming-mutation''', or front mutation, is much more common than the '''bhún-mutation'''. Please note that the orthography is highly arbitrary, and the [[w:accent mark|accent mark]]s do not reflect frontness.
====Patientive case====
The '''patientive''', or '''undergoing''' case, ({{sc|pat}})  is the case used to indicate both the subject of an intransitive verb and the object of a transitive verb, in addition to being used for the citation form of nouns.  


==Grammar==
The patientive is used on low control agents, and [[w:patient (grammar)|experiencers]] of actions - neither of which have much influence on the verb. Colloquially, the patientive can be used on agents of transitive verbs to indicate a degree of innocence, lack of control of the event.{{Gloss/indexable
==Morphology==
|phrase = Ankour{{blue|o}}.
===Nominal===
|IPA = /aŋˈkʊːrɔ/
====Number====
|morphemes = ankour-∅-{{blue|o}}
Hrasú has three numbers, all of which are equally common in the language. The Hrasic numbers are different to those of English, instead using a so-called [[w:singulative number|collective-singulative]] distinction.
|gloss = to trip-IND.PRFV-{{blue|PAT}}.1SG
|translation = I fell.|index = 5.21
}}{{Gloss/indexable
|phrase = Hyrrhorebma henta inist{{blue|a}}.
|IPA = /çʏˈr̥ʰːoːrɛpma ˈçeːnta ˈɪːnɪsta/
|morphemes = hyrrhorebma hent-∅-a in-ist-{{blue|a}}
|gloss = squirrel_soup.III-{{blue|PAT}}.SG be_okay-IND.PRFV-3.{{blue|PAT}}.SG exist-IND.IPFV-3.{{blue|PAT}}.SG
|translation = There is an okay squirrel soup.
|index = 5.22
}}{{Gloss/indexable
|phrase = Tagerras kerax!
|IPA = /taˈkʼeːrːas ˈkeːraks/
| morphemes = tager-r-as kerax-{{blue|∅}}
| gloss = hit-IMP.PRFV-AGT.2SG bird.I-{{blue|PAT}}.SG
| translation = Hit the bird!
|index = 5.23
}}{{Gloss/indexable
|phrase = Aner, ouinestra teskh{{blue|o}}...
|IPA = /ˈaneːr wɪˈneːstra ˈteːskʰɔ/
|morphemes = aner-{{blue|∅}} ouinestra-{{blue|∅}} teskh-∅-{{blue|o}}
|gloss = mother.I-{{blue|PAT}}.SG window.II-{{blue|PAT}}.SG smash-IND.PRFV-{{blue|PAT}}.1.SG
|translation = Mother, I happened to smash the window...
|index= 5.24
}}


The distinction infers that the basic form of a noun is the collective, which is indifferent to the number and unmarked. However, in Hrasú, the collective form has an additional meaning, and can also signify duals. It is thus the singulative that most often goes unmarked.
====Agentive case====
The '''agentative''' ({{sc|agt}}) case is used to mark the subject, or agent, of transitive verbs. The agentive marks high control, volitional [[w:Agent (grammar)|agents]] of verbs.{{Gloss/indexable
|phrase = Kater{{red|os}} kterma.
|IPA = /ˈkaːtɛrɔs ˈktɛrma/
|morphemes = kater-∅-{{red|os}} kterma-{{blue|∅}}
|gloss = to_write-IND.PRFV-{{red|AGT}}.1SG letter.III-{{blue|PAT}}.SG
|translation = I am writing a letter.
|index=5.25
}}{{Gloss/indexable
|phrase = Kaukanthri{{red|as}} hai!
|IPA = /kawˈkantʰrijas xaj/
|morphemes = kau~ka<n>ter-i-{{red|as}} hai
|gloss =  <NEG>ITR~to_write-POT-{{red|AGT}}.1SG such
|translation = You can't go on writing like that!
|index=5.26
}}{{Gloss/indexable
|phrase = Katerr{{red|as}} sta ha{{red|os}}!
|IPA = /kaˈtɛrːas sta ˈxaɔ̩s/
|morphemes = kater-r-as sta ha-∅-os
|gloss =  to_write-SUBJ-{{red|AGT}}.1SG what to_wish-IND.PRFV-{{red|AGT}}
|translation = I'll write what I wish!
|index=5.26
}}{{Gloss/indexable
|phrase = Ankouros...!
|IPA = /ˈaːŋkʊros/
| morphemes = ankour-∅-{{red|os}}
| gloss = to_trip-IND.PRFV-{{red|AGT}}.1.SG
| translation = I purposely trip...!
|index=5.27
}}


=====Singulative=====  
====Unaccusatives, unergatives and the inversion of cases====
The [[w:singulative|singulative]] ({{sc|sg}}) denotes one, single noun, and roughly corresponds to the English equivalent of [[w:singular|singular]]. A singulative noun is a single item, either of a collective noun or even a mass noun.
[[Image:Alignment-qri.png|right|thumb|An illustration of the Ris alignment of verbal arguments, as a function of control, unergatives and unaccusatives.|350px]]
Not all intransitive verbs are marked as described above. This only applies to Ris unaccusative verbs. The Ris unergative verbs inverse the marking, using the agentive as a default, low-control marking, and the patientive for high-control subjects.  


{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em;"
An unaccusative verb is a verb that has an experiencer as its subject, that is; the syntactic subject is not a semantic agent. When the subject is marked with the agentive, the agency, control and volition is increased, and it in effect becomes unergative. It gives a sense of intent, and trying.{{Gloss/indexable
|+
|phrase = Ekras{{blue|a}} makhina.
<!-- Sentence -->
|IPA = /ɛˈkraːsa ˈmaːkʰɪna/
| colspan="2"|'''Tingi-thau yáni?'''
|morphemes = ekras-∅-{{blue|a}} mākhina-{{blue|∅}}
|gloss = to_crash-IND.PRFV-{{blue|PAT}}.3SG car.III-{{blue|PAT}}.SG
|translation = The car crashed.
|index = 5.28
}}{{Gloss/indexable
|phrase = Aner tsanist{{blue|a}}.
|IPA = /aˈneːr ˈtsaːnɪsta/
|morphemes = aner-{{blue|∅}} psan-ist-{{blue|a}}
|gloss = mother.I-PAT.SG to_cry-IND.IPFV-{{blue|PAT}}.3SG
|translation = Mother cries.
|index = 5.29
}}{{Gloss/indexable
|phrase = Nta{{blue|os}}.
|IPA = /ˈntaːos/
|morphemes = nga-∅-{{red|os}}
|gloss = to_sleep-IND.PRFV-{{red|AGT}}.1.SG
|translation = I am trying to sleep.
|index = 5.30
}}
Unergatives are intransitive verbs and have a semantic agent as their subject. When the subject is marked with the agentive case, the verb almost unaccusative, lowering the volition, control and agency with the syntactic subject. In the gloss, unergatives have the letters {{sc|inv}}} before the casees. Thus, an unergative with a subject in the agentive conveys a feeling of involuntary actions, or trying.


!
{{Gloss
|phrase = Khamista!
|IPA = /ˈkʰaːmɪsta/
|morphemes = kham-ist-{{blue|a}}
|gloss = to_come-IND.IPFV-{{blue|INV.PAT}}.3SG
|translation = It's coming!
}}


| colspan="2"|'''Ángi hínga-yi?'''
{{Gloss
|phrase = Antiou rhaistos...
|IPA = /ˈantjʊ r̥ʰaˈɔs/
|morphemes = anti-ou rha-ist-{{red|os}}
|gloss = night.IV-LOC.DC talk.ACT-IND.IPVF-{{red|INV.AGT}}.1.SG
|translation = I sleep-talk in the night.
}}


!
{{Gloss
|phrase = Ti rhās?
|IPA = /tɪ ˈr̥ʰaːs/
|morphemes = ti rha-∅-{{red|as}}
|gloss = what.PAT.SG talk.ACT-IND.PRFV-{{red|INV.AGT}}.2.SG
|translation = What are you trying to say?
}}


| colspan="2"|'''Thún rápi.'''
{{Gloss
|-
|phrase = Kinizas, kinizas!
<!-- Pronunciation-->
|IPA = /kɪnɪˈd͡zas kɪnɪˈd͡zas/
| colspan="2"|/tɪŋgɪ t̺ʰaʊ ʝænɪ/
|morphemes = kiniz-∅-{{red|as}}
|gloss = drive.ACT-IND.PRFV-{{red|INV.AGT}}.2.SG
|translation = You're driving, you're driving! (''How is it possible?'')
}}


!
===Case===
There are 7 [[w:grammatical case|grammatical case]]s in Ris. Most of these are rather common to the [[w:Indo-European languages|Indo-European languages]].
====Instrumental====
=====Instrumental proper=====
The '''instrumental''' ({{sc|ins}}) case serves a number of purposes in the Ris language. Primarily, it is used to indicate that a noun is the instrument or means by or with which an action is conducted.


| colspan="2"|/æŋgɪ hɨŋga ʝɪ/
{{Gloss
|phrase = Thērouna nasērrhan.
|IPA = /tʰeːˈrʊna naˈseːr̥ʰːan/
|morphemes = thēr-∅-{{red|ouna}} nasēr-rhan
|gloss = go.ACT-IND.PRFV-AGT.1.SG boat.III-INS.SG
|translation = We go by boat.
}}


!
{{Gloss
|phrase = Napsantan as...
|IPA = /naˈpsantan as/
|morphemes = napsa-ntas-n as
|gloss = learn.ACT-PCP-INS.SG this.PROX.3.SG
|translation = By learning this...
}}


| colspan="2"|/t̺ʰʊn ræpɪ/
{{Gloss
|-
|phrase = Ankis mia skhasto igan mia.
<!-- Morphemes-->
|IPA = /ˈancɪs mʊ ˈsxastɔ ˈɪkʼan mʊ/
|morphemes = ankis-∅ mou skha-ist-o i
|gloss = elbow.III-PAT.DC my.GEN.1.SG scratch.ACT-IND.IPFV-INV.PAT.1.SG nail.II-INS.DC my.GEN.1.SG
|translation = I scratch my shoulders with my nails.
}}


|<small>gur</small>
=====Inanimate subjective instrumental=====
|<small>-a</small>
Marking the inanimate noun with the agentive is incorrect. This is a distinction quite well known in natural languages, and even the [[w:Proto-Indo-European|Proto-Indo-European]] language is supposed to have made the distinction.


!
On subject of control in the Ris verbs, inanimate agents of transitive verbs: subjects such as "the knife" in the sentence ''"The knife slices the bread"'' could impossibly be marked with the agentive case, since the subject has no control of its actions. Nor is it experiencing the slicing, and can as such not be marked with the patientive. Instead a construction with the mediopassive and instrumental used.


|<small>gur</small>
Of course if desired, the agent can be reintroduced, which means a switch from passive to active.
|<small>{{blue|-∅}}</small>
{{Gloss
|phrase = {{red|Lemner}} me tagī.
|IPA = /ʎɛmˈnɛr mɛ taˈkʼɪː/
|morphemes = lemn-{{red|er}} me tagi-∅-i
|gloss = stone.II-{{red|AGT}}.SG me.1.PAT.SG hit.ACT-IND.PRFV-3.AGT.SG
|translation = *A stone hit me.
}}


!
{{Gloss
|phrase = Entagio {{blue|lemnanta}}.
|IPA = /ˈɛntakʼjɔ ʎɛmˈnanta/
|morphemes = en-tagi-∅-o lemn-{{blue|anta}}
|gloss = MED.hit.IND-PRFV-1.SG.PAT stone.III-{{blue|INS}}.PL
|translation = I am hit with stones.
}}


|<small>gur</small>
{{Gloss
|<small>-an</small>
|phrase = Tagias me {{blue|lemnanta}}.
|-
|IPA = /ˈtakʼjas mɛ ʎɛmˈnanta/
<!-- Gloss-->
|morphemes = tagi-∅-as me lemn-{{blue|anta}}
|pig.{{sc|unm.an}}
|gloss =  hit.ACT.IND-PRFV-2.SG.AGT me.1.PAT.SG stone.II-{{blue|INS}}.PL
| -{{sc|nom.sg.}}
|translation = You hit me with stones.
}}


!
{{Gloss
|phrase = Kinis {{red|lanērrha}} pāni.
|IPA = /cɪˈnɪ ʎaˈnɛr̥ʰːa paːˈnɪ/
|morphemes = kin-∅-is lanēr-{{red|rha}} pāni-∅
|gloss = cut.ACT-IND.PRFV-3.INV.AGT.SG knife.III-{{red|AGT}}.SG bread.III-PAT.SG
|translation = *A knife cuts the bread.
}}


|pig.{{sc|unm.an}}
{{Gloss
| -{{sc|nom.dc.}}
|phrase = Inkini {{blue|lanērrhan}} pāni.
|IPA = /cɪˈnɪ ʎaˈnɛr̥ʰːan paːˈnɪ/
|morphemes = kin-∅-is lanēr-{{blue|rhan}} pāni-∅
|gloss = MED.cut-IND.PRFV-3.INV.PAT.SG knife.III-{{blue|INS}}.SG bread.III-PAT.SG
|translation = The bread was cut with a knife.
}}


!
=====Comitative instrumental=====
The Ris instrumental also bears comitative and quantitative senses. It indicates actions in company with other subjects, amounts, as well as lacking things:


|pig.{{sc|unm.an}}
{{Gloss
| -{{sc|nom.pl.}}
|phrase = Indroua {{blue|mena}}?
|IPA = /ˈɪndrwa mɛˈna/
|morphemes = in-r-oua me-{{blue|na}}
|gloss = be.ACT-SUBJ.PRFV-2.PAT.SG me.1-{{blue|INS}}.SG
|translation = Are you with me?
}}


|-
{{Gloss
<!-- Translations -->
|phrase = As arrhos {{blue|ena}}.
|IPA = /as ˈar̥ʰːɔs ɛˈna/
|morphemes = as-∅ arrh-∅-os e-{{blue|na}}
|gloss = it.3.PROX-PAT.SG make.ACT-IND.PRFV-1.AGT.SG s/he.1-{{blue|INS}}.SG
|translation = I'm making it with him/her.
}}
{{Gloss
|phrase = Ne nenisto na {{blue|issigan}} nai.
|IPA = /nɛ nɛˈnɪstɔ na ˈɪsːɪgan naj/
|morphemes = ⟨ne⟩ nen-ist-o ⟨na⟩ issig-{{blue|an}} nai
|gloss = ⟨VB.NEG⟩ not_be.ACT-IND.IPFV-1.PAT.SG ⟨VB.NEG⟩ hair.IV-{{blue|INS}}.DC NOM.NG
|translation = I have no hair / I am not with no hair.
}}


| colspan="2"| ''Do you see a corpse?''
=====Animate subjective instrumental=====
The last use of the instrumental, similarly to [[w:Russian language|Russian]] and in part to [[w:English language|English]] is to reintroduce a subject in a passive clause. The usage is very similar to the adpositional phrase "by me" in English, as in ''"He was killed"'', and later; ''"He was killed by me"''.


!
Please note, that this formation, although grammatically correct, is considered quite rude by most speakers. The subjective instrumental is reserved for inanimates for most speakers, and an active verb is used for animate subjects.


| colspan="2"|''Pigs (''as a race'')<br> Pigs (''as a group'')<br> Two pigs''
{{Gloss
|phrase = Enmnīnta {{blue|ouena}}
|IPA = /ɛnˈmnɪnta wɛˈna/
|morphemes = en-mnīo-nta oue-{{blue|na}}
|gloss = MED-to_see-PCP 1.EXC-{{blue|INS}}.DC
|translation = Seen by the two of us.
}}


!
{{Gloss
|phrase = Atai eniniskhanta {{blue|ērrhasterrhan}}
|IPA = /ˈataj ɛnɪnɪsˈxanta eːˈr̥ʰːastɛr̥ʰːan/
|morphemes = atai en-ino-iskha-nta ērrho-aster-{{blue|rhan}}
|gloss = they.3.PAT.PL MED-to_be-CAU.CES-PCP to_love-AG-{{blue|INS}}.SG
|translation = They were killed by the lover.
}}
{{Gloss
|phrase = Ērrhastera atai iniskhis
|IPA = /eːˈr̥ʰːastɛra ˈataj ɪnɪsˈxɪs /
|morphemes = ino-iskha-∅-is atai ērrho-aster-a
|gloss =  to_love-AG-AGT.SG they.3.PAT.PL to_be.ACT-IND.PRFV-1.AGT.SG
|translation = The lover killed them.
}}


| colspan="2"|''Pigs; several''
====Locative====
|}
=====Locative proper=====
:''See also: [[Ris#Possession|Ris possession]]''
The locative case ({{sc|loc}}) vaguely corresponds to the English spatial prepositions of "by", "at", "in", and "on". However, the Ris locative also bears a temporal usage, similarly to English "in an hour", "today", "after three o'clock".


=====Dual-collective=====
The Ris language does have [[w:adpositions|adpositions]] in the traditional sense, to control the exact location of the locative.
The [[w:dual number|dual]]-[[w:collective number|collective]] number ({{sc|dc}}) is a special number to the Hrasic language. The dual-collective primarily marks the collective sense, whereas English uses the plural.  It does however also signify two nouns, a pair, in certain contexts.


=====Plurative=====
The [[w:plurative|plurative]] ({{sc|pl}}) marks when there are multiple nouns, but more than two. It does not have the collective sense that the English equivalent does.
====Gender====
There are two [[w:Grammatical gender|gender]]s in the Hrasic language, the [[w:animacy|animate]] ({{sc|an}}) and inanimate ({{sc|inan}}). The animate gender includes only living animals and insects, as well as supernaturals like spirits and deities. The inanimate gender mainly denotes non-living objects, abstractions as well as flowers and microorganisms.
In the 3 person singular personal pronouns, the animate splits into a feminine ({{sc|f.an}}) and masculine ({{sc|m.an}}) animate gender.
====Case====
There are 7 [[w:grammatical case|grammatical case]]s in Hrasú. Most of these are rather common to the [[w:Indo-European languages|Indo-European languages]].
{| class="browntable lightbrownbg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 600px; text-align: center;"
|+'''Hrasic cases'''
! colspan="6"|Cases and usage
|-
! colspan="2"|Case
! colspan="2"|Usage
! colspan="2"|Example
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="4"|Nominative
| colspan="2"|The independent form of nouns; the lemma.
| colspan="2"|The '''dog'''
|-
| colspan="2"|Subject of high-control intransitive verbs; without a patient.
| colspan="2"|The '''dog '''bites.
|-
| colspan="2"|Subject of high-control intransitive verbs; without a patient.
| colspan="2"|The '''man''' fell.
|-
| colspan="2"|Subject of a transitive verb; with a patient.
| colspan="2"|The '''dog '''bit the man.
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="5"|Accusative
| colspan="2"|Object or patient of a transitive verb.
| colspan="2"|The dog bit the '''man'''
|-
| colspan="2"|Indicates a duration of time.
| colspan="2"|I did it '''for many years'''
|-
| colspan="2"|In indirect statements.
| colspan="2"|He said '''I''' was '''ugly'''.
|-
| colspan="2"|To mark location.
| colspan="2"|I am '''at home'''.
|-
| colspan="2"|After certain prepositions.
| colspan="2"| Between '''one''' and '''ten'''; near '''you'''.
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="7"|Dative
| colspan="2"|Indirect object of a ditransitive verb.
| colspan="2"|He gave the '''man '''a pen
|-
| colspan="2"|Dativus finalis; dative of purpose.
| colspan="2"|I fight '''for the king'''! Call '''for help'''!
|-
| colspan="2"|Dativus commodi; dative of benefit or malefic.
| colspan="2"|Open the door '''for him'''; this one is not '''for children'''.
|-
| colspan="2"|Dativus lativus; dative of movement.
| colspan="2"|I'm going '''to Siberia'''; I come '''from home'''.
|-
| colspan="2"|Dativus modi; dative of manner and cause.
| colspan="2"|He died '''from a disease'''.
|-
| colspan="2"|Dativus possessivus; dative of possession.
| colspan="2"|There is a book '''to me'''; '''I''' have a book.
|-
| colspan="2"|After certain prepositions.
| colspan="2"|Get away '''from me'''.
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="3"|Instrumental
| colspan="2"|Instrumentalis instrumenti; the means of the action.
| colspan="2"|He writes with a '''pen'''.
|-
| colspan="2"|Instrumentalis auctoris; the performer of actions.
| colspan="2"|Opened by the '''mayor'''; caught '''by a net'''.
|-
| colspan="2"|Instrumentalis modi; the manner of means of an action.
| colspan="2"|Go by the '''short cut'''.
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="9"|Genitive
| colspan="2"|Symbolises ownership
| colspan="2"|The '''dog''''s bone
|-
| colspan="2"|Marks objects related to the subject in composition
| colspan="2"|The '''group '''member
|-
| colspan="2"|Symbolises lacking
| colspan="2"|Go without '''me'''
|-
| colspan="2"|Marks origin of nouns.
| colspan="2"|I moved from the '''house'''
|-
| colspan="2"|Marks origin of nouns
| colspan="2"|It is from '''France'''
|-
| colspan="2"|Marks concerned, associated nouns
| colspan="2"|On the '''Origin '''of '''Species'''.
|-
| colspan="2"|Marks concerned, discussed nouns.
| colspan="2"|Talking about '''films'''.
|-
| colspan="2"|Indicates cause
| colspan="2"|It's because of the '''snow'''.
|-
| colspan="2"|Marks abstract cause
| colspan="2"|Thanks to/despite '''him'''.
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2"|Semblative
| colspan="2"|For comparations, and semblatives.
| colspan="2"|It is '''like a fish'''.
|-
| colspan="2"|For comparative adverbials.
| colspan="2"|I dance '''like a god'''; I dance '''godly'''.
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="3"|Vocative
| colspan="2"|Direct address.
| colspan="2"|Hey, '''John'''!
|-
| colspan="2"|Disjoint address.
| colspan="2"|You are right, '''Mary'''.
|-
| colspan="2"|Exclamation.
| colspan="2"|Poor '''me'''! Wretched '''life'''!
|-
|}
====Classes====
There are a multitude of declensional classes in the Hrasic languages, below are the four most common ones. These decline with either a marked dual-collective or a marked singulative number.
=====Animate unmarked collective=====
In the animate gender ({{sc|an}}), most of the times the collective goes unmarked. Nouns in this class are called "animate unmarked collectives" ({{sc|unm.an}}).
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em;"
{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em;"
|+
|+
<!-- Sentence -->
<!-- Sentence -->
| colspan="2"|'''gúra'''
| colspan="4"|'''Amnayya azim{{blue|at}}'''?


!
!


| colspan="2"|'''gur'''
| colspan="5"|'''ʔineyna {{green|en}}azam{{blue|ut}}'''.


!
!


| colspan="2"|'''gúran'''
| colspan="3"|'''{{green|am}}agy{{blue|at}}'''
|-
|-
<!-- Pronunciation-->
<!-- Pronunciation-->
| colspan="2"|/ˈgɯrɑ/
| colspan="4"|/aˈŋ͡majːa azˈiŋ͡mat/


!
!


| colspan="2"|/ˈgʊr/
| colspan="5"|/ˈʔinɛjna ɛnˈazaŋut/


!
!


| colspan="2"|/ˈgɯrɑn/
| colspan="3"|/aŋaɡˈjat/
|-
|-
<!-- Morphemes-->
<!-- Morphemes-->


|<small>gur</small>
|<small>amna</small>
|<small>-a</small>
|<small>-yya</small>
|<small>azima</small>
|<small>{{blue|-t}}</small>


!
!


|<small>gur</small>
|<small>ʔiney</small>
|<small>{{blue|-∅}}</small>
|<small>-na</small>
|<small>{{green|en}}-</small>
|<small>azama</small>
|<small>-{{blue|ut}}</small>


!
!


|<small>gur</small>
|<small>{{green|am}}-</small>
|<small>-an</small>
|<small>agy</small>
|<small>-{{blue|at}}</small>
|-
|-
<!-- Gloss-->
<!-- Gloss-->
|pig.{{sc|unm.an}}
|you/{{sc|2.sg.c.pat}}
| -{{sc|nom.sg.}}
| -{{sc|cop.act.ind.stat}}
| home/{{sc|sg.n}}
| -{{sc|n.{{blue|loc}}}}


!
!


|pig.{{sc|unm.an}}
| lie/{{sc|act.ind.stat.n.sg}}
| -{{sc|nom.dc.}}
| -it/{{sc|n.pat.3.sg}}
| below.{{sc|{{green|locp}}}}-
|house/{{sc|2.sg.c}}
| -{{sc|n.{{blue|loc}}}}


!
!


|pig.{{sc|unm.an}}
| after/behind.{{sc|{{green|locp}}}}-
| -{{sc|nom.pl.}}
| hour/{{sc|f.sg}}
 
| -{{sc|f.{{blue|loc}}}}
|-
|-
<!-- Translations -->
<!-- Translations -->


| colspan="2"| ''A pig''
| colspan="4"| ''Are you at home?''


!
!


| colspan="2"|''Pigs (''as a race'')<br> Pigs (''as a group'')<br> Two pigs''
| colspan="5"|''It lies below the house''.


!
!


| colspan="2"|''Pigs; several''
| colspan="3"|''In an hour''
|}
|}
{{Col-2}}
{| class="browntable lightbrownbg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 375px; text-align: center;"
|+'''Declension of ''nara'''''
|-
! colspan="4"|Animate unmarked collective
|-
!{{sc|unm.an}}
! colspan="3"|''nara'' - lord
|-
!
! <small>singulative</small> !! <small>dual-collective</small> !! <small>plurative</small>
|-
! Nominative
|''nara'' ||''nár'' ||''naran''
|-
! Accusative
|''naram'' ||''nárim'' ||''narama''
|-
! Dative
|''náriy'' ||''nári'' ||''náriyin''
|-
! Instrumental
|''náriyin'' ||''nárin'' ||''náriyin''
|-
! Genitive
|''ínara'' ||''náru'' ||''ínaran''
|-
! Semblative
|''nayar'' ||''náyir'' ||''nayaran''
|-
! Vocative
|''anar'' ||''inár'' ||''naran''
|}
{{Col-end}}


=====Animate marked collective=====
=====Lative locative=====
Not all animates have a marked singulative, however. The second class of animate nouns ({{sc|ma.an}}) has a marked collective instead.
Related to location is movement, and the locative can through a construction with the lative particle ‹''a''› /a/, transform the locative meaning to a lative or translative one. Before a null-onset, it is pronounced /aɦ/.
{{col-begin}}
 
{{col-2}}
The particle and the proclitic adpositions will be marked green.
 
{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em;"
{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em;"
|+
|+
<!-- Sentence -->
<!-- Sentence -->
| colspan="2"|'''tiánu'''
| colspan="4"|'''Gam {{green|a}} azim{{blue|at}}!'''


!
!


| colspan="2"|'''etiánu'''
| colspan="6"| '''ʔinena {{green|a}} {{green|en}}azam{{blue|ut}}'''.


!
!


| colspan="2"|'''tiánun'''
| colspan="4"|'''{{green|A}}nn erʔ{{blue|it}}'''.
|-
|-
<!-- Pronunciation-->
<!-- Pronunciation-->
| colspan="2"|/ˈtɪænʊ/
| colspan="4"|/ɡøŋ aɦazˈiŋat/


!
!


| colspan="2"|/əˈtɪænʊ/
| colspan="6"|/ˈʔinɛna aɦ ɛnˈazaŋut/


!
!


| colspan="2"|/ˈtɪænʊn/
| colspan="4"|/anː erˈʔit/
|-
|-
<!-- Morphemes-->
<!-- Morphemes-->


|<small>tiánu</small>
|<small>gam</small>
|<small>{{blue|-∅}}</small>
|<small>{{green|a}}</small>
|<small>azima</small>
|<small>{{blue|-t}}</small>


!
!


|<small>e-</small>
|<small>ʔine</small>
|<small>tiánu</small>
|<small>-na</small>
|<small>{{green|a}}</small>
|<small>{{green|en}}-</small>
|<small>azama</small>
|<small>-{{blue|ut}}</small>


!
!


|<small>tiánu</small>
|<small>{{green|a}}-</small>
|<small>-n</small>
|<small>-nn</small>
|<small>erʔi</small>
|<small>-{{blue|t}}</small>
|-
|-
<!-- Gloss-->
<!-- Gloss-->
|man.{{sc|ma.an}}
|come/{{sc|act.dir.pos.m}}
| -{{sc|nom.sg.}}
| {{sc|{{green|latp}}}}
| home/{{sc|sg.f}}
| -{{sc|f.{{blue|loc}}}}


!
!


| {{sc|nom.dc.}}-
| lay/{{sc|act.ind.dyn.n.sg}}
|man.{{sc|ma.an}}
| -it/{{sc|n.pat.3.sg}}
| {{sc|{{green|latp}}}}
| below.{{sc|{{green|locp}}}}-
|house/{{sc|n.sg}}
| -{{sc|n.{{blue|loc}}}}


!
!


|man.{{sc|ma.an}}
| {{sc|{{green|latp}}}}
| -{{sc|nom.pl}}
| -{{sc|m.pat.1.sg}}
 
|anger/{{sc|f.sg}}
| -{{sc|f.{{blue|loc}}}}
|-
|-
<!-- Translations -->
<!-- Translations -->


| colspan="2"| ''A man''
| colspan="4"| ''Come home!''


!
!


| colspan="2"|''Man (''humanity'')<br> Men (''as a group'')<br> Two men''
| colspan="6" |''Put it below the house''.


!
!


| colspan="2"|''Men; several''
| colspan="4"|''I am getting angry''.
|}
|}


{{Col-2}}
=====Possessive locative=====
 
The third purpose of the locative case is that it is also the main tool to express [[Ris#Possession|possession]], a construction very close to the [[w:Celtic|Celtic]] and [[w:Finnish|Finnish]] equivalents, confer:
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 375px; text-align: center;"
*'''Minulla on talo''' - ''I have a house'' (literally: ''There is a house at me'')
|+'''Declension of ''gýtē'''''
|-
! colspan="4"|Animate marked collective
|-
!{{sc|ma.an}}
! colspan="3"|''gýtē'' - fish
|-
!
! <small>singulative</small> !! <small>dual-collective</small> !! <small>plurative</small>
|-
! Patientive
|''gýtē'' ||''gytḗn'' ||''gytḗr''
|-
! Agentive
|''gytḗr'' ||''gytḗrne'' ||''gytḗra''
|-
! Dative
|''gytḗs'' ||''gytḗnse'' ||''gytḗi''
|-
! Instrumental
|''gytḗn'' ||''gytḗnne'' ||''gytḗs''
|-
! Genitive
|''gýtēa'' ||''gýtēan'' ||''gytēái''
|-
! Locative
|''gýtēia'' ||''gýtēian'' ||''gýtēiar''
|-
! Vocative
|''gýta'' ||''gýtan'' ||''gytár''
|-
|}


{{Col-end}}
This is the one of the ways of expressing [[Attian#Alienable|alienable possession]] in Ris, and it is as such never used for inalienable constructions.


=====Inanimate unmarked collective=====
The first class of inanimates  ({{sc|unm.inan}}) has an unmarked collective. Nouns in this class are often [[w:collective nouns|collective nouns]].
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-2}}
{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em;"
{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em;"
|+
|+
<!-- Sentence -->
<!-- Sentence -->
| colspan="2"|'''hara'''
| colspan="4"|'''g{{blue|at}} azamayya'''
 
!
 
| colspan="2"|'''hár'''


!
!


| colspan="2"|'''haran'''
| colspan="5"| '''Manim g{{blue|at}} azamayya!'''
|-
|-
<!-- Pronunciation-->
<!-- Pronunciation-->
| colspan="2"|/ˈhɑrɑ/
| colspan="4"|/ˈɡ͡bøt aˈzaŋajːa/
 
!
 
| colspan="2"|/ˈhær/


!
!


| colspan="2"|/ˈhɑrɑn/
| colspan="5"|/ˈŋ͡mønin ˈɡ͡bøt aˈzaŋajːa/
|-
|-
<!-- Morphemes-->
<!-- Morphemes-->


|<small>hár</small>
|<small>g</small>
|<small>-a</small>
|<small>-{{blue|at}}</small>
|<small>azama</small>
|<small>-yya</small>


!
!


|<small>hár</small>
|<small>emin</small>
|<small>{{blue|-∅}}</small>
|<small>g</small>
 
|<small>-{{blue|āt}}</small>
!
|<small>azama</small>
 
|<small>-yya</small>
|<small>hár</small>
|<small>-an</small>
|-
|-
<!-- Gloss-->
<!-- Gloss-->
|wheat.{{sc|unm.inan}}
|I/{{sc|1.sg.m}}
| -{{sc|nom.sg.}}
|  -{{sc|c.{{blue|loc}}}}
| home/{{sc|sg.n.pat}}
| -{{sc|cop.act.ind.stat}}


!
!


 
| see/{{sc|act.dir.pos.c.pl}}
|wheat.{{sc|unm.inan}}
|I/{{sc|1.sg.m}}
| -{{sc|nom.dc.}}
| -{{sc|c.{{blue|loc}}}}
 
| home/{{sc|sg.n.pat}}
!
| -{{sc|cop.act.ind.stat}}
 
|wheat.{{sc|unm.inan}}
| -{{sc|nom.pl}}


|-
|-
<!-- Translations -->
<!-- Translations -->


| colspan="2"| ''A grain of wheat''
| colspan="4"| ''My house''


!
!


| colspan="2"|''Wheat (''as a cereal'')<br> Two grains of wheat''
| colspan="5"|''Behold my house!''
 
!
 
| colspan="2"|''Several grains of wheat''
|}
{{Col-2}}
{| class="browntable lightbrownbg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 375px; text-align: center;"
|+'''Declension of ''pana'''''
|-
! colspan="4"|Inanimate unmarked collective
|-
!{{sc|unm.inan}}
! colspan="3"|''pana'' - foot
|-
!
! <small>singulative</small> !! <small>dual-collective</small> !! <small>plurative</small>
|-
! Nominative
|''pana'' ||''pán'' ||''panan''
|-
! Accusative
|''panam'' ||''pánim'' ||''panama''
|-
! Dative
|''pániy'' ||''páni'' ||''pániyin''
|-
! Instrumental
|''pániyin'' ||''pánin'' ||''pániyin''
|-
! Genitive
|''ípana'' ||''pánu'' ||''ípanan''
|-
! Semblative
|''panar'' ||''pánir'' ||''pánánir''
|-
! Vocative
|''apan'' ||''ipán'' ||''panan''
|}
|}
{{Col-end}}


=====Inanimate marked collective=====
Amongst the second class of inanimate nouns ({{sc|ma.inan}}), the singulative most often goes unmarked, just like the second class of animates.
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-2}}
{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em;"
{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em;"
|+
|+
<!-- Sentence -->
<!-- Sentence -->
| colspan="2"|'''chac'''


!
| colspan="6"|'''azamayya g{{blue|at}} ta trasino'''


| colspan="2"|'''achac'''
| colspan="7"|'''Atnvayya g{{blue|at}} girgemn.'''
 
!
 
| colspan="2"|'''chacú'''
|-
|-
<!-- Pronunciation-->
<!-- Pronunciation-->
| colspan="2"|/ˈkʰɑk̚/
| colspan="6"|/ aˈzaŋajːa ˈɡ͡bøt wa taˈtr̥asino/


!
| colspan="7"|/ atˈŋ͡majːa ˈɡ͡bøt ˈɡirɡemn/
 
| colspan="2"|/ɑˈkʰɑk̚/
 
!
 
| colspan="2"|/ˈkʰɑk̚ɯ/
|-
|-
<!-- Morphemes-->
<!-- Morphemes-->


|<small>chac</small>
|<small>azama</small>
|<small>{{blue|-∅}}</small>
|<small>-yya</small>
 
|<small>g</small>
|<small>-{{blue|at}}</small>
|<small>ta</small>
|<small>trasino</small>
!
!
 
|<small>atn</small>
|<small>a-</small>
|<small>-va</small>
|<small>chac</small>
|<small>-yya</small>
 
|<small>g</small>
!
|<small>-{{blue|at}}</small>
 
|<small>girge</small>
|<small>chac</small>
|<small>-mn</small>
|<small>-ú</small>
|-
|-
<!-- Gloss-->
<!-- Gloss-->
|box.{{sc|ma.inan}}
| home/{{sc|sg.n.pat}}
| -{{sc|nom.sg.}}
| -{{sc|cop.act.ind.stat}}
 
|I/{{sc|1.sg.m}}
| -{{sc|f.{{blue|loc}}}}
| {{sc|def art.n}}
| green({{sc|n.sg.pat}})
!
!
 
| dog/{{sc|sg.n}}
| {{sc|nom.dc.}}-
| -{{sc|agt.n.sg}}
|box.{{sc|ma.inan}}
| -{{sc|cop.act.ind.stat}}
 
|I/{{sc|1.sg.m}}
!
|  -{{sc|f.{{blue|loc}}}}
 
| see/{{sc|act.ind.dyn.n.sg}}
|box.{{sc|ma.inan}}
| -you.{{sc|m.pat.2.sg}}
| -{{sc|nom.pl}}
 
|-
|-
<!-- Translations -->
<!-- Translations -->


| colspan="2"| ''A box''
| colspan="6"|''My green house''


!
!


| colspan="2"|''Boxes (''as a group'')<br> Two boxes''
| colspan="7"|''My dog barks at you''.
 
!
 
| colspan="2"|''Boxes; several''
|}
|}
{{Col-2}}
{| class="browntable lightbrownbg mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="width: 375px; text-align: center;"
|+'''Declension of ''hrasú'''''
|-
! colspan="4"|Inanimate marked collective
|-
!{{sc|ma.inan}}
! colspan="3"|''hrasú'' - pride
|-
!
! <small>singulative</small> !! <small>dualcollective</small> !! <small>plurative</small>
|-
! Nominative
|''hrasú'' ||''ahrasú'' ||''hrasún''
|-
! Accusative
|''hrasúm'' ||''ahrasúm'' ||''hrasúm''
|-
! Dative
|''hrási'' ||''ehrási'' ||''hrásin''
|-
! Instrumental
|''hrásin'' ||''ehrásin'' ||''hrásin''
|-
! Genitive
|''ihrási'' ||''ehrási'' ||''ihrásin''
|-
! Semblative
|''hrasúr'' ||''ahrasúr'' ||''hrasúnir''
|-
! Vocative
|''ahrasú'' ||''ahrasú'' ||''ahrasún''
|}
{{Col-end}}


===Pronominal===
===Animacy===
The Hrasic system of pronouns is vast and irregular, but easily understood. It is split into four parts: The singular, plural, dual, and reflexive. The dual has lost some popularity lately, but it is still used.  
[[Image:Animacy-At.png|right|thumb|A table of the different Attian stages of animacy and salency.]]
Just as the Ris language makes a difference regarding gender, a fairly strong distinction in '''{{lg|Animacy|animacy}}''' is made, mainly for semantical and grammatical reasons, since there is no morphological distinction.  


*The reflexives are equivalent to English "myself, himself, itself" et cetera. The nominative reflexive on the other hand is an impersonal subject like English "one, they" or "you".  
The Ris rules of animacy dictates that no inanimate objects may stand in the [[Ris#Core cases|agentative]] case. Inanimate nouns are perceived as incapable of actually performing deliberate actions. Inanimates that are the subjects of an action are therefore most often marked with the [[Ris#Instrumental|instrumental]] case. This construction forces the speaker to directly name an animate agent, use a passive construction, or to use an indefinite pronoun. Inanimate, or less animate nouns also have a lesser probability to be compatible with verbs connected with higher degrees of animacy, like the words for "''to talk''", "''to think''" and "''control''".


====Formality register====
There are several different degrees of animacy, which at times also intertwine with salency. The grading goes from ''Very high'' to ''Very low'' and spans 7 degrees. The top and most animate nouns are humans, and especially men and leaders. Women normally rank as at least as animate as men, but they can in certain circumstances be degraded to indicate inferiority. The least animate substantives are minerals, abstraction and in part; plants.


====Singular====
====Don't blame the stone====
====Plural====
{{quote
====Dual====
|text='''Men vathim vana'''.
====Reflexive====
|sign=Anathir t'Armavir
{| border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="1" class="browntable lightbrownbg" style="width: 800px; text-align:center"
|source=Descriptions of the language, p. 35
|-
|about= '''Don't blame the stone''' is a well known Attian saying, invented by the Attian grammarian Athanir t'Armavir. It's idiomatic meaning is that one should not blame the tool when it is not the master of its own actions. It also carries grammatical significance, since the Attian language does not allow inanimate nouns to be the agent of a verb. An equivalent phrase in English would be: ''It isn't the gun that kills, but the one who pulled the trigger''.
! colspan="2"|Number→
}}
Below is an example of someone hit with stones. Here, the subject impossibly could be marked with the agentive, taking their inanimacy in regard. Instead, you may put the subject in the [[Ris#Instrumental|instrumental]] case, and mediopassivise the verb.  Alternatively the subject is degraded to an oblique, and a new subject is introduced.


! colspan="6" scope="col"|Singular
{| cellpadding="4" style="line-height: 1em;"
|+
<!-- Sentence -->
| colspan="4"|'''''{{red|vanev}}'' ittimann'''


! colspan="4" scope="col"|Plural
!


! rowspan="3" scope="col"|Reflexive
| colspan="4"|'''vanun tutinn'''
|-
! colspan="2"|Person→


!scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width: 150px; "|1<sup>st</sup>
!
 
!scope="col" colspan="2" style="width: 150px; "|2<sup>nd</sup>
 
!scope="col" colspan="3" style="width: 150px; "|3<sup>rd</sup>
 
! colspan="2" scope="col" style="width: 150px;"|1<sup>st</sup>
 
!scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width: 150px; "|2<sup>nd</sup>


!scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width: 150px; "|3<sup>rd</sup>
| colspan="5"|'''yatva vanum titann'''
|-
|-
!Case ↓
<!-- Pronunciation-->
| colspan="4"|/ˈwanɛw itˈtiŋanː/


!Register↓
!


!<small>Animate</small>
| colspan="4"|/ˈwanun ˈtutinː/


!<small>Inanimate</small>
!
 
!<small>Animate masculine</small>
 
!<small>Animate feminine</small>


!<small>Inanimate</small>
| colspan="5"|/ˈjatwa ˈwanuŋ ˈtitanː/
 
!<small>Exclusive</small>
 
!<small>Inclusive</small>
|-
|-
! colspan="1" rowspan="2"|Nominative
<!-- Morphemes-->
|<small>vana</small>
|<small>-ev</small>
|<small>ittim</small>
|<small>-ann</small>


!<small>Informal</small>
!


|''ác''
|<small>vana</small>
|<small>-un</small>
|<small>tuti</small>
|<small>-nn</small>


|''tou''
!
 
|''ta''
 
|''guo''
 
|''gá''


|''gi''
|<small>yat</small>
 
|<small>-va</small>
|''muo''
|<small>vana</small>
 
|<small>-um</small>
|''yeu''
|<small>tita</small>
 
|<small>-nn</small>
|''sóm''
 
| rowspan="2"|''gán''
 
| rowspan="2"|''áng''
|-
|-
!<small>Formal</small>
<!-- Gloss-->
|stone/{{sc|n.pl.}}
| -{{sc|n.pl.agt}}
|hit/{{sc|ind.dyn.n.pl}}
| -{{sc|-m.pat.1.sg}}


|''eu''
!


|''thau''
|stone/{{sc|n.pl}}
| -{{sc|n.pl.ins}}
|hit/{{sc|med.dyn-stat.m.sg}}
| -{{sc|-m.pat.1.sg}}


|''tha''
!


|colspan="3"|''hám''
|someone/{{sc|m.sg}}
 
| -{{sc|m.agt}}
|''eun''
|stone/{{sc|n.pl}}
 
| -{{sc|n.pl.ins}}
|''yám''
|hit/{{sc|ind.dyn.m.sg}}
 
| -{{sc|-m.pat.1.sg}}
|''than''
|-
|-
! colspan="1" rowspan="2"|Accusative
<!-- Translations -->


!<small>Informal</small>
| colspan="4"|''*Stones hit me''


|''me''
!


|''tum''
| colspan="4"|''I am hit with stones''


|''tam''
!
 
|''gum''
 
|''gám''
 
|''gin''
 
|''muon''
 
|''áyim''
 
|''tám''
 
| rowspan="2"|''hám''


| rowspan="2"|''ngám''
| colspan="5"|''Some guy hits me with stones''
|-
!<small>Formal</small>
 
|''eumi''
 
|''thaun''
 
|''thumá''
 
|colspan="3"|''gihám''
 
|''eun''
 
|''yeumi''
 
|''thaun''
|-
! colspan="1" rowspan="2"|Dative
 
!<small>Informal</small>
 
|''áci''
 
|colspan="2"|''tei''
 
|colspan="2"|''gei''
 
|''gi''
 
|''moi''
 
|''yi''
 
|''sói''
 
|''gái''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''ángi''
|-
!<small>Formal</small>
 
|''eumi''
 
|''thaun''
 
|''thumá''
 
|colspan="3"|''gihám''
 
|''eun''
 
|''yeumi''
 
|''thaun''
 
|''hám''
|-
! colspan="1" rowspan="2"|Instrumental
 
!<small>Informal</small>
 
|''min''
 
|''toun''
 
|''tin''
 
|''guon''
 
|''gán''
 
|''gin''
 
|''muon''
 
|''yan''
 
|''sómin''
 
|''ginin''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''ngán''
|-
!<small>Formal</small>
 
|''eun''
 
|''thaun''
 
|''than''
 
|colspan="3"|''gihin''
 
|''nin''
 
|''yeun''
 
|''thán''
 
|''hámin''
|-
! colspan="1" rowspan="2"|Genitive
 
!<small>Informal</small>
 
|''áci''
 
|colspan="2"|''ti''
 
|''íguo''
 
|''igá''
 
|''gi''
 
|''mi''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''yáni''
 
|''sómi''
 
|rowspan="2"|''gáni''
 
|rowspan="2"|''ngáni''
|-
!<small>Formal</small>
 
|''máni''
 
|''tuni''
 
|''táni''
 
|colspan="3"|''gáni''
 
|''móni''
 
|''tháni''
|-
! colspan="1" rowspan="2"|Semblative
 
!<small>Informal</small>
 
|''ar''
 
|''tur''
 
|''tar''
 
|''guri''
 
|''gári''
 
|''giri''
 
|''muri''
 
|''yári''
 
|''sómir''
 
|''gánir''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''ngánir''
|-
!<small>Formal</small>
 
|''eur''
 
|colspan="2"|''tháci''
 
|''hómir''
 
|''hámir''
 
|''gimir''
 
|''eunir''
 
|''yeuri''
 
|''thánir''
 
|''gánir''
|-
! rowspan="2"|Vocative
 
!<small>Informal</small>
 
|''áhac''
 
|''atuo''
 
|''ata''
 
|''aguo''
 
|''aga''
 
|''ági''
 
|''amuo''
 
|''áyim''
 
|''ásóme''
 
|''ágáne''
 
| colspan="1" rowspan="2"|''áng''
|-
!<small>Formal</small>
 
|''heu''
 
|''ehtau''
 
|''ehta''
 
|''heguo''
 
|''hegá''
 
|''hegi''
 
|''heun''
 
|''heu''
 
|''ehtan''
 
|''hegán''
|}
|}


Both verbs and nouns have different inherent animacy. Both the type of noun and verb are thus essential to interpret whether it can be the in the agentative case. Some verbs are more inherently animate than others in the Ris language, determining whether inanimate subjects may perform them; the word "''to speak''", ''thana'', is used unexclusively for humans. Less animate subjects cannot perform this verb and are therefore coupled with another, more appropriate, one. Please note that only because inanimate nouns are less likely to perform more animate actions, more animate nouns may act out inanimate verbs.


===Verbal===
Below is table with example nouns and verbs with their respective animacy. Please note that the first two degrees most often intertwine. It is common for slightly sexistic or separatistic speakers to use work-arounds when speaking about women or children: Instead of saying that ''they are capable'', they would say ''they can do (it)''. In other terms; stative or generic verbs describing characteristics are less likely to be used with women. They have to satisfy with the appropriate dynamic verb.
The Hrasic verbal morphology is restricted, yet extensive. Simple, but versatile. Verbs do not conjugate according to [[w:grammatical person|person]], [[w:grammatical number|number]] or [[w:grammatical tense|tense]]. However, there are a number of [[w:grammatical aspect|grammatical aspect]]s, [[w:grammatical mood|moods]] and [[w:evidentiality|evidentials]].  


The conjugation is split into three parts - the [[w:active voice|active]], [[w:passive voice|passive]], and the [[w:reciprocal|reciprocal]] conjugations.
{| class="bluetable lightbluebg" style="text-align:center"
 
|+
====Active====
<!-- Sentence -->
The active conjugation inflects verbs according to the active grammatical voice. Active voice is used in a clause whose [[w:grammatical subject|subject]] expresses the [[w:grammatical agent|agent]] of the main verb. That is, the subject does the action designated by the verb
! colspan="7" |Degrees of Animacy
 
 
{| class="browntable lightbrownbg" style="width: 650px; text-align: center;"
|+  
|-
! colspan="9"|Active
|-
! colspan="1" rowspan="2"|Aspect
! colspan="4" style="text-align: center;"|Mood
|-
! style="text-align: center;" |Indicative
! style="text-align: center;" |Subjunctive
! style="text-align: center;" |Jussive
! style="text-align: center;" |Imperative
|- align="center"
!Perfective
| ''-n''
| ''-ngi''
| ''-at''
| rowspan="2"|''-nga''
|-
!Inceptive
|''ha-''
|''há-ngi''
|''ha-at''
|-
!Cessative
|''nge-''
|''ngi-''
|''-ngat''
| rowspan="2"| ''-ngas''
|-
!Causative
| ''-shi''
| ''-ngzi''
| ''-it''
|-
!Imperfective
| ''-nguo''
| ''-ngi''
| ''-nguat''
| ''-nguas''
|-
!Iterative
| colspan="4"|''Reduplication''
|}
 
 
====Passive====
The passive is a conjugation in the passive voice. In a clause with passive voice, the grammatical subject expresses the theme or [[w:patient (grammar)|patient]] of the main verb – that is, the person or thing that undergoes the action or has its state changed.
 
 
{| class="browntable lightbrownbg" style="width: 650px; text-align: center;"
|+
|-
! colspan="9"|Passive
|-
! colspan="1" rowspan="2"|Aspect
! colspan="4" style="text-align: center;"|Mood
|-
! style="text-align: center;" |Indicative
! style="text-align: center;" |Subjunctive
! style="text-align: center;" |Jussive
! style="text-align: center;" |Imperative
|- align="center"
!Perfective
| ''-nda /- ndi''
| ''-ndar'' /-''ndir''
| ''-ndat''
| rowspan="2"|''-nda''
|-
!Inceptive
|''hua-''
|''huá-ndir''
|''hua-at''
|-
|-
!Cessative
<!-- Degrees-->
|''ye-''
!Very High
|''yua-''
!High
|''-ndat''
!Medium high
| rowspan="2"| ''-ndas''
!Medium
!Medium low
!Low
!Very low
|-
|-
!Causative
<!-- Example nouns-->
| ''-iy''
|''man''
| ''-nthi''
|''women, children''
| ''-ndit''
|''infants, pets''
|''animals, weather''
|''plants''
|''minerals''
|''abstractions''
|-
|-
!Imperfective
<!-- Example verbs-->
| ''-nduo''
|colspan="2"|''to talk''
| ''-iy''
|''to communicate''
| ''-mbat''
|''to bark, to be noisy''
| ''-mbas''
|''to be green''
|''to be heavy''
|''to be complicated''
|-
|-
!Iterative
| colspan="4"|''Reduplication''
|}
|}


====Reciprocal====
==Possession==
The reciprocal conjugation and voice marks subjects and objects in [[wikt:reciprocity|reciprocity]]. In the reciprocal construction, each of the participants occupies both the role of agent and patient with respect to each other.
Possession is a complicated subject in Ris grammar. There are about seven different constructions to indicate ownership, depending on context. The primary parameters is the alienability of the possessed, but also the animacy of the possessor.
===Predicative possession===
====Copula and dative====
====Copula and locative====
====Copula and instrumental====
====Transitive construction====
===Adnominal possession===
====Genitive construction====
====Locative construction====
====Dative construction====


The reciprocal conjugation is technically merely an infix. It is formed by infixing ''-ya-'' before the active conjugational ending.
==Samples==
*''thýo hā́ katḗrrazas''
*''tḗ rhánzatha''
*''gytḗra ouārathí ērikí''
*''inḗ gýtē mna.''
*''Atḗ, inḗ gytḗn ~ Atḗ, inḗ gýtē ne!''


==Sample phrases==
[[Category:Languages]][[Category:Languages]][[Category:A priori]][[Category:Jasi-Jivan languages]][[Category:Ris]]
*''Thún sóm hyó-ác?''
*''Thún ác gyáng-sóm téngi!''
*''Men gyáng-tum ác ráráchu bhángi, dánin huéng-tu tugángi at.''

Latest revision as of 21:50, 4 July 2021


Ris
oī́kas ri
Ris.png
Pronunciation[ɔˈɪːkas rɪ]
Created byWaahlis
SettingMediterranean
Native speakers301,486 (2012)
Jasi-Jivan languages
  • Ris
Early form
Proto-Jivan
Official status
Official language in
Italy, Cyprus; Sicily
Language codes
CLCRqri
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

The Ris language, oī́kas ri, /ɔˈɪːkas rɪ/ or simply Ris /rɪs/, is a Jasi-Jivan language related to the Kiwi and Kandi languages.

Grammatically speaking, the Ris language is morphologically fusional with a few agglutinative characteristics. It has enclitic pronouns representing the core arguments of agent and patient. It also has an unsusual morphosyntactic alignment; the active-stative one, in the fluid subject subtype. This implies a system of control and volition, closely tied to a distinction in animacy. The morphology is evenly split between nominal and verbal inflections.

Phonologically and phonaesthetically, the language is modelled after Greek. Other influences are native American languages, the Shona language and to certain degree Swedish. Ris has a normal-sized inventory of consonants and a fair amount of allophony.

Ris is my attempt to unite the sketchy constructed languages of mine; those lost forever in incomprehensible grammar, unsatisfying aesthetics and cumbersome phonologies. They stand united by the one shared feature - their relationship to the Greek language; my greatest influence no matter the language.

Phonology

Consonants

The following is the inventory of consonants in the Ris language. There are 19 contrastive consonants. The inventory is very similar to what you would expect from an Indo-European language, except for the voiceless sonorant, /r̥/.

Ris consonants
Consonants
Bilabial Dental Alveolar Postalveolar Velar Glottal
Nasals plain m /m/ n /n/
Plosives affricate ph /p͡f/ th /t͡θ/ ts /t͡s/ kh /k͡x/
unvoiced p /p/ t /t/ k /k/
voiced b /b/ d /d/ g /g/
Fricatives unvoiced s /s/ sh /ʃ/ h /x ~ h/
voiced z /z/
Trills voiceless rh /r̥/
voiced r /r/
Laterals l /ɫ/

Consonant allophony

Allophony is common, and a variety of processes affect the consonants.

Vowels

There are 6 vowel phonemes in the Ris language.

All vowels are pronounced short. The transcription into the Latin alphabet includes no single grapheme <u>.

Ris vowels
Front Near-front Central Near-back Back
Close
Near-close i /ɪ/ · y /ʏ/ ou /ʊ/
Close-mid
Mid
Open-mid e /ɛ/ o /ɔ/
Near-open
Open a /a/

Morphology

Main article: Ris morphology

Grammar

Number

Ris has three numbers, all of which are equally common in the language. The Ris numbers are different to those of English, instead using a system similar to a collective-singulative distinction.

Singular number

The singular (sg) denotes one, single noun, and roughly corresponds to the English equivalent of singular. A singularnoun is a single item, either of a collective noun or even a mass noun.

Athuo trema.
/ˈatʰʉ̩ːɔ ˈtreːma/
athy-o tre-ma
to want-IND.PRFV.1.SG.M wheat.IV-PAT.SG
I want a grain of wheat.

(4.7)

Mnio mna koupar.
/ˈmnɪ̩ːɔ mna ˈkʊːpar/
mni-o mna koupar-∅
to see-IND.PRFV.1.SG.M one ram.I.PAT.SG
I see a ram.

(4.8)

Imbrouas pagma?
/ˈɪːmprwas ˈpaːkma/
im-rou-as pag-ma
to hold-SUBJ.PRFV-2.SG.M time.IV-PAT.SG
Do you have a minute?

(4.9)


Plural numbers
Indefinite plural

The indefinite plural number (indef.pl) is a special number to the Ris language. The indefinite plural primarily marks a collective number, whereas English uses the plural, or any indefinite amount in general.

In addition, it also signify a pair of nouns, in certain contexts. The reason for this is historical; the old indefinite ending was similar in form to the dual ending, and eventually, the distinction between them disappeared.

Aroumena gunte thuisto.
/aˈrʊːmɛna ˈɣʉːntə ˈtʰwiːstɔ/
aroumena gunte thu-ist-o
always fish.I-PAT.INDEF.PL to_want-IND.IPFV-1.PAT.SG
I always want [two] fish(es).

(4.10)

Aganti ous imistir bhouna.
/ˈaːkʼantɪ ʊs ɪˈmɪːstɪr ˈpʼʊːna/
aganti ous im-ist-ir bhou-na
head.II/LOC.INDEF.PL too to_have-POT.IPFV-3.PAT.DC fat.II-PAT.INDEF.PL
You can have fat on your head as well.

(4.11)

Kerakne noukistine
/ˈke:raknə nʊˈkɪːstɪnə/
kerax-ne nouk-ist-ine
bird.II-INV.PAT.INDEF.PL to_fly-IND.IPFV-3.INV.PAT.DC
Birds fly.

(4.12)

Definite plural

The definite plural (def.pl) marks when there are multiple nouns, but more than two. It does not have the collective sense that the English equivalent does, which means plurals automatically get an article due to context.

Ani ngou mou, mnio bhalloi bhallistina .
/aˈnɪː ˈŋgʊːˌmʊ ˈŋ͡mɪ̩ːɔ ˈpʰaːlːɔj ˈpʰaːlːɪstɪna/
ani ngou mou mni-o bhall-oi bhall-ist-ina
before eye.III/LOC.INDF.PL my/LOC.SG to_see-IND.IPFV-1.PAT.SG ball.IV-PAT.DEF.PL to_roll-IND.IPFV-3DEF.PL.PAT
I see balls rolling before my eyes.

(4.13)

Ai ourani ouekitsoi.
/aj ˈʊːranɪ ˈweːkiˌt͡sɔj/
ai ouran-i oekits-oi
from[1] heaven.IV-GEN.SG tomato.IV-PAT.DEF.PL
The tomatoes from heaven.

(4.14)

Inaskho tabellithoulianta.
/ˈɪːnaskʰɔ taˌpʼɛlːɪtʰʊˈlɪ̩ːanta/
in-askh-o tabellithouli-anta
to_be-IND.CES-1SG.PAT marker_pen.IV-INST.DEF.PL
I'm out of marker pens.[2]

(4.15)

[1] [2]

  1. ^ a b ai, au and ati are in fact demonstrative pronouns, but in many contexts, they get an adpositional meaning.
  2. ^ a b Literally; I am no longer with marker pens.

Gender and class

There are two genders in the Ris language, the animate (an) and inanimate (inan). The animate gender includes only living animals and insects, as well as supernaturals like spirits and deities. The inanimate gender mainly denotes non-living objects, abstractions as well as flowers and microorganisms.

In addition to this, all Ris nouns are divided into classes. The classes are morphological and semantic, and nouns are grouped according to their gender as well as if it is inherently in the indefinite plural, or if it needs marking. There are as such four classes:

I - animate, marked indefinite plural
II - animate, unmarked indefinite plural
III - inanimate, marked indefinite plural
IV - inanimate, unmarked indefinite plural

The class is the only thing indicated in Ris dictionaries, such as the Ourhagmatika, where the lemma form is always written first:

thyrri, thyrrini
/ˈtʰʉːr̥ʰːɪ ˈtʰʉːr̥ʰːɪnɪ/
thyrrhi-∅ thyrri-ni
woman.I-SG woman.I-INDEF.PL
a woman, women

(4.16)

oryx, orygma
/ˈoːrʉgz ˈoːrʉgma/
oryx-∅ oryg-ma
whale.II-INDEF.PL whale.II-SG
whales, a whale[1]

(4.17)

kanthra, kanthrani
/ˈkaːntʰra ˈkaːntʰranɪ/
kanthra-∅ kanthra-ni
heart.III-SG heart.III-INDEF.PL
a heart, hearts

(4.18)

issix, issigma
/ˈɪːsːɪgz ˈɪːsːɪgma/
issix-∅ issig-ma
hair.IV-INDEF.PL hair.IV-SG
hair, strand of hair

(4.19)

ankis, ankisma
/ˈaːŋkɪs ˈaːŋkɪsma/
ankis-∅ ankis-ma
elbow.IV-INDEF.PL elbow.IV-SG
2 elbows, an elbow[2]

(4.20)

[1][2]

  1. ^ a b Typical examples of class II are animals, although gytei, "fish", is a notable example.
  2. ^ a b Since the indefinite plural has coalesced with the dual, some nouns may have an unmarked dual form. These nouns are typically body parts.

Morphosyntax

Morphosyntactic alignment and core cases

A table of the Ris control and volition distinction in the core arguments, illustrating the two-way distinction in the subject of intransitive clauses.

Ris possess an originally active-stative alignment, which means that the two arguments of transitive verbs, the subject and object, are marked with the agentive case and patientive case respectively. The agent of an intransitive verb, however, can be marked with either. The agentive and patientive cases denote a different degree of control and volition with the arguments. Depending on the intransitive verb, different cases would be used.

It later developed the so-called fluid-S subtype, which infers that any intransitive verb can use both the patientive and agentive cases, wich each grant a different degree of control of the verb.

Patientive case

The patientive, or undergoing case, (pat) is the case used to indicate both the subject of an intransitive verb and the object of a transitive verb, in addition to being used for the citation form of nouns.

The patientive is used on low control agents, and experiencers of actions - neither of which have much influence on the verb. Colloquially, the patientive can be used on agents of transitive verbs to indicate a degree of innocence, lack of control of the event.

Ankouro.
/aŋˈkʊːrɔ/
ankour-∅-o
to trip-IND.PRFV-PAT.1SG
I fell.

(5.21)

Hyrrhorebma henta inista.
/çʏˈr̥ʰːoːrɛpma ˈçeːnta ˈɪːnɪsta/
hyrrhorebma hent-∅-a in-ist-a
squirrel_soup.III-PAT.SG be_okay-IND.PRFV-3.PAT.SG exist-IND.IPFV-3.PAT.SG
There is an okay squirrel soup.

(5.22)

Tagerras kerax!
/taˈkʼeːrːas ˈkeːraks/
tager-r-as kerax-∅
hit-IMP.PRFV-AGT.2SG bird.I-PAT.SG
Hit the bird!

(5.23)

Aner, ouinestra teskho...
/ˈaneːr wɪˈneːstra ˈteːskʰɔ/
aner-∅ ouinestra-∅ teskh-∅-o
mother.I-PAT.SG window.II-PAT.SG smash-IND.PRFV-PAT.1.SG
Mother, I happened to smash the window...

(5.24)


Agentive case

The agentative (agt) case is used to mark the subject, or agent, of transitive verbs. The agentive marks high control, volitional agents of verbs.

Kateros kterma.
/ˈkaːtɛrɔs ˈktɛrma/
kater-∅-os kterma-∅
to_write-IND.PRFV-AGT.1SG letter.III-PAT.SG
I am writing a letter.

(5.25)

Kaukanthrias hai!
/kawˈkantʰrijas xaj/
kau~ka<n>ter-i-as hai
<NEG>ITR~to_write-POT-AGT.1SG such
You can't go on writing like that!

(5.26)

Katerras sta haos!
/kaˈtɛrːas sta ˈxaɔ̩s/
kater-r-as sta ha-∅-os
to_write-SUBJ-AGT.1SG what to_wish-IND.PRFV-AGT
I'll write what I wish!

(5.26)

Ankouros...!
/ˈaːŋkʊros/
ankour-∅-os
to_trip-IND.PRFV-AGT.1.SG
I purposely trip...!

(5.27)


Unaccusatives, unergatives and the inversion of cases

An illustration of the Ris alignment of verbal arguments, as a function of control, unergatives and unaccusatives.

Not all intransitive verbs are marked as described above. This only applies to Ris unaccusative verbs. The Ris unergative verbs inverse the marking, using the agentive as a default, low-control marking, and the patientive for high-control subjects.

An unaccusative verb is a verb that has an experiencer as its subject, that is; the syntactic subject is not a semantic agent. When the subject is marked with the agentive, the agency, control and volition is increased, and it in effect becomes unergative. It gives a sense of intent, and trying.

Ekrasa makhina.
/ɛˈkraːsa ˈmaːkʰɪna/
ekras-∅-a mākhina-∅
to_crash-IND.PRFV-PAT.3SG car.III-PAT.SG
The car crashed.

(5.28)

Aner tsanista.
/aˈneːr ˈtsaːnɪsta/
aner-∅ psan-ist-a
mother.I-PAT.SG to_cry-IND.IPFV-PAT.3SG
Mother cries.

(5.29)

Ntaos.
/ˈntaːos/
nga-∅-os
to_sleep-IND.PRFV-AGT.1.SG
I am trying to sleep.

(5.30)

Unergatives are intransitive verbs and have a semantic agent as their subject. When the subject is marked with the agentive case, the verb almost unaccusative, lowering the volition, control and agency with the syntactic subject. In the gloss, unergatives have the letters inv} before the casees. Thus, an unergative with a subject in the agentive conveys a feeling of involuntary actions, or trying.

Khamista!
/ˈkʰaːmɪsta/
kham-ist-a
to_come-IND.IPFV-INV.PAT.3SG
It's coming!
Antiou rhaistos...
/ˈantjʊ r̥ʰaˈɔs/
anti-ou rha-ist-os
night.IV-LOC.DC talk.ACT-IND.IPVF-INV.AGT.1.SG
I sleep-talk in the night.
Ti rhās?
/tɪ ˈr̥ʰaːs/
ti rha-∅-as
what.PAT.SG talk.ACT-IND.PRFV-INV.AGT.2.SG
What are you trying to say?
Kinizas, kinizas!
/kɪnɪˈd͡zas kɪnɪˈd͡zas/
kiniz-∅-as
drive.ACT-IND.PRFV-INV.AGT.2.SG
You're driving, you're driving! (How is it possible?)

Case

There are 7 grammatical cases in Ris. Most of these are rather common to the Indo-European languages.

Instrumental

Instrumental proper

The instrumental (ins) case serves a number of purposes in the Ris language. Primarily, it is used to indicate that a noun is the instrument or means by or with which an action is conducted.

Thērouna nasērrhan.
/tʰeːˈrʊna naˈseːr̥ʰːan/
thēr-∅-ouna nasēr-rhan
go.ACT-IND.PRFV-AGT.1.SG boat.III-INS.SG
We go by boat.
Napsantan as...
/naˈpsantan as/
napsa-ntas-n as
learn.ACT-PCP-INS.SG this.PROX.3.SG
By learning this...
Ankis mia skhasto igan mia.
/ˈancɪs mʊ ˈsxastɔ ˈɪkʼan mʊ/
ankis-∅ mou skha-ist-o i
elbow.III-PAT.DC my.GEN.1.SG scratch.ACT-IND.IPFV-INV.PAT.1.SG nail.II-INS.DC my.GEN.1.SG
I scratch my shoulders with my nails.
Inanimate subjective instrumental

Marking the inanimate noun with the agentive is incorrect. This is a distinction quite well known in natural languages, and even the Proto-Indo-European language is supposed to have made the distinction.

On subject of control in the Ris verbs, inanimate agents of transitive verbs: subjects such as "the knife" in the sentence "The knife slices the bread" could impossibly be marked with the agentive case, since the subject has no control of its actions. Nor is it experiencing the slicing, and can as such not be marked with the patientive. Instead a construction with the mediopassive and instrumental used.

Of course if desired, the agent can be reintroduced, which means a switch from passive to active.

Lemner me tagī.
/ʎɛmˈnɛr mɛ taˈkʼɪː/
lemn-er me tagi-∅-i
stone.II-AGT.SG me.1.PAT.SG hit.ACT-IND.PRFV-3.AGT.SG
*A stone hit me.
Entagio lemnanta.
/ˈɛntakʼjɔ ʎɛmˈnanta/
en-tagi-∅-o lemn-anta
MED.hit.IND-PRFV-1.SG.PAT stone.III-INS.PL
I am hit with stones.
Tagias me lemnanta.
/ˈtakʼjas mɛ ʎɛmˈnanta/
tagi-∅-as me lemn-anta
hit.ACT.IND-PRFV-2.SG.AGT me.1.PAT.SG stone.II-INS.PL
You hit me with stones.
Kinis lanērrha pāni.
/cɪˈnɪ ʎaˈnɛr̥ʰːa paːˈnɪ/
kin-∅-is lanēr-rha pāni-∅
cut.ACT-IND.PRFV-3.INV.AGT.SG knife.III-AGT.SG bread.III-PAT.SG
*A knife cuts the bread.
Inkini lanērrhan pāni.
/cɪˈnɪ ʎaˈnɛr̥ʰːan paːˈnɪ/
kin-∅-is lanēr-rhan pāni-∅
MED.cut-IND.PRFV-3.INV.PAT.SG knife.III-INS.SG bread.III-PAT.SG
The bread was cut with a knife.
Comitative instrumental

The Ris instrumental also bears comitative and quantitative senses. It indicates actions in company with other subjects, amounts, as well as lacking things:

Indroua mena?
/ˈɪndrwa mɛˈna/
in-r-oua me-na
be.ACT-SUBJ.PRFV-2.PAT.SG me.1-INS.SG
Are you with me?
As arrhos ena.
/as ˈar̥ʰːɔs ɛˈna/
as-∅ arrh-∅-os e-na
it.3.PROX-PAT.SG make.ACT-IND.PRFV-1.AGT.SG s/he.1-INS.SG
I'm making it with him/her.
Ne nenisto na issigan nai.
/nɛ nɛˈnɪstɔ na ˈɪsːɪgan naj/
⟨ne⟩ nen-ist-o ⟨na⟩ issig-an nai
⟨VB.NEG⟩ not_be.ACT-IND.IPFV-1.PAT.SG ⟨VB.NEG⟩ hair.IV-INS.DC NOM.NG
I have no hair / I am not with no hair.
Animate subjective instrumental

The last use of the instrumental, similarly to Russian and in part to English is to reintroduce a subject in a passive clause. The usage is very similar to the adpositional phrase "by me" in English, as in "He was killed", and later; "He was killed by me".

Please note, that this formation, although grammatically correct, is considered quite rude by most speakers. The subjective instrumental is reserved for inanimates for most speakers, and an active verb is used for animate subjects.

Enmnīnta ouena
/ɛnˈmnɪnta wɛˈna/
en-mnīo-nta oue-na
MED-to_see-PCP 1.EXC-INS.DC
Seen by the two of us.
Atai eniniskhanta ērrhasterrhan
/ˈataj ɛnɪnɪsˈxanta eːˈr̥ʰːastɛr̥ʰːan/
atai en-ino-iskha-nta ērrho-aster-rhan
they.3.PAT.PL MED-to_be-CAU.CES-PCP to_love-AG-INS.SG
They were killed by the lover.
Ērrhastera atai iniskhis
/eːˈr̥ʰːastɛra ˈataj ɪnɪsˈxɪs /
ino-iskha-∅-is atai ērrho-aster-a
to_love-AG-AGT.SG they.3.PAT.PL to_be.ACT-IND.PRFV-1.AGT.SG
The lover killed them.

Locative

Locative proper
See also: Ris possession

The locative case (loc) vaguely corresponds to the English spatial prepositions of "by", "at", "in", and "on". However, the Ris locative also bears a temporal usage, similarly to English "in an hour", "today", "after three o'clock".

The Ris language does have adpositions in the traditional sense, to control the exact location of the locative.

Amnayya azimat? ʔineyna enazamut. amagyat
/aˈŋ͡majːa azˈiŋ͡mat/ /ˈʔinɛjna ɛnˈazaŋut/ /aŋaɡˈjat/
amna -yya azima -t ʔiney -na en- azama -ut am- agy -at
you/2.sg.c.pat -cop.act.ind.stat home/sg.n -n.loc lie/act.ind.stat.n.sg -it/n.pat.3.sg below.locp- house/2.sg.c -n.loc after/behind.locp- hour/f.sg -f.loc
Are you at home? It lies below the house. In an hour
Lative locative

Related to location is movement, and the locative can through a construction with the lative particle ‹a› /a/, transform the locative meaning to a lative or translative one. Before a null-onset, it is pronounced /aɦ/.

The particle and the proclitic adpositions will be marked green.

Gam a azimat! ʔinena a enazamut. Ann erʔit.
/ɡøŋ aɦazˈiŋat/ /ˈʔinɛna aɦ ɛnˈazaŋut/ /anː erˈʔit/
gam a azima -t ʔine -na a en- azama -ut a- -nn erʔi -t
come/act.dir.pos.m latp home/sg.f -f.loc lay/act.ind.dyn.n.sg -it/n.pat.3.sg latp below.locp- house/n.sg -n.loc latp -m.pat.1.sg anger/f.sg -f.loc
Come home! Put it below the house. I am getting angry.
Possessive locative

The third purpose of the locative case is that it is also the main tool to express possession, a construction very close to the Celtic and Finnish equivalents, confer:

  • Minulla on talo - I have a house (literally: There is a house at me)

This is the one of the ways of expressing alienable possession in Ris, and it is as such never used for inalienable constructions.

gat azamayya Manim gat azamayya!
/ˈɡ͡bøt aˈzaŋajːa/ /ˈŋ͡mønin ˈɡ͡bøt aˈzaŋajːa/
g -at azama -yya emin g -āt azama -yya
I/1.sg.m -c.loc home/sg.n.pat -cop.act.ind.stat see/act.dir.pos.c.pl I/1.sg.m -c.loc home/sg.n.pat -cop.act.ind.stat
My house Behold my house!
azamayya gat ta trasino Atnvayya gat girgemn.
/ aˈzaŋajːa ˈɡ͡bøt wa taˈtr̥asino/ / atˈŋ͡majːa ˈɡ͡bøt ˈɡirɡemn/
azama -yya g -at ta trasino atn -va -yya g -at girge -mn
home/sg.n.pat -cop.act.ind.stat I/1.sg.m -f.loc def art.n green(n.sg.pat) dog/sg.n -agt.n.sg -cop.act.ind.stat I/1.sg.m -f.loc see/act.ind.dyn.n.sg -you.m.pat.2.sg
My green house My dog barks at you.

Animacy

A table of the different Attian stages of animacy and salency.

Just as the Ris language makes a difference regarding gender, a fairly strong distinction in animacy[*] is made, mainly for semantical and grammatical reasons, since there is no morphological distinction.

The Ris rules of animacy dictates that no inanimate objects may stand in the agentative case. Inanimate nouns are perceived as incapable of actually performing deliberate actions. Inanimates that are the subjects of an action are therefore most often marked with the instrumental case. This construction forces the speaker to directly name an animate agent, use a passive construction, or to use an indefinite pronoun. Inanimate, or less animate nouns also have a lesser probability to be compatible with verbs connected with higher degrees of animacy, like the words for "to talk", "to think" and "control".

There are several different degrees of animacy, which at times also intertwine with salency. The grading goes from Very high to Very low and spans 7 degrees. The top and most animate nouns are humans, and especially men and leaders. Women normally rank as at least as animate as men, but they can in certain circumstances be degraded to indicate inferiority. The least animate substantives are minerals, abstraction and in part; plants.

Don't blame the stone

Quote.png
Men vathim vana.
—Anathir t'Armavir, Descriptions of the language, p. 35

Don't blame the stone is a well known Attian saying, invented by the Attian grammarian Athanir t'Armavir. It's idiomatic meaning is that one should not blame the tool when it is not the master of its own actions. It also carries grammatical significance, since the Attian language does not allow inanimate nouns to be the agent of a verb. An equivalent phrase in English would be: It isn't the gun that kills, but the one who pulled the trigger.

Below is an example of someone hit with stones. Here, the subject impossibly could be marked with the agentive, taking their inanimacy in regard. Instead, you may put the subject in the instrumental case, and mediopassivise the verb. Alternatively the subject is degraded to an oblique, and a new subject is introduced.

vanev ittimann vanun tutinn yatva vanum titann
/ˈwanɛw itˈtiŋanː/ /ˈwanun ˈtutinː/ /ˈjatwa ˈwanuŋ ˈtitanː/
vana -ev ittim -ann vana -un tuti -nn yat -va vana -um tita -nn
stone/n.pl. -n.pl.agt hit/ind.dyn.n.pl --m.pat.1.sg stone/n.pl -n.pl.ins hit/med.dyn-stat.m.sg --m.pat.1.sg someone/m.sg -m.agt stone/n.pl -n.pl.ins hit/ind.dyn.m.sg --m.pat.1.sg
*Stones hit me I am hit with stones Some guy hits me with stones

Both verbs and nouns have different inherent animacy. Both the type of noun and verb are thus essential to interpret whether it can be the in the agentative case. Some verbs are more inherently animate than others in the Ris language, determining whether inanimate subjects may perform them; the word "to speak", thana, is used unexclusively for humans. Less animate subjects cannot perform this verb and are therefore coupled with another, more appropriate, one. Please note that only because inanimate nouns are less likely to perform more animate actions, more animate nouns may act out inanimate verbs.

Below is table with example nouns and verbs with their respective animacy. Please note that the first two degrees most often intertwine. It is common for slightly sexistic or separatistic speakers to use work-arounds when speaking about women or children: Instead of saying that they are capable, they would say they can do (it). In other terms; stative or generic verbs describing characteristics are less likely to be used with women. They have to satisfy with the appropriate dynamic verb.

Degrees of Animacy
Very High High Medium high Medium Medium low Low Very low
man women, children infants, pets animals, weather plants minerals abstractions
to talk to communicate to bark, to be noisy to be green to be heavy to be complicated

Possession

Possession is a complicated subject in Ris grammar. There are about seven different constructions to indicate ownership, depending on context. The primary parameters is the alienability of the possessed, but also the animacy of the possessor.

Predicative possession

Copula and dative

Copula and locative

Copula and instrumental

Transitive construction

Adnominal possession

Genitive construction

Locative construction

Dative construction

Samples

  • thýo hā́ katḗrrazas
  • tḗ rhánzatha
  • gytḗra ouārathí ērikí
  • inḗ gýtē mna.
  • Atḗ, inḗ gytḗn ~ Atḗ, inḗ gýtē ne!
Retrieved from "https://linguifex.com/w/index.php?title=Ris&oldid=230163"